Kinetics and thermodynamics of calcium-induced lateral phase separations in phosphatidic acid containing bilayers

Membrane activity of two short Trp-rich amphipathic peptides

Short linear antimicrobial peptides are attractive templates for developing new antibiotics. Here, it is described a study of the interaction between two short Trp-rich peptides, horine and verine-L, and model membranes. Isothermal titration calorimetry studies showed that the affinity of these peptides towards large unilamellar vesicles (LUV) having a lipid composition mimicking the lipid composition of S. aureus membranes is ca. 30-fold higher than that towards E. coli mimetics. The former interaction is driven by enthalpy and entropy, while the latter case is driven by entropy, suggesting differences in the forces that play a role in the binding to the two types of model membranes. Upon membrane binding the peptides acquired different conformations according to circular dichroism (CD) studies; however, in both cases CD studies indicated stacked W-residues. Peptide-induced membrane permeabilization, lipid flip-flop, molecular packing at the membrane-water interface, and lateral lipid segregation were observed in all cases. However, the extent of these peptide-induced changes on membrane properties was always higher in S. aureus than E. coli mimetics. Both peptides seem to act via a similar mechanism of membrane permeabilization of S. aureus membrane mimetics, while their mechanisms seem to differ in the case of E. coli. This may be the result of differences in both the peptides´ structure and the membrane lipid composition between both types of bacteria.

Regulation of DGKε Activity and Substrate Acyl Chain Specificity by Negatively Charged Phospholipids

Diacylglycerol kinase ε (DGKε) is a membrane-bound enzyme that catalyzes the ATP-dependent phosphorylation of diacylglycerol to form phosphatidic acid (PA) in the phosphatidylinositol cycle. DGKε lacks a putative regulatory domain and has recently been reported to be regulated by highly curved membranes. To further study the effect of other membrane properties as a regulatory mechanism of DGKε, our work reports the effect of negatively charged phospholipids on DGKε activity and substrate acyl chain specificity. These studies were conducted using purified DGKε and detergent-free phospholipid aggregates, which present a more suitable model system to access the impact of membrane physical properties on membrane-active enzymes. The structural properties of the different model membranes were studied by means of differential scanning calorimetry and ³¹P-NMR. It is shown that the enzyme is inhibited by a variety of negatively charged phospholipids. However, PA, which is a negatively charged phospholipid and the product of DGKε catalyzed reaction, showed a varied regulatory effect on the enzyme from being an activator to an inhibitor. The type of feedback regulation of DGKε by PA depends on the particular PA molecular species as well as the physical properties of the membrane that the enzyme binds to. In the presence of highly packed PA-rich domains, the enzyme is activated. However, its acyl chain specificity is only observed in liposomes containing 1,2-dioleoyl PA in the presence of Ca²⁺. It is proposed that to endow the enzyme with its substrate acyl chain specificity, a highly dehydrated (hydrophobic) membrane interface is needed. The presence of an overlap of mechanisms to regulate DGKε ensures proper phosphatidylinositol cycle function regardless of the trigged stimulus and represents a sophisticated and specialized manner of membrane-enzyme regulation.

Crystallization around solid-like nanosized docks can explain the specificity, diversity, and stability of membrane microdomains

To date, it is widely accepted that microdomains do form in the biological membranes of all eukaryotic cells, and quite possibly also in prokaryotes. Those sub-micrometric domains play crucial roles in signaling, in intracellular transport, and even in inter-cellular communications. Despite their ubiquitous distribution, and the broad and lasting interest invested in those microdomains, their actual nature and composition, and even the physical rules that regiment their assembly still remain elusive and hotly debated. One of the most often considered models is the raft hypothesis, i.e., the partition of lipids between liquid disordered and ordered phases (Ld and Lo, respectively), the latter being enriched in sphingolipids and cholesterol. Although it is experimentally possible to obtain the formation of microdomains in synthetic membranes through Ld/Lo phase separation, there is an ever increasing amount of evidence, obtained with a wide array of experimental approaches, that a partition between domains in Ld and Lo phases cannot account for many of the observations collected in real cells. In particular, it is now commonly perceived that the plasma membrane of cells is mostly in Lo phase and recent data support the existence of gel or solid ordered domains in a whole variety of live cells under physiological conditions. Here, we present a model whereby seeds comprised of oligomerised proteins and/or lipids would serve as crystal nucleation centers for the formation of diverse gel/crystalline nanodomains. This could confer the selectivity necessary for the formation of multiple types of membrane domains, as well as the stability required to match the time frames of cellular events, such as intra- or inter-cellular transport or assembly of signaling platforms. Testing of this model will, however, require the development of new methods allowing the clear-cut discrimination between Lo and solid nanoscopic phases in live cells.

Cardiolipin, phosphatidylserine, and BH4 domain of Bcl-2 family regulate Ca2+/H+ antiporter activity of human Bax inhibitor-1

We investigated the effects of phospholipid composition in membranes and Bcl-2 homology (BH) domains of the Bcl-2 family on Ca2+/H+ antiporter activity of human recombinant Bax inhibitor-1 (BI-1) reconstituted into membranes. Cardiolipin (CL) and phosphatidylserine (PS) stimulated the proton-mediated efflux of Ca2+ ions encapsulated into proteoliposomes when compared to Ca2+ efflux from 100% phosphatidylcholine (PC) membranes in a CL or PS concentration-dependent manner. Concomitantly, the anionic phospholipids also enhanced H+ ion influx into the membranes. Lateral segregations of CL and PS were observed through the fluorescence properties of fluorophore-labeled phospholipids upon BI-1 reconstitution in PC/CL or PC/PS binary systems. However, other anionic phospholipids, such as phosphatidic acid, phosphatidylglycerol, and phosphatidylinositol did not influence the stimulation of BI-1 functions in membranes. The peptide corresponding to the BH4 domain of Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL proteins stimulated the BI-1 activities in 100% PC membranes. The peptide also showed an additive effect with CL or PS. Furthermore, the CL, PS, and BH4 domains specifically increased oligomerization levels such as dimer and tetramer of BI-1 in membranes. Taken together, these results suggest that the CL, PS, and BH4 domains were stimulating factors for the Ca2+/H+ antiporter activities of BI-1 through protein oligomerization.

Path dependence of three-phase or two-phase end points in fluid binary lipid mixtures

The phase behavior of anionic/zwitterionic mixtures can be controlled by tuning the charge state of the anionic lipid. In the case of dioleoylphosphatidic acid (DOPA)/dioleoylphosphatidylcholine (DOPC) mixtures, demixing occurs either when DOPA is protonated or when DOPA(2-):Ca(2+) complexes form. Herein it will be shown that the final end point, a three-phase or two-phase system, depends on the order in which the charge state is manipulated. The facile accessibility of different end points is a clear demonstration of the inherent flexibility of biological systems.

Calcium-induced membrane microdomains trigger plant phospholipase D activity

Plant alpha-type phospholipase D proteins are calcium-dependent, lipolytic enzymes. The morphology of the aggregates of their phospholipid substrate fundamentally defines the interaction between the enzyme and the surface. Here we demonstrate that the Ca(2+)-induced generation of membrane microdomains dramatically activates alpha-type phospholipase D from white cabbage. 500-fold stimulation was observed upon incorporation of 10 mol % 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphate (POPA) into 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (POPC) vesicles in the presence of Ca(2+) ions. Enhanced association of PLDalpha2 with phospholipid surfaces containing anionic components was indicated by lag phase analysis and film balance measurements. Differential scanning calorimetry showed that the POPA-specific activation correlates with the phase behavior of the POPC/POPA vesicles in the presence of Ca(2+) ions. We conclude from the results that the Ca(2+)-induced formation of POPA microdomains is the crucial parameter that facilitates the binding of PLD to the phospholipid surface and suggest that this effect serves as a cellular switch for controlling PLD activity.

Lateral segregation of anionic phospholipids in model membranes induced by cytochrome P450 2B1: bi-directional coupling between CYP2B1 and anionic phospholipid

The lateral segregation of anionic phospholipids phosphatidic acid (PA), phosphatidylinositol (PI), and phosphatidylserine (PS) was detected after addition of cytochrome P450 2B1 (CYP2B1). The tendency of lipid clustering was highly dependent on the type of anionic phospholipids examined. PA was the most highly clustered while PI and PS clustered to a lesser degree. Moreover, liposomes containing anionic phospholipids form anionic phospholipid-rich microdomains in the presence of CYP2B1. Anionic phospholipids (mostly notably PA) also increased the ability of CYP2B1 to bind to lipid monolayers. In addition to the ability of CYP2B1 to modulate the physical properties of the membrane, the membrane itself can have reciprocal effects on the activity and conformation of CYP2B1. The catalytic activity of CYP2B1 increased as a function of anionic phospholipid concentration and in the presence of 10 mol% PA, the activity increased by 85%. These results suggest a bi-directional coupling between the CYP2B1 and anionic phospholipids.

Calcium modulates the mechanical properties of anionic phospholipid membranes

Using micropipette aspiration and fluorescence techniques, we have studied the material properties of charged lipid vesicles in calcium solutions. Vesicles were composed of phosphatidylglycerol (PG)/phosphatidylcholine (PC) or phosphatidic acid (PA)/PC mixtures. For the case of PG/PC membranes, we measure no effect of anionic lipid fraction on elasticity but a monotonic decrease up to 20% for tension required to induce membrane failure. Both of these observations are rationalized by a model we have developed to describe membrane electrostatic interactions in a two-component salt solution and the resulting changes in membrane properties. Critical tensions measured for PA/PC membranes, on the other hand, did not depend on anionic lipid fraction and were uniformly approximately 35% lower than PG/PC vesicles. This is likely due to a lateral phase separation in the membrane. By combining mechanical properties with fluorescence observations we propose that the PA-rich phase separates into small unconnected domains.

Intramembrane electrostatic interactions destabilize lipid vesicles

Membrane stability is of central concern in many biology and biotechnology processes. It has been suggested that intramembrane electrostatic interactions play a key role in membrane stability. However, due primarily to a lack of supporting experimental evidence, they are not commonly considered in mechanical analyses of lipid membranes. In this paper, we use the micropipette aspiration technique to characterize the elastic moduli and critical tensions of lipid vesicles with varying surface charge. Charge was induced by doping neutral phosphatidylcholine vesicles with anionic lipids phosphatidylglycerol and phosphatidic acid. Measurements were taken in potassium chloride (moderate ion-lipid binding) and tetramethylammonium chloride (low ion-lipid binding) solutions. We show that inclusion of anionic lipid does not appreciably alter the areal dilation elasticity of lipid vesicles. However, the tension required for vesicle rupture decreases with increasing anionic lipid fraction and is a function of electrolyte composition. Using vesicles with 30% charged (i.e., unbound) anionic lipid, we measured critical tension reductions of 75%, demonstrating the important role of electrostatic interactions in membrane stability.

The phase property of membrane phospholipids is affected by the functionality of signal peptides from the Escherichia coli ribose-binding protein

We examined the effects of synthetic signal peptides from the wild-type, export-defective mutant and its revertant species of ribose-binding protein on the phase properties of lipid bilayers. The lateral segregation of phosphatidylglycerol (PG) in the lipid bilayer was detected through quenching between NBD-PGs upon the reconstitution of signal peptide into the liposome made with the Escherichia coli inner membrane composition. The tendency of lipid segregation was highly dependent on the export competency of signal peptides in vivo, with a decreasing order of wild-type, revertant, and mutant species. The colocalizations of pyrene-PG with BODIPY-PG were also induced by the signal peptides, confirming the phase separation of the acidic phospholipid. The wild-type and revertant signal peptides predominantly formed alpha-helical conformations with the presence of acidic phospholipid as determined by circular dichroism spectroscopy. In addition, they restricted the motion of lipid acyl chains as monitored by fluorescence anisotropy of DPH, suggesting a deep penetration of signal peptide into the lipid bilayer. However, the alpha-helical content of mutant signal peptide was only about half that of the wild-type or revertant peptide with a significantly smaller degree of penetration into the bilayer. An association of the defective signal peptides into the membrane was affected by salt extraction, whereas the functional ones were not. The aforementioned results indicate that the functionality of signal peptide is accomplished through its topologies in the membrane and also by its ability to induce lateral segregation of acidic phospholipid. We propose that the clustering of acidic phospholipid by the functional signal peptide is responsible for the formation of non-bilayer membrane structure, thereby promoting an efficient translocation of secretory proteins.

An index of lipid phase diagrams

There is a growing awareness of the utility of lipid phase behavior data in studies of membrane-related phenomena. Such miscibility information is commonly reported in the form of temperature-composition (T-C) phase diagrams. The current index is a conduit to the relevant literature. It lists lipid phase diagrams, their components and conditions of measurement, and complete bibliographic information. The main focus of the index is on lipids of membrane origin where water is the dispersing medium. However, it also includes records on acylglycerols, fatty acids, cationic lipids, and detergent-containing systems. The miscibility of synthetic and natural lipids with other lipids, with water, and with biomolecules (proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, etc.) and non-biological materials (drugs, anesthetics, organic solvents, etc.) is within the purview of the index. There are 2188 phase diagram records in the index, the bulk (81%) of which refers to binary (two-component) T-C phase diagrams. The remainder is made up of more complex (ternary, quaternary) systems, pressure-T phase diagrams, and other more exotic miscibility studies. The index covers the period from 1965 through to July, 2001.

Interaction of alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone with binary phospholipid membranes: structural changes and relevance of phase behavior

The interaction of alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone (alpha-MSH) with negatively charged binary membrane systems composed of either 1,2-dimyristoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine/1,2-dimyristoyl-sn-glycero-3-[phospho-rac-(1-glycerol)], (DMPC/DMPG) or DMPC/1,2-dimyristoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphate (DMPC/DMPA), both at a 3:1 ratio, was studied using complementary techniques (differential scanning calorimetry, infrared and ultraviolet absorption spectroscopy, and steady-state and time-resolved fluorescence). The peptide structure in buffer, at medium to high concentrations, is a mixture of aggregated beta-strands and random coil, and upon increasing the temperature the random coil configuration becomes predominant. At low concentrations (micromolar) there are essentially no aggregates. When in interaction with the lipidic systems this transition is prevented and the peptide is stabilized in a specific conformation different from the one in solution. The incorporation of alpha-MSH into phosphatidic acid-containing systems produced a significant alteration of the calorimetric data. Lateral heterogeneity can be induced by the peptide in the DMPA-containing mixture, at variance with the one of DMPG. In addition, the lipid/water partition coefficient for the peptide in the presence of DMPC/DMPA is greater in the gel phase as compared to the fluid phase. From the high values of limiting anisotropies it can be concluded that the peptide presents a very reduced rotational dynamics when in interaction with the lipids, pointing out to a strong interaction. Overall, these results show that the structure and stability of alpha-MSH in a negatively charged membrane environment are substantially different from those of the peptide in solution, being stabilized in a specific conformation that could be important to eliciting its biological activity.

Dipole potentials indicate restructuring of the membrane interface induced by gadolinium and beryllium ions

The dipole component of the membrane boundary potential, phi(d), is an integral parameter that may report on the conformational state of the lipid headgroups and their hydration. In this work, we describe an experimental approach to measurements of the dipole potential changes, Deltaphi(d), and apply it in studies of Be(2+) and Gd(3+) interactions with membranes composed of phosphatidylserine (PS), phosphatidylcholine (PC), and their mixtures. Deltaphi(d) is determined as the difference between the changes of the total boundary potential, phi(b), measured by the IFC method in planar lipid membranes and the surface potential, phi(s), determined from the electrophoretic mobility of liposomes. The Gouy-Chapman-Stern formalism, combined with the condition of mass balance, well describes the ion equilibria for these high-affinity cations. For the adsorption of Be(2+) and Gd(3+) to PC membranes, and of Mg(2+) to PS membranes, the values of Deltaphi(b) and Deltaphi(s) are the same, indicative of no change of phi(d). Binding of Gd(3+) to PS-containing membranes induces changes of phi(d) of opposite signs depending on the density of ionized PS headgroups in the bilayer. At low density, the induced Deltaphi(d) is negative (-30 mV), consistent with the effect of dehydration of the surface. At maximal density (pure PS, neutral pH), adsorption of Be(2+) or Gd(3+) induces an increase of phi(d) of 35 or 140 mV, respectively. The onset of the strong positive dipole effect on PS membranes with Gd(3+) is observed near the zero charge point and correlates with a six-fold increase of membrane tension. The observed phenomena may reflect concerted reorientation of dipole moments of PS headgroups as a result of ion adsorption and lipid condensation. Their possible implications to in-vivo effects of these high-affinity ions are discussed.

Phase properties of liquid-crystalline Phosphatidylcholine/Phosphatidylethanolamine bilayers revealed by fluorescent probes

The mixing properties of 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine (POPE) and 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (POPC) were examined in liquid-crystalline phase using fluorescent probes incorporated into lipid bilayers. The excimer to monomer (E/M) fluorescence ratio of 1-hexadecanoyl-2-(1-pyrenedecanoyl)-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (PPC) versus PPC concentration was higher for binary mixtures containing phosphatidylcholine (PC)/phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) (1:1) compared to PC matrix. When POPC was gradually replaced with POPE, the E/M ratio also increased suggesting the enhanced lateral mobility or the lateral enrichment of PPC into domains or both. Evidences for the PE-induced domain formation were further provided by resonance energy transfer between 2-(4, 4-difluoro-5-methyl-4-boro-3a, 4a-diaza-s-indacene-3-dodecanoyl)-1-hexadecanoyl-sn-glycero- 3-phospho choline and PPC, which was enhanced as a function of PE concentration, and by the polarization of 1,6-diphenyl-1,3, 5-hexatriene. In addition, PE reduced free volume and polarity of lipid bilayers as measured by the emission fluorescence of 1,2-bis PPC and 6-lauroyl-2-dimethylaminonaphthalene. When POPE analogs with a methylated head group instead of normal POPE were used, the diminished effect on the domain formation was shown in the order N-methyl PE > N,N-dimethyl PE. The results suggest that the mixing properties of POPE and POPC are not random but that lipid domains of phospholipids are formed.

Effects of nonlamellar-prone lipids on the ATPase activity of SecA bound to model membranes

The effect of nonlamellar-prone lipids, diacylglycerol (DG) and phosphatidylethanolamine (PE), on the ATPase activity of SecA was examined. When Escherichia coli PE of the standard vesicles composed of 60 mol% of this lipid and 40 mol% of dioleoylphosphatidylglycerol (DOPG) is gradually replaced with either dioleoylglycerol (DOG) or dioeloyl PE (DOPE), the ATPase activity of SecA present together increased appreciably. On the other hand, when E. coli PE of the standard vesicles was replaced with DOG analogs, the SecA ATPase activity decreased slightly, and when replaced with phosphatidylcholine the decrease in the ATPase activity was more appreciable. When DOPE or E. coli PE was added to PC vesicles, the SecA ATPase activity was enhanced only slightly, suggesting that the hexagonal II structure per se is not important for the ATPase activity increase. It was observed that DOG induced phase separation of PG, and the lamellar-hexagonal II (L-HII) transition temperature of vesicles decreased by about 10 degreesC. The DOG analogs had no effect on these properties, suggesting the importance of the phase separation of PG and the decrease of L-HII transition temperature of lipid bilayers to the SecA ATPase activity. The phase separation of PG by Ca2+ also brought about increased ATPase activity of SecA, underlining the importance of phase separation of PG for the enzyme activity. The incorporation of DOG or DOPE in the vesicle also increased the amount of SecA bound to model membranes and the extent of SecA penetration into the membrane. Studies with vesicles without SecA showed increased exposure of hydrophobic acyl chains when the DOG was present. Taken together, these observations suggest that the phase separation of PG and/or the bilayer penetration of SecA are mainly responsible for the enhanced SecA-vesicle interaction with concomitant increase in SecA ATPase activity.

Phases and phase transitions of the phosphatidylcholines

LIPIDAT (http://www.lipidat.chemistry.ohio-state.edu) is an Internet accessible, computerized relational database providing access to the wealth of information scattered throughout the literature concerning synthetic and biologically derived polar lipid polymorphic and mesomorphic phase behavior and molecular structures. Here, a review of the data subset referring to phosphatidylcholines is presented together with an analysis of these data. This subset represents ca. 60% of all LIPIDAT records. It includes data collected over a 43-year period and consists of 12,208 records obtained from 1573 articles in 106 different journals. An analysis of the data in the subset identifies trends in phosphatidylcholine phase behavior reflecting changes in lipid chain length, unsaturation (number, isomeric type and position of double bonds), asymmetry and branching, type of chain-glycerol linkage (ester, ether, amide), position of chain attachment to the glycerol backbone (1,2- vs. 1,3-) and head group modification. Also included is a summary of the data concerning the effect of pressure, pH, stereochemical purity, and different additives such as salts, saccharides, amino acids and alcohols, on phosphatidylcholine phase behavior. Information on the phase behavior of biologically derived phosphatidylcholines is also presented. This review includes 651 references.

Interaction of phosphatidic acid and phosphatidylserine with the Ca2+-ATPase of sarcoplasmic reticulum and the mechanism of inhibition

The sarcoplasmic reticulum of skeletal muscle contains anionic phospholipids as well as the zwitterionic phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylethanolamine. Here we study the effects of anionic phospholipids on the activity of the Ca2+-ATPase purified from the membrane. Reconstitution of the Ca2+-ATPase into dioleoylphosphatidylserine [di(C18:1)PS] or dioleoylphosphatidic acid [di(C18:1)PA] leads to a decrease in ATPase activity. Measurements of the quenching of the tryptophan fluorescence of the ATPase by brominated phospholipids give a relative binding constant for the anionic lipids compared with dioleoylphosphatidylcholine close to 1 and suggest that phosphatidic acid only binds to the ATPase at the bulk lipid sites around the ATPase. Addition of di(C18:1)PS or di(C18:1)PA to the ATPase in the short-chain dimyristoleoylphosphatidylcholine [di(C14:1)PC] reverse the effects of the short-chain lipid on ATPase activity and on Ca2+ binding, as revealed by the response of tryptophan fluorescence intensity to Ca2+ binding. It is concluded that the lipid headgroup and lipid fatty acyl chains have separate effects on the function of the ATPase. The anionic phospholipids have no significant effect on Ca2+ binding to the ATPase; the level of Ca2+ binding to the ATPase, the affinity of binding and the rate of dissociation of Ca2+ are unchanged by reconstitution into di(C18:1)PA. The major effect of the anionic lipids is a reduction in the maximal level of binding of MgATP. This is attributed to the formation of oligomers of the Ca2+-ATPase, in which only one molecule of the ATPase can bind MgATP dimers in di(C18:1)PS and trimers or tetramers in di(C18:1)PA. The rates of phosphorylation and dephosphorylation for the proportion of the ATPase still able to bind ATP are unaffected by reconstitution. Larger changes were observed in the level of phosphorylation of the ATPase by Pi, which became very low in the anionic phospholipids. The fluorescence response to Mg2+ for the ATPase labelled with 4-(bromomethyl)-6,7-dimethoxycoumarin was also changed in di(C18:1)PS and di(C18:1)PA, so that effects of Mg2+ became comparable with those seen on phosphorylation for the unreconstituted ATPase. The anionic phospholipids could induce a conformational change in the ATPase on binding Mg2+ equivalent to that normally induced by phosphorylation or by binding inhibitors such as thapsigargin.

Translocation of alkali metal cations by lipophilic cyclodextrin derivatives through black lipid membranes

Lipophilic cyclodextrin (CD) derivatives, synthetic ionophores, were prepared to transport alkali metal cations across a black lipid membrane (BLM). The purpose of this study is to develop a new class of an artificial transportation system of alkali metal cations via bilayer lipid membranes, by using CD derivatives as a cation carrier. A lipophilic CD derivative incorporated into a BLM forms a complex with an alkali metal cation at one surface of the membrane. This charged complex migrates to the opposite side of the membrane and then releases the cation into the subphase. CD derivatives have various types of acyl groups as a complexing site and formed a 1:1 complex with the alkali metal cation. The complex formation was interpreted by an induced-fit mechanism. It is found that the ability of CD derivative for forming a complex and/or transporting cations across the BLM depends on the bulkiness of acyl groups. The conductivities of heptakis (2,6-di-O-propyl-3-O-propionyl)-beta-CD were higher than those of valinomycin regardless of sizes of cations. The order of the conductivity in all derivatives is Li+ < Na+ < K+ approximately = Rb+ approximately = Cs+, regardless of the types of acyl groups in the derivatives. The effects of alkali metal cation concentration in the aqueous phase and CD concentration in the membrane on the translocation are also discussed.

Structural and thermotropic properties of calcium-dimyristoylphosphatidic acid complexes at acidic and neutral pH conditions

Two kinds of calcium-dimyristoylphosphatidic acid (DMPA) complexes at acidic and neutral pH conditions were prepared in the following ways. The complex at pH 4 was obtained by adding Ca2+ to DMPA dispersion in pure water. On the other hand, the complex at pH 7.4 was obtained by adding Ca2+ to DMPA dispersion in the presence of NaOH. The stoichiometries of Ca2+ ion to DMPA molecule are 0.5-0.67 and approximately 1 for the complexes at pH 4 and 7.4, respectively. Static x-ray diffraction shows that the hydrocarbon chains of the Ca(2+)-DMPA complex at pH 4 at 20 degrees C are more tightly packed than those of the complex at pH 7.4 at 20 degrees C. Furthermore, the complex at pH 4 at 20 degrees C gives rise to several reflections that might be related to the ordered arrangement of the Ca2+ ions. These results indicate that the structure of the complex at pH 4 is crystalline-like. In the differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) thermogram, the complex at pH 7.4 undergoes no phase transition in a temperature range between 30 and 80 degrees C. On the other hand, in the DSC thermogram for the complex at pH 4, a peak appears at 65.8 degrees C in the first heating scan. In the successive second heating scan, a transition peak appears at 63.5 degrees C. In connection with the DSC results, the structural changes associated with these phase transitions were studied with temperature-scan x-ray diffraction. In the first heating scan, although a peak appears at 65.80C in the DSC thermogram, the hydrocarbon chain packing gradually converts from an orthorhombic lattice to a hexagonal lattice near 52 degree C, and successively the chain melting phase transition occurs near 670C. In the second heating scan, the hydrocarbon chains are packed in a hexagonal lattice over the whole temperature range and the chain melting phase transition occurs near 63.5 degree C. Therefore,the Ca2+-DMPA complex at pH 4 has a metastable state. The metastable state transforms to a stable state by maintaining the complex at pH 4 for about 90 h at 200C.

Lateral inhomogeneous lipid membranes: theoretical aspects

The physical concepts underlying the lateral distribution of the components forming a lamellar assembly of amphiphiles are discussed in this review. The role of amphiphiles' molecular structure and/or aqueous environment (ionic strength, water soluble substances) on formation and stability of lateral patterns is investigated. A considerable effort is devoted to the analysis of the properties of patterned structure which can be different from those of randomly mixed multi-component lamellae. Examples include adhesion and fusion among laterally inhomogeneous bilayers, enhanced interfacial adsorption of ions and polymers, enhanced transport across the bilayer, modified mechanical properties, local stabilization of non-planar geometries (pores, edges) and related phenomena (electroporation, budding transition and so on). Furthermore, an analysis of chemical reactivity within or at the water interface of a laterally inhomogeneous bilayer is briefly discussed. A link between these concepts and experimental findings taken from the biological literature is attempted throughout the review.

Lipid domains in model and biological membranes

Lipid domains that occur within biological of model membranes encompass a variety of structures with very different lifetimes. The separation of membrane lipids into compositional domains can be due to lateral phase separation, immiscibility within a single phase, or interaction of lipids with integral or peripheral proteins. Lipid domains can affect the extent and rate of reactions in the membrane and provide sites for the activity of specialized proteins. Domains are likely to be involved in the process of lipid sorting to various cellular membranes, as well as in other processes which involve membrane budding or invagination.

Electron microscopic investigations on free-standing mixed lipid Langmuir-Blodgett-Kuhn monolayers: phase separation and aging process

Lipid monolayers were prepared by the Langmuir-Blodgett-Kuhn technique (LBK) as free-standing films spanning a diameter of up to 1 micron. These films were investigated by electron spectroscopic imaging (ESI) and electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS). The free-standing monolayer is shown to be in a transient state in which an aging process is proceeding: after storage for two weeks in air at room temperature the films tear off the edges of the perforated supporting film. Ca2+ ions induced lateral phase separation in these films prepared from a 50:50 mixture of lecithin/glycerol could be visualized by means of ESI, i.e., by comparing micrographs below and above the Ca absorption edge in the EEL spectrum. The domain sizes of the demixed phases were determined to vary between 30 and 60 nm. In addition it was shown that the counter ion of the negatively charged glycerol in these films is Ca2+ and not Na+.

Phases and phase transitions of the hydrated phosphatidylethanolamines

LIPIDAT is a computerized database providing access to the wealth of information scattered throughout the literature concerning synthetic and biologically derived polar lipid polymorphic and mesomorphic phase behavior. Here, a review of the LIPIDAT data subset referring to hydrated phosphatidylethanolamines (PE) is presented together with an analysis of these data. The PE subset represents 14% of all LIPIDAT records. It includes data collected over a 38-year period and consists of 1511 records obtained from 203 articles in 35 different journals. An analysis of the data in the subset has allowed us to identify trends in synthetic PE phase behavior reflecting changes in lipid chain length, chain unsaturation (number, isomeric type and position of double bonds), chain asymmetry and branching, type of chain-glycerol linkage (ether vs. ester) and headgroup modification. Also included is a summary of the data concerning the effect of pH, stereochemical purity, and different additives such as salts, saccharides, alcohols, amino adds and alkanes on PE phase behavior. Information on the phase behavior of biologically derived PE is also presented. This review includes 236 references.

Ca(2+)-induced lateral phase separation in black lipid membranes and its coupling to the ion translocation by gramicidin

We analyze the single-channel current fluctuations of gramicidin incorporated into biomolecular lipid membranes (BLM) of binary mixtures of phosphatidylcholine (PC) and phosphatidylglycerol (PG) as a function of the Ca2+ concentration in the electrolyte (0.5 M CsCl, pH 6) solution. At low Ca2+ levels (cCa2+ < 10(-6) M) a monomodal conductance histogram and a single average lifetime suggests a homogeneous mixture over the full range of composition (PG(1-x)PCx, 0 < or = x < or = 1). At higher Ca2+ concentrations phase separation processes are inferred from the appearance of bimodal conductance histograms. The two channel populations (in the two coexisting phases) can also be distinguished through their different average lifetimes. By a systematic variation of the mole fractions of the two lipid components we derive the respective phase boundaries and thus the full Ca2+ concentration-composition phase diagram.

Influence of lipid lateral distribution on the surface charge response of the phosphatidylcholine headgroup as detected using 2H nuclear magnetic resonance

The effect of lipid lateral distribution on the surface charge response of the phosphatidylcholine headgroup, in bilayers composed of binary mixtures of 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (POPC) and 1,2-dimyristoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphate (DMPA), was investigated by monitoring the deuterium nuclear magnetic resonance (2H-NMR) spectrum of choline-deuterated phosphatidylcholine as a function of temperature and DMPA concentration. Addition of DMPA at temperatures corresponding to fully liquid-crystalline membranes caused a progressive increase (decrease) in the 2H-NMR quadrupole splitting from POPC-alpha-d2 (POPC-beta-d2), in agreement with the known response of phosphatidylcholine to negative membrane surface charge (Seelig, J., Macdonald, P.M. and Scherer, P.G. (1987) Biochemistry 26, 7535-7541). Lateral phase separation of DMPA-rich domains was induced in these mixtures by lowering the temperature in the range from 60 degrees C to -15 degrees C, and was accompanied by a reversal of the original effects of DMPA on the quadrupole splitting. Analysis of the 2H-NMR spectral response allows one to generate a temperature/composition phase diagram for the POPC/DMPA system. We conclude that 2H-NMR of headgroup-deuterated phosphatidylcholine can be employed to sense and to quantify inhomogeneities in the lateral distribution of charged membrane components.

Characterization by infrared spectroscopy of the interaction of a cardiotoxin with phosphatidic acid and with binary mixtures of phosphatidic acid and phosphatidylcholine

The effect of cardiotoxin IIa from Naja mossambica mossambica, a small basic protein extracted from snake venom, on dimyristoylphosphatidic acid (DMPA) and on equimolar mixtures of DMPA and dimyristoylphosphatidylcholine (DMPC) has been studied by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The interaction of cardiotoxin with DMPA dispersions decreases both the cooperativity of the phase transition of the lipid and the molecular order of the lipid acyl chains in the gel phase. This effect increases with the proportion of the toxin in the complexes and leads to the total abolition of the phase transition of DMPA at a lipid-to-protein molar ratio of 5. Small-angle X-ray results demonstrate that the structure of the lipid-protein complexes is poorly ordered and gives rise to broad diffusion peaks rather than to well-resolved diffraction patterns. Infrared spectra of oriented cardiotoxin-DMPA films show that the protein is not homogeneously oriented with respect to the bilayer surface. The destabilization of the gel-phase structure of DMPA by cardiotoxin also results in a deeper water penetration in the interfacial region of the lipid since more carbonyl ester groups appear to be hydrogen bonded in the presence of the toxin. The infrared results on the phosphate group vibrations also indicate clearly that the basic residues of cardiotoxin interact strongly with the phosphate group of DMPA that becomes partly ionized at a pH as low as 6.5. The results obtained on the interaction of cardiotoxin with an equimolar mixture of DMPA and DMPC clearly demonstrate the ability of this toxin to induce lateral phase separation in this mixture with one phase containing DMPA-rich domains perturbed by cardiotoxin while the second phase is composed of regions enriched in DMPC. Comparison of the results of the current study with those obtained on other basic proteins and polypeptides suggests that charge-induced phase separation occurs only when the charge density on certain regions of the protein structure is high enough to lead to efficient electrostatic interactions with anionic phospholipids. This condition occurs only when the conformation of the protein or polypeptide is well-ordered at the lipid interface.

Indole-3-acetic acid-mediated transport of Mn2+ and other ions across phosphatidylinositol vesicular membranes as determined by 31P-NMR

The indolic plant hormone, indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), mediated the transport of Mn2+ and other ions into small unilamellar vesicles prepared from soybean phosphatidylinositol (PI) and this process has been studied using 31P nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR). The rate of Mn2+ movement into PI vesicles is dependent on IAA concentration and temperature with an IAA stoichiometry of 4.1 and an activation energy of 16.8 kcal mol-1 derived for the rate-determining process. These values are altered by low concentrations of endogenous ions (which can be removed by treatment with EDTA) present in the PI. With non-EDTA-treated PI, values of 2.3 and 23.0 kcal mol-1 were obtained for the stoichiometry and activation energy, respectively. These values indicate that (a) IAA interacts with PI membranes; (b) IAA-induced changes in membrane permeability can be substantially modulated by ions and (c) IAA very significantly influences the rate of movement of some (but possibly not all) cations across PI membranes. Such effects are also modified by the oxidation state of the PI.

Phospholipid domains determine the spatial organization of the Escherichia coli cell cycle: the membrane tectonics model

Escherichia coli normally divides at its equator between segregated nucleoids. Such division is inhibited during perturbations of chromosome replication (even in the absence of inducible division inhibitors); eventually, division resumes at sites which are not at this equator. Escherichia coli will also divide at its poles to generate minicells following overproduction of the FtsZ or MinE proteins. The mechanisms underlying the division inhibition and the positioning of the division sites are unknown. In the membrane tectonics model, I propose that the formation of phospholipid domains within the cytoplasmic membrane positions division sites. The particular phospholipid composition of a domain attracts particular proteins and determines their activity; conversely, particular proteins change the composition of domains. Principally via such proteins, the interaction of the chromosome with the membrane creates a chromosomal domain. The development of chromosomal domains during replication and nucleoid formation contributes to the formation and positioning of a septal domain between them. During septation (cell division), this septal domain matures into a polar domain. Each domain attracts and activates different enzymes. The septal domain attracts and activates enzymes necessary for septation. Preventing the formation of the septal domain by preventing chromosome replication prevents normal division. Altering the composition of the polar domain may allow septation enzymes to function there and generate minicells. A corollary of the model explains how the formation of an origin domain by the attachment of hemi-methylated origin DNA to the membrane may underlie the creation and migration of structures within the envelope, the periseptal annuli.

Anomalous mixing of zwitterionic and anionic phospholipids with double-chain cationic amphiphiles in lipid bilayers

High-sensitivity scanning calorimetry has been used to examine the thermotropic behavior of mixtures combining dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC), phosphatidylethanolamine (DPPE) and O-methylphosphatidic acid (DPPA-OMe) with the double-chain cationic amphiphiles N,N-dihexadecyl-N,N- dimethylammonium chloride (DHDAC), 1,2-dipalmitoyloxy-3-(trimethylammonio)propane (DPTAP) and the corresponding monomethylated tertiary amino compounds (DHMMA-H+ and DPDAP-H+). At physiological ionic strength, mixtures of these cationic amphiphiles with the anionic phospholipid DPPA-OMe can show gel-to-liquid-crystalline phase transitions at considerably higher temperatures than do either of the pure components. Surprisingly, binary mixtures of DPPC and these cationic amphiphiles also show strongly nonideal mixing, with phase diagrams exhibiting pronounced maxima in their solidus and liquidus curves. Similar behavior is not observed for mixtures of DPPC with DPPA-OMe, which closely resembles DPTAP and DPDAP-H+ in backbone configuration and polar headgroup size. The present results suggest that perturbation of the orientation of the phosphatidylcholine headgroup by cationic amphiphiles, as demonstrated previously by Seelig and co-workers (Biochemistry 28 [1989], 7720-7728), can significantly affect the thermotropic behavior of phospholipids such as DPPC. Such effects may exert a generally important (though not always easily recognizable) influence on the organization and thermotropic behavior of systems where zwitterionic phospholipids are combined with charged bilayer-associated molecules.

Lanthanide(III)-phosphatidic acid complexes: binding site heterogeneity and phase separation

The luminescent lanthanides are potentially useful probes of cation-induced events involving phospholipid membranes. In this work, the spectroscopic properties of Tb3+, Ce3+ and Eu3+ are shown to be complementary in defining three forms of complex with phosphatidic acid vesicles. Ce3+, in particular, is useful for studying dilute cation-lipid complexes because it has strong excitation bands in the near ultraviolet. In addition to providing a means for detecting chemically distinct forms of lanthanide-lipid complexes, the luminescence can be used to monitor cation-induced lateral segregation. Ce3+ to Tb3+ energy transfer was observed at lanthanide levels as low as 1:1000 Ln3+/phosphatidic acid, indicating clustering or phase separation. Initial clustering occurs on a subsecond timescale, followed by a much slower aggregation continuing for several minutes to hours. Addition of a chelator results in slow release of the lanthanides. In the case of the dioleoylphosphatidic acid complexes, release is bimodal and indicative of cation entrapment; dimyristoylphosphatidic acid complexes exhibit this behavior only at high temperatures. These observations are consistent with the relative tendencies of these two lipids to form the HII phase. This work sets the foundation for experiments designed to determine the size of nucleation sites for cation-induced events such as intramembrane inverted micelle formation and membrane fusion.

Calcium-induced lipid phase separations and interactions of phosphatidylcholine/anionic phospholipid vesicles. Fluorescence studies using carbazole-labeled and brominated phospholipids

A novel method that uses a carbazole-labeled fluorescent phosphatidylcholine, which partitions preferentially into liquid-crystalline lipid domains, to monitor the kinetics and the extents of thermotropic and ionotropic lateral phase separations in vesicles combining brominated and nonbrominated phosphatidylcholines (PCs), phosphatidic acids (PAs), and phosphatidylserines (PSs) is described. The calcium-induced segregation of several nonbrominated PA species in liquid-crystalline brominated PC bilayers behaves as a well-defined lateral phase separation; the residual solubility of the PA component in the PC-rich phase in the presence of calcium can vary severalfold depending on the PA acyl chain composition. PC/PS mixtures show a pronounced tendency to form metastable solutions in the presence of calcium, particularly when they contain less than equimolar proportions of PS. This metastability is not readily relaxed by repeated freeze-thawing of vesicles in the presence of calcium, by avidin-mediated contacts between PC/PS vesicles containing biotinylated lipids, or by calcium-induced lateral segregation of PA in the same vesicles. Different PS species exhibit different apparent residual solubilities in liquid-crystalline PC bilayers, ranging from less than 10 mol % for dimyristoyl-PS to ca. 45 mol% for dioleoyl-PS, after prolonged incubations of PC/PS multilamellar vesicles with excess calcium. Results are presented, obtained by using the above lipid-segregation assay and parallel assays of intervesicle lipid mixing, that raise questions concerning the relevance of the equilibrium behavior of calcium-treated PS/PC mixtures to the relatively rapid interactions (fusion and lipid mixing) of PC/PS vesicles that follow initial exposure to calcium.

Chemistry and biology of N-(7-nitrobenz-2-oxa-1,3-diazol-4-yl)-labeled lipids: fluorescent probes of biological and model membranes

Lipids that are covalently labeled with the 7-nitrobenz-2-oxa-1,3-diazol-4-yl (NBD) group are widely used as fluorescent analogues of native lipids in model and biological membranes to study a variety of processes. The fluorescent NBD group may be attached either to the polar or the apolar regions of a wide variety of lipid molecules. Synthetic routes for preparing the lipids, and spectroscopic and ionization properties of these probes are reviewed in this report. The orientation of various NBD-labeled lipids in membranes, as indicated by the location of the NBD group, is also discussed. The NBD group is uncharged at neutral pH in membranes, but loops up to the surface if attached to acyl chains of phospholipids. These lipids find applications in a variety of membrane-related studies which include membrane fusion, lipid motion and dynamics, organization of lipids and proteins in membranes, intracellular lipid transfer, and bilayer to hexagonal phase transition in liposomes. Use of NBD-labeled lipids as analogues of natural lipids is critically evaluated.

Interdigitation of phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylethanolamine mixed with complexes of acidic lipids and polymyxin B or polymyxin B nonapeptide

A fatty acid spin label, 16-doxyl-stearic acid, was used to determine the percent interdigitated lipid in mixtures of a neutral phospholipid and an acidic phospholipid. Interdigitation of the acidic lipid was induced with polymyxin B (PMB) at a mole ratio of PMB to acidic lipid of 1:5. This compound does not bind significantly to neutral lipids or induce interdigitation of the neutral lipids by themselves. The neutral lipids used were dimyristoylphosphatidylcholine (DMPC), dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC), or dipalmitoylphosphatidylethanolamine (DPPE), and the acidic lipids were dipalmitoylphosphatidylglycerol (DPPG) or dipalmitoylphosphatidic acid (DPPA). The percent interdigitated lipid was determined from the percent of the spin label which is motionally restricted, assuming that the spin label is homogeneously distributed in the lipid. Assuming further that 100% of the acidic lipid is interdigitated at this saturating concentration of PMB, the percentage of the neutral lipid which can become interdigitated along with it was calculated. The results indicate that about 20 mole % DPPC can be incorporated into and become interdigitated in the interdigitated bilayer of PMB/DPPG at 4 degrees C. As the temperature approaches the phase transition temperature, the lipid becomes progressively less interdigitated; this occurs to a greater degree for the mixtures than for the single acidic lipid. Thus the presence of DPPC promotes transformation of the acidic lipid to a non-interdigitated bilayer at higher temperatures. At the temperature of the lipid phase transition little or none of the lipid in the mixture is interdigitated. Thus the lipid phase transition detected by calorimetry is not that of the interdigitated bilayer. The shorter chain length DMPC can be incorporated to a greater extent than DPPC, 30-50 mol%, in the interdigitated bilayer of PMB-DPPG. This may be a result of reduced exposure of the terminal methyl groups of the shorter myristoyl chains at the polar/apolar interface of the interdigitated bilayer. Less than 29% of the total lipid was interdigitated in a DPPC/DPPA/PMB 1:1:0.2 mixture indicating that none of the DPPC in this mixture becomes interdigitated. This is attributed to the lateral interlipid hydrogen bonding interactions of DPPA which inhibits formation of an interdigitated bilayer. DPPE was found to be incorporated into the interdigitated bilayer of PMB-DPPG to a similar extent as DPPC if the amount of PMB added is sufficient to bind to only the DPPG in the mixture. Differential scanning calorimetry showed that the remaining non-interdigitated DPPE-enriched mixture phase separates into its own domain.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Second messenger function of phosphatidic acid in platelet activation

Phosphatidic acid (PA) is synthesized as the result of the receptor-mediated response of platelets to physiologic agonists. The role of PA in platelet signal transduction, however, is largely unknown. We have examined the responses of platelets to 1-stearoyl-2-arachidonoyl phosphatidic acid (SAPA), the predominant molecular species of human platelet PA. SAPA alone causes platelet aggregation, and pretreatment of platelets with SAPA markedly enhances thrombin-induced aggregation and secretion. Addition of SAPA to intact human platelets causes rapid breakdown of phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2) and the generation of diacylglycerol and endogenous PA. These reactions are associated with mobilization of intracellular calcium and activation of protein kinase C. SAPA also stimulates the release of endogenous arachidonic acid and its conversion to thromboxane A2. Furthermore, platelet activation by SAPA is blocked by indomethacin, indicating that the actions of SAPA are mediated by cyclooxygenase products. These findings suggest that SAPA may play an important role as an endogenous positive feedback signal to amplify receptor-mediated activation of PIP2-specific phospholipase C in human platelets.