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Sant'Anna R, Robbs BK, de Freitas JA, Dos Santos PP, König A, Outeiro TF, Foguel D. The alpha-synuclein oligomers activate nuclear factor of activated T-cell (NFAT) modulating synaptic homeostasis and apoptosis. Mol Med 2023; 29:111. [PMID: 37596531 PMCID: PMC10439599 DOI: 10.1186/s10020-023-00704-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2023] [Accepted: 07/18/2023] [Indexed: 08/20/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Soluble oligomeric forms of alpha-synuclein (aSyn-O) are believed to be one of the main toxic species in Parkinson's disease (PD) leading to degeneration. aSyn-O can induce Ca2+ influx, over activating downstream pathways leading to PD phenotype. Calcineurin (CN), a phosphatase regulated by Ca2+ levels, activates NFAT transcription factors that are involved in the regulation of neuronal plasticity, growth, and survival. METHODS Here, using a combination of cell toxicity and gene regulation assays performed in the presence of classical inhibitors of the NFAT/CN pathway, we investigate NFAT's role in neuronal degeneration induced by aSyn-O. RESULTS aSyn-O are toxic to neurons leading to cell death, loss of neuron ramification and reduction of synaptic proteins which are reversed by CN inhibition with ciclosporin-A or VIVIT, a NFAT specific inhibitor. aSyn-O induce NFAT nuclear translocation and transactivation. We found that aSyn-O modulates the gene involved in the maintenance of synapses, synapsin 1 (Syn 1). Syn1 mRNA and protein and synaptic puncta are drastically reduced in cells treated with aSyn-O which are reversed by NFAT inhibition. CONCLUSIONS For the first time a direct role of NFAT in aSyn-O-induced toxicity and Syn1 gene regulation was demonstrated, enlarging our understanding of the pathways underpinnings synucleinopathies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ricardo Sant'Anna
- Department of Experimental Neurodegeneration, Center for Biostructural Imaging of Neurodegeneration, University Medical Center Göttingen, Waldweg 33, 37073, Göttingen, Germany
- Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Instituto de Bioquímica Médica Leopoldo de Meis, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Bloco E sala 42, Rio de Janeiro, 21941-590, Brazil
| | - Bruno K Robbs
- Departamento de Ciência Básica, Instituto de Saúde de Nova Friburgo, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Nova Friburgo, RJ, 28625-650, Brazil
| | - Júlia Araújo de Freitas
- Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Instituto de Bioquímica Médica Leopoldo de Meis, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Bloco E sala 42, Rio de Janeiro, 21941-590, Brazil
| | - Patrícia Pires Dos Santos
- Department of Experimental Neurodegeneration, Center for Biostructural Imaging of Neurodegeneration, University Medical Center Göttingen, Waldweg 33, 37073, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Annekatrin König
- Department of Experimental Neurodegeneration, Center for Biostructural Imaging of Neurodegeneration, University Medical Center Göttingen, Waldweg 33, 37073, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Tiago Fleming Outeiro
- Department of Experimental Neurodegeneration, Center for Biostructural Imaging of Neurodegeneration, University Medical Center Göttingen, Waldweg 33, 37073, Göttingen, Germany.
- Max Planck Institute for Multidisciplinary Sciences, 37075, Göttingen, Germany.
- Faculty of Medical Sciences, Translational and Clinical Research Institute, Newcastle University, Framlington Place, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE2 4HH, UK.
- Deutsches Zentrum für Neurodegenerative Erkrankungen (DZNE), Göttingen, Germany.
| | - Debora Foguel
- Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Instituto de Bioquímica Médica Leopoldo de Meis, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Bloco E sala 42, Rio de Janeiro, 21941-590, Brazil.
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de Araujo Lima V, Esquinelato R, Carmo-Gonçalves P, do Nascimento LA, Lee H, Eliezer D, Romão L, Follmer C. The dopamine receptor agonist apomorphine stabilizes neurotoxic α-synuclein oligomers. FEBS Lett 2022; 596:309-322. [PMID: 34928512 PMCID: PMC8972942 DOI: 10.1002/1873-3468.14263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2021] [Revised: 11/13/2021] [Accepted: 12/10/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
The misfolding and aggregation of the protein α-synuclein (aSyn) into potentially neurotoxic oligomers is believed to play a pivotal role in the neuropathogenesis of Parkinson's disease (PD). Herein, we explore how apomorphine (Apo), a nonselective dopamine D1 and D2 receptor agonist utilized in the therapy for PD, affects the aggregation and toxicity of aSyn in vitro. Our data indicated that Apo inhibits aSyn fibrillation leading to the formation of large oligomeric species (Apo-aSyn-O), which exhibit remarkable toxicity in mesencephalic dopaminergic neurons in primary cultures. Interestingly, purified Apo-aSyn-O, even at very low concentrations, seems to be capable of converting unmodified aSyn monomer into neurotoxic species. Collectively, our findings warn for a possible dangerous effect of Apo on aSyn misfolding/aggregation pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanderlei de Araujo Lima
- Department of Physical Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, 21941-909, Brazil,Graduate Program in Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, 21941-909, Brazil
| | - Rodrigo Esquinelato
- Department of Physical Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, 21941-909, Brazil
| | - Phelippe Carmo-Gonçalves
- Department of Physical Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, 21941-909, Brazil,Graduate Program in Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, 21941-909, Brazil
| | - Lucas Alex do Nascimento
- Department of Physical Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, 21941-909, Brazil
| | - Hudson Lee
- Department of Biochemistry, Weill Cornell Medical College, Cornell University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - David Eliezer
- Department of Biochemistry, Weill Cornell Medical College, Cornell University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Luciana Romão
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, 21941-902 Brazil
| | - Cristian Follmer
- Department of Physical Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, 21941-909, Brazil,Graduate Program in Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, 21941-909, Brazil
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Gries M, Christmann A, Schulte S, Weyland M, Rommel S, Martin M, Baller M, Röth R, Schmitteckert S, Unger M, Liu Y, Sommer F, Mühlhaus T, Schroda M, Timmermans JP, Pintelon I, Rappold GA, Britschgi M, Lashuel H, Menger MD, Laschke MW, Niesler B, Schäfer KH. Parkinson mice show functional and molecular changes in the gut long before motoric disease onset. Mol Neurodegener 2021; 16:34. [PMID: 34078425 PMCID: PMC8170976 DOI: 10.1186/s13024-021-00439-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2020] [Accepted: 03/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND There is increasing evidence that Parkinson's disease (PD) might start in the gut, thus involving and compromising also the enteric nervous system (ENS). At the clinical onset of the disease the majority of dopaminergic neurons in the midbrain is already destroyed, so that the lack of early biomarkers for the disease represents a major challenge for developing timely treatment interventions. Here, we use a transgenic A30P-α-synuclein-overexpressing PD mouse model to identify appropriate candidate markers in the gut before hallmark symptoms begin to manifest. METHODS Based on a gait analysis and striatal dopamine levels, we defined 2-month-old A30P mice as pre-symptomatic (psA30P), since they are not showing any motoric impairments of the skeletal neuromuscular system and no reduced dopamine levels, but an intestinal α-synuclein pathology. Mice at this particular age were further used to analyze functional and molecular alterations in both, the gastrointestinal tract and the ENS, to identify early pathological changes. We examined the gastrointestinal motility, the molecular composition of the ENS, as well as the expression of regulating miRNAs. Moreover, we applied A30P-α-synuclein challenges in vitro to simulate PD in the ENS. RESULTS A retarded gut motility and early molecular dysregulations were found in the myenteric plexus of psA30P mice. We found that i.e. neurofilament light chain, vesicle-associated membrane protein 2 and calbindin 2, together with the miRNAs that regulate them, are significantly altered in the psA30P, thus representing potential biomarkers for early PD. Many of the dysregulated miRNAs found in the psA30P mice are reported to be changed in PD patients as well, either in blood, cerebrospinal fluid or brain tissue. Interestingly, the in vitro approaches delivered similar changes in the ENS cultures as seen in the transgenic animals, thus confirming the data from the mouse model. CONCLUSIONS These findings provide an interesting and novel approach for the identification of appropriate biomarkers in men.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manuela Gries
- Department of Informatics and Microsystems and Technology, University of Applied Science Kaiserslautern, Working Group Enteric Nervous System, 66482, Zweibrücken, Germany
| | - Anne Christmann
- Department of Informatics and Microsystems and Technology, University of Applied Science Kaiserslautern, Working Group Enteric Nervous System, 66482, Zweibrücken, Germany
| | - Steven Schulte
- Department of Informatics and Microsystems and Technology, University of Applied Science Kaiserslautern, Working Group Enteric Nervous System, 66482, Zweibrücken, Germany
| | - Maximilian Weyland
- Department of Informatics and Microsystems and Technology, University of Applied Science Kaiserslautern, Working Group Enteric Nervous System, 66482, Zweibrücken, Germany
| | - Stephanie Rommel
- Department of Informatics and Microsystems and Technology, University of Applied Science Kaiserslautern, Working Group Enteric Nervous System, 66482, Zweibrücken, Germany
| | - Monika Martin
- Department of Informatics and Microsystems and Technology, University of Applied Science Kaiserslautern, Working Group Enteric Nervous System, 66482, Zweibrücken, Germany
| | - Marko Baller
- Department of Informatics and Microsystems and Technology, University of Applied Science Kaiserslautern, Working Group Enteric Nervous System, 66482, Zweibrücken, Germany
| | - Ralph Röth
- Department of Human Molecular Genetics, University of Heidelberg, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Stefanie Schmitteckert
- Department of Human Molecular Genetics, University of Heidelberg, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Marcus Unger
- Department of Neurology, Saarland University, 66421, Homburg, Germany
| | - Yang Liu
- Department of Neurology, Saarland University, 66421, Homburg, Germany
| | - Frederik Sommer
- Molecular Biotechnology and Systems Biology, University of Kaiserslautern, 67663, Kaiserslautern, Germany
| | - Timo Mühlhaus
- Computational Systems Biology, University of Kaiserslautern, 67663, Kaiserslautern, Germany
| | - Michael Schroda
- Molecular Biotechnology and Systems Biology, University of Kaiserslautern, 67663, Kaiserslautern, Germany
| | - Jean-Pierre Timmermans
- Laboratory of Cell Biology and Histology, Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Antwerp, 2610, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Isabel Pintelon
- Laboratory of Cell Biology and Histology, Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Antwerp, 2610, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Gudrun A Rappold
- Department of Human Molecular Genetics, University of Heidelberg, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
- Interdisciplinary Center of Neuroscience, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Markus Britschgi
- Roche Pharma Research and Early Development, Neuroscience and Rare Diseases Discovery and Translational Medicine Area, Neuroscience Discovery, Roche Innovation Center Basel, 4070, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Hilal Lashuel
- Laboratory of Molecular and Chemical Biology of Neurodegeneration, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, 1015, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Michael D Menger
- Institute for Clinical & Experimental Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, Saarland University, 66421, Homburg, Germany
| | - Matthias W Laschke
- Institute for Clinical & Experimental Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, Saarland University, 66421, Homburg, Germany
| | - Beate Niesler
- Department of Human Molecular Genetics, University of Heidelberg, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Karl-Herbert Schäfer
- Department of Informatics and Microsystems and Technology, University of Applied Science Kaiserslautern, Working Group Enteric Nervous System, 66482, Zweibrücken, Germany.
- Department of Pediatric Surgery, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, 68167, Mannheim, Germany.
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Sarafian TA, Yacoub A, Kunz A, Aranki B, Serobyan G, Cohn W, Whitelegge JP, Watson JB. Enhanced mitochondrial inhibition by 3,4-dihydroxyphenyl-acetaldehyde (DOPAL)-oligomerized α-synuclein. J Neurosci Res 2019; 97:1689-1705. [PMID: 31420910 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.24513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2019] [Revised: 06/24/2019] [Accepted: 07/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Oligomeric forms of α-synuclein are believed to cause mitochondrial injury, which may contribute to neurotoxicity in Parkinson's disease (PD). Here oligomers of α-synuclein were prepared using the dopamine metabolite, DOPAL (3,4-dihydroxyphenyl-acetaldehyde), in the presence of guanidinium hydrochloride. Electron microscopy, mass spectrometry, and Western blotting studies revealed enhanced and stable oligomerization with DOPAL compared with dopamine or CuCl2 /H2 O2 . Using isolated mouse brain mitochondria, DOPAL-oligomerized α-synuclein (DOS) significantly inhibited oxygen consumption rates compared with untreated, control-fibrillated, and dopamine-fibrillated synuclein, or with monomeric α-synuclein. Inhibition was greater in the presence of malate plus pyruvate than with succinate, suggesting the involvement of mitochondrial complex I. Mitochondrial membrane potential studies using fluorescent probes, JC-1, and Safranin O also detected enhanced inhibition by DOS compared with the other aggregated forms of α-synuclein. Testing a small customized chemical library, four compounds were identified that rescued membrane potential from DOS injury. While diverse in chemical structure and mechanism, each compound has been reported to interact with mitochondrial complex I. Western blotting studies revealed that none of the four compounds disrupted the oligomeric banding pattern of DOS, suggesting their protection involved direct mitochondrial interaction. The remaining set of chemicals also did not disrupt oligomeric banding, attesting to the high structural stability of this α-synuclein proteoform. DOPAL and α-synuclein are both found in dopaminergic neurons, where their levels are elevated in PD and in animal models exposed to chemical toxicants, including agricultural pesticides. The current study provides further evidence of α-synuclein-induced mitochondrial injury and a likely role in PD neuropathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theodore A Sarafian
- Department of Psychiatry & Biobehavioral Sciences, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, UCLA, Los Angeles, California
| | - Amneh Yacoub
- Department of Psychiatry & Biobehavioral Sciences, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, UCLA, Los Angeles, California
| | - Anastasia Kunz
- Department of Psychiatry & Biobehavioral Sciences, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, UCLA, Los Angeles, California
| | - Burkan Aranki
- Department of Psychiatry & Biobehavioral Sciences, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, UCLA, Los Angeles, California
| | - Grigor Serobyan
- Department of Psychiatry & Biobehavioral Sciences, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, UCLA, Los Angeles, California
| | - Whitaker Cohn
- Department of Psychiatry & Biobehavioral Sciences, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, UCLA, Los Angeles, California
| | - Julian P Whitelegge
- Department of Psychiatry & Biobehavioral Sciences, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, UCLA, Los Angeles, California
| | - Joseph B Watson
- Department of Psychiatry & Biobehavioral Sciences, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, UCLA, Los Angeles, California
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5
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Coelho-Cerqueira E, de Araújo Correia Campos C, Follmer C. Formation of large oligomers of DOPAL-modified α-synuclein is modulated by the oxidation of methionine residues located at C-terminal domain. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2019; 509:367-372. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2018.12.128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2018] [Revised: 12/15/2018] [Accepted: 12/17/2018] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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6
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Lima VDA, do Nascimento LA, Eliezer D, Follmer C. Role of Parkinson's Disease-Linked Mutations and N-Terminal Acetylation on the Oligomerization of α-Synuclein Induced by 3,4-Dihydroxyphenylacetaldehyde. ACS Chem Neurosci 2019; 10:690-703. [PMID: 30352158 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.8b00498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Identifying the mechanisms by which the presynaptic protein α-synuclein (aSyn) is associated with neurodegeneration of dopamine neurons is a major priority in the Parkinson's disease (PD) field. Studies indicate that DOPAL (3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetaldehyde), an aldehyde generated from the enzymatic oxidation of dopamine, may convert aSyn monomer into a neurotoxin via formation of covalently stabilized toxic oligomers. Herein we investigated the role of N-terminal acetylation and familial aSyn mutations (A30P, A53T, E46K, G51D, and H50Q) on DOPAL-induced oligomerization of the protein. Our results indicate that the wild-type (WT) N-terminally acetylated aSyn (Ac-aSyn) is less prone to form oligomers upon incubation with DOPAL than the non-N-terminally acetylated protein. On the other hand, familial mutants from Ac-aSyn, particularly A53T, E46K, and H50Q increased the formation of DOPAL-derived aSyn oligomers, especially large oligomers. Binding of aSyn to synaptic-like small unilamellar vesicles (SUVs) protected distinctive aSyn variants against the effects of DOPAL. While N-terminal acetylation increased the protective action of SUVs against DOPAL-induced aSyn oligomerization, A53T, A30P, and H50Q mutations in Ac-aSyn had an opposite effect. This means that PD-linked mutations may not only perturb the affinity of aSyn for membranes but also influence the formation of DOPAL-mediated oligomers. Overall, our findings provide important evidence for the existence of a connection between familial mutations of aSyn, their distinct affinity to lipid membranes, and the formation of potentially toxic oligomers of the protein mediated by DOPAL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanderlei de Araújo Lima
- Department of Physical Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-909, Brazil
| | - Lucas Alex do Nascimento
- Department of Physical Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-909, Brazil
| | - David Eliezer
- Department of Biochemistry, Weill Cornell Medical College, Cornell University, New York, New York 10065, United States
| | - Cristian Follmer
- Department of Physical Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-909, Brazil
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Mor DE, Daniels MJ, Ischiropoulos H. The usual suspects, dopamine and alpha-synuclein, conspire to cause neurodegeneration. Mov Disord 2019; 34:167-179. [PMID: 30633814 DOI: 10.1002/mds.27607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2018] [Revised: 11/15/2018] [Accepted: 12/03/2018] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is primarily a movement disorder driven by the loss of dopamine-producing neurons in the substantia nigra (SN). Early identification of the oxidative properties of dopamine implicated it as a potential source of oxidative stress in PD, yet few studies have investigated dopamine neurotoxicity in vivo. The discovery of PD-causing mutations in α-synuclein and the presence of aggregated α-synuclein in the hallmark Lewy body pathology of PD revealed another important player. Despite extensive efforts, the precise role of α-synuclein aggregation in neurodegeneration remains unclear. We recently manipulated both dopamine levels and α-synuclein expression in aged mice and found that only the combination of these 2 factors caused progressive neurodegeneration of the SN and an associated motor deficit. Dopamine modified α-synuclein aggregation in the SN, resulting in greater abundance of α-synuclein oligomers and unique dopamine-induced oligomeric conformations. Furthermore, disruption of the dopamine-α-synuclein interaction rescued dopaminergic neurons from degeneration in transgenic Caenorhabditis elegans models. In this Perspective, we discuss these findings in the context of known α-synuclein and dopamine biology, review the evidence for α-synuclein oligomer toxicity and potential mechanisms, and discuss therapeutic implications. © 2019 International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danielle E Mor
- Lewis-Sigler Institute for Integrative Genomics and Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey, USA
| | - Malcolm J Daniels
- Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Harry Ischiropoulos
- Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA.,Children's Hospital of Philadelphia Research Institute, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
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8
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In vitro neurotoxicity of salsolinol is attenuated by the presynaptic protein α-synuclein. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2018; 1862:2835-2845. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2018.08.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2018] [Revised: 08/29/2018] [Accepted: 08/31/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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Fortuna JTS, Gralle M, Beckman D, Neves FS, Diniz LP, Frost PS, Barros-Aragão F, Santos LE, Gonçalves RA, Romão L, Zamberlan DC, Soares FAA, Braga C, Foguel D, Gomes FCA, De Felice FG, Ferreira ST, Clarke JR, Figueiredo CP. Brain infusion of α-synuclein oligomers induces motor and non-motor Parkinson's disease-like symptoms in mice. Behav Brain Res 2017; 333:150-160. [PMID: 28668282 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2017.06.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2017] [Revised: 06/16/2017] [Accepted: 06/27/2017] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is characterized by motor dysfunction, which is preceded by a number of non-motor symptoms including olfactory deficits. Aggregation of α-synuclein (α-syn) gives rise to Lewy bodies in dopaminergic neurons and is thought to play a central role in PD pathology. However, whether amyloid fibrils or soluble oligomers of α-syn are the main neurotoxic species in PD remains controversial. Here, we performed a single intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) infusion of α-syn oligomers (α-SYOs) in mice and evaluated motor and non-motor symptoms. Familiar bedding and vanillin essence discrimination tasks showed that α-SYOs impaired olfactory performance of mice, and decreased TH and dopamine levels in the olfactory bulb early after infusion. The olfactory deficit persisted until 45days post-infusion (dpi). α- SYO-infused mice behaved normally in the object recognition and forced swim tests, but showed increased anxiety-like behavior in the open field and elevated plus maze tests 20 dpi. Finally, administration of α-SYOs induced late motor impairment in the pole test and rotarod paradigms, along with reduced TH and dopamine content in the caudate putamen, 45 dpi. Reduced number of TH-positive cells was also seen in the substantia nigra of α-SYO-injected mice compared to control. In conclusion, i.c.v. infusion of α-SYOs recapitulated some of PD-associated non-motor symptoms, such as increased anxiety and olfactory dysfunction, but failed to recapitulate memory impairment and depressive-like behavior typical of the disease. Moreover, α-SYOs i.c.v. administration induced motor deficits and loss of TH and dopamine levels, key features of PD. Results point to α-syn oligomers as the proximal neurotoxins responsible for early non-motor and motor deficits in PD and suggest that the i.c.v. infusion model characterized here may comprise a useful tool for identification of PD novel therapeutic targets and drug screening.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliana T S Fortuna
- School of Pharmacy, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 21944-590, Brazil
| | - Matthias Gralle
- Institute of Medical Biochemistry Leopoldo de Meis, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 21944-590, Brazil
| | - Danielle Beckman
- Institute of Medical Biochemistry Leopoldo de Meis, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 21944-590, Brazil
| | - Fernanda S Neves
- School of Pharmacy, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 21944-590, Brazil
| | - Luan P Diniz
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 21944-590, Brazil
| | - Paula S Frost
- School of Pharmacy, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 21944-590, Brazil; Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 21944-590, Brazil
| | - Fernanda Barros-Aragão
- School of Pharmacy, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 21944-590, Brazil; Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 21944-590, Brazil
| | - Luís E Santos
- Institute of Medical Biochemistry Leopoldo de Meis, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 21944-590, Brazil; Institute of Biophysics Carlos Chagas Filho, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 21944-590, Brazil
| | - Rafaella A Gonçalves
- Institute of Medical Biochemistry Leopoldo de Meis, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 21944-590, Brazil
| | - Luciana Romão
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 21944-590, Brazil; Campus Xerém, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 21944-590, Brazil
| | - Daniele C Zamberlan
- Department of Toxicological Biochemistry, Federal University of Santa Maria, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Felix A A Soares
- Department of Toxicological Biochemistry, Federal University of Santa Maria, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Carolina Braga
- Institute of Medical Biochemistry Leopoldo de Meis, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 21944-590, Brazil; Campus Xerém, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 21944-590, Brazil
| | - Debora Foguel
- Institute of Medical Biochemistry Leopoldo de Meis, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 21944-590, Brazil
| | - Flávia C A Gomes
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 21944-590, Brazil
| | - Fernanda G De Felice
- Institute of Medical Biochemistry Leopoldo de Meis, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 21944-590, Brazil; Centre for Neuroscience Studies, Department of Biomedical and Molecular Sciences, Queen's University, Kingston, ON, Canada
| | - Sergio T Ferreira
- Institute of Medical Biochemistry Leopoldo de Meis, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 21944-590, Brazil; Institute of Biophysics Carlos Chagas Filho, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 21944-590, Brazil
| | - Julia R Clarke
- School of Pharmacy, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 21944-590, Brazil.
| | - Cláudia P Figueiredo
- School of Pharmacy, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 21944-590, Brazil.
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Duce JA, Wong BX, Durham H, Devedjian JC, Smith DP, Devos D. Post translational changes to α-synuclein control iron and dopamine trafficking; a concept for neuron vulnerability in Parkinson's disease. Mol Neurodegener 2017; 12:45. [PMID: 28592304 PMCID: PMC5463308 DOI: 10.1186/s13024-017-0186-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2016] [Accepted: 06/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease is a multifactorial neurodegenerative disorder, the aetiology of which remains elusive. The primary clinical feature of progressively impaired motor control is caused by a loss of midbrain substantia nigra dopamine neurons that have a high α-synuclein (α-syn) and iron content. α-Syn is a neuronal protein that is highly modified post-translationally and central to the Lewy body neuropathology of the disease. This review provides an overview of findings on the role post translational modifications to α-syn have in membrane binding and intracellular vesicle trafficking. Furthermore, we propose a concept in which acetylation and phosphorylation of α-syn modulate endocytic import of iron and vesicle transport of dopamine during normal physiology. Disregulated phosphorylation and oxidation of α-syn mediate iron and dopamine dependent oxidative stress through impaired cellular location and increase propensity for α-syn aggregation. The proposition highlights a connection between α-syn, iron and dopamine, three pathological components associated with disease progression in sporadic Parkinson's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- James A Duce
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, West Yorkshire, UK. .,Oxidation Biology Unit, the Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, the University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia.
| | - Bruce X Wong
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, West Yorkshire, UK.,Oxidation Biology Unit, the Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, the University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Hannah Durham
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, West Yorkshire, UK
| | | | - David P Smith
- Biomolecular Research Centre, Sheffield Hallam University, Howard Street, Sheffield, UK
| | - David Devos
- Department of Medical Pharmacology, Lille University, INSERM U1171, CHU of Lille, Lille, France
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11
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Structural basis for the dissociation of α-synuclein fibrils triggered by pressure perturbation of the hydrophobic core. Sci Rep 2016; 6:37990. [PMID: 27901101 PMCID: PMC5128797 DOI: 10.1038/srep37990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2016] [Accepted: 11/04/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson’s disease is a neurological disease in which aggregated forms of the α-synuclein (α-syn) protein are found. We used high hydrostatic pressure (HHP) coupled with NMR spectroscopy to study the dissociation of α-syn fibril into monomers and evaluate their structural and dynamic properties. Different dynamic properties in the non-amyloid-β component (NAC), which constitutes the Greek-key hydrophobic core, and in the acidic C-terminal region of the protein were identified by HHP NMR spectroscopy. In addition, solid-state NMR revealed subtle differences in the HHP-disturbed fibril core, providing clues to how these species contribute to seeding α-syn aggregation. These findings show how pressure can populate so far undetected α-syn species, and they lay out a roadmap for fibril dissociation via pathways not previously observed using other approaches. Pressure perturbs the cavity-prone hydrophobic core of the fibrils by pushing water inward, thereby inducing the dissociation into monomers. Our study offers the molecular details of how hydrophobic interaction and the formation of water-excluded cavities jointly contribute to the assembly and stabilization of the fibrils. Understanding the molecular forces behind the formation of pathogenic fibrils uncovered by pressure perturbation will aid in the development of new therapeutics against Parkinson’s disease.
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12
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Follmer C, Coelho-Cerqueira E, Yatabe-Franco DY, Araujo GDT, Pinheiro AS, Domont GB, Eliezer D. Oligomerization and Membrane-binding Properties of Covalent Adducts Formed by the Interaction of α-Synuclein with the Toxic Dopamine Metabolite 3,4-Dihydroxyphenylacetaldehyde (DOPAL). J Biol Chem 2015; 290:27660-79. [PMID: 26381411 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m115.686584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2015] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Oxidative deamination of dopamine produces the highly toxic aldehyde 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetaldehyde (DOPAL), enhanced production of which is found in post-mortem brains of Parkinson disease patients. When injected into the substantia nigra of rat brains, DOPAL causes the loss of dopaminergic neurons accompanied by the accumulation of potentially toxic oligomers of the presynaptic protein α-synuclein (aS), potentially explaining the synergistic toxicity described for dopamine metabolism and aS aggregation. In this work, we demonstrate that DOPAL interacts with aS via formation of Schiff-base and Michael-addition adducts with Lys residues, in addition to causing oxidation of Met residues to Met-sulfoxide. DOPAL modification leads to the formation of small aS oligomers that may be cross-linked by DOPAL. Both monomeric and oligomeric DOPAL adducts potently inhibit the formation of mature amyloid fibrils by unmodified aS. The binding of aS to either lipid vesicles or detergent micelles, which results in a gain of α-helix structure in its N-terminal lipid-binding domain, protects the protein against DOPAL adduct formation and, consequently, inhibits DOPAL-induced aS oligomerization. Functionally, aS-DOPAL monomer exhibits a reduced affinity for small unilamellar vesicles with lipid composition similar to synaptic vesicles, in addition to diminished membrane-induced α-helical content in comparison with the unmodified protein. These results suggest that DOPAL could compromise the functionality of aS, even in the absence of protein oligomerization, by affecting the interaction of aS with lipid membranes and hence its role in the regulation of synaptic vesicle traffic in neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristian Follmer
- From the Departments of Physical Chemistry and the Department of Biochemistry, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York 10065
| | | | | | - Gabriel D T Araujo
- Biochemistry, Institute of Chemistry, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-909, Brazil and
| | - Anderson S Pinheiro
- Biochemistry, Institute of Chemistry, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-909, Brazil and
| | - Gilberto B Domont
- Biochemistry, Institute of Chemistry, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-909, Brazil and
| | - David Eliezer
- the Department of Biochemistry, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York 10065
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13
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Leão AH, Sarmento‐Silva AJ, Santos JR, Ribeiro AM, Silva RH. Molecular, Neurochemical, and Behavioral Hallmarks of Reserpine as a Model for Parkinson's Disease: New Perspectives to a Long-Standing Model. Brain Pathol 2015; 25:377-90. [PMID: 25726735 PMCID: PMC8029054 DOI: 10.1111/bpa.12253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2014] [Accepted: 02/23/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The administration of reserpine to rodents was one of the first models used to investigate the pathophysiology and screening for potential treatments of Parkinson's disease (PD). The reserpine model was critical to the understanding of the role of monoamine system in the regulation of motor and affective disorders, as well as the efficacy of current PD treatments, such as L-DOPA and dopamine agonists. Nevertheless, with the introduction of toxin-induced and genetic models of PD, reserpine became underused. The main rationale to this drawback was the supposed absence of reserpine construct validity with PD. Here, we highlight classical and recent experimental findings that support the face, pharmacological, and construct validity of reserpine PD model and reason against the current rationale for its underuse. We also aim to shed a new perspective upon the model by discussing the main challenges and potentials for the reserpine model of PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anderson H.F.F. Leão
- Memory Studies LaboratoryDepartment of PhysiologyUniversidade Federal do Rio Grande do NorteNatalRNBrazil
| | - Aldair J. Sarmento‐Silva
- Memory Studies LaboratoryDepartment of PhysiologyUniversidade Federal do Rio Grande do NorteNatalRNBrazil
| | - José R. Santos
- Biology DepartmentUniversidade Federal de SergipeSão CristóvãoSEBrazil
| | - Alessandra M. Ribeiro
- Memory Studies LaboratoryDepartment of PhysiologyUniversidade Federal do Rio Grande do NorteNatalRNBrazil
- Department of BiosciencesUniversidade Federal de São PauloSantosSPBrazil
| | - Regina H. Silva
- Memory Studies LaboratoryDepartment of PhysiologyUniversidade Federal do Rio Grande do NorteNatalRNBrazil
- Behavioral Neuroscience LaboratoryDepartment of PharmacologyUniversidade Federal de São PauloSão PauloSPBrazil
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14
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Carmo-Gonçalves P, Pinheiro AS, Romão L, Cortines J, Follmer C. UV-induced selective oxidation of Met5 to Met-sulfoxide leads to the formation of neurotoxic fibril-incompetent α-synuclein oligomers. Amyloid 2014; 21:163-74. [PMID: 24784227 DOI: 10.3109/13506129.2014.912208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Oxidative stress and the formation of cytotoxic aggregates of the presynaptic protein α-synuclein (AS) are two important events associated with the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease (PD) and several other neurodegenerative diseases. In this context, extensive efforts have been made to elucidate the molecular basis of the cytotoxic synergy between oxidative stress and AS aggregation. In this study, we demonstrate that the exposure of AS to oxidative stress induced by UV radiation (ASUV) blocks the protein fibrillation, leading to the formation of highly toxic fibril-incompetent oligomers. In addition, ASUV exhibited stronger anti-fibrillogenic properties than H2O2-treated AS, inhibiting the fibrillation of unmodified AS at notably low concentrations. Mass spectrometry indicated that Met5 oxidation to Met-sulfoxide was the only modification promoted by UV exposure, which is reinforced by NMR data indicating that Met5 is the only residue whose amide resonance completely disappeared from the (1)H-(15)N HSQC spectrum after UV exposure. This result is supported by previous data that indicate that C-terminal Met residues (Met116 and Met127) and N-terminal Met1 are less susceptible to oxidation than Met5 because of the residual structure of the disordered AS monomer. Overall, our findings suggest that specific oxidation of Met5 might be sufficient to promote the formation of highly neurotoxic oligomers of AS.
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15
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Silva JL, Oliveira AC, Vieira TCRG, de Oliveira GAP, Suarez MC, Foguel D. High-Pressure Chemical Biology and Biotechnology. Chem Rev 2014; 114:7239-67. [DOI: 10.1021/cr400204z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 152] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Jerson L. Silva
- Instituto de Bioquímica Médica Leopoldo de Meis, Instituto
Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia de Biologia Estrutural e Bioimagem,
Centro Nacional de Ressonância Magnética Nuclear Jiri
Jonas, and ‡Polo Xerém, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, 21941-902, Brazil
| | - Andrea C. Oliveira
- Instituto de Bioquímica Médica Leopoldo de Meis, Instituto
Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia de Biologia Estrutural e Bioimagem,
Centro Nacional de Ressonância Magnética Nuclear Jiri
Jonas, and ‡Polo Xerém, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, 21941-902, Brazil
| | - Tuane C. R. G. Vieira
- Instituto de Bioquímica Médica Leopoldo de Meis, Instituto
Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia de Biologia Estrutural e Bioimagem,
Centro Nacional de Ressonância Magnética Nuclear Jiri
Jonas, and ‡Polo Xerém, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, 21941-902, Brazil
| | - Guilherme A. P. de Oliveira
- Instituto de Bioquímica Médica Leopoldo de Meis, Instituto
Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia de Biologia Estrutural e Bioimagem,
Centro Nacional de Ressonância Magnética Nuclear Jiri
Jonas, and ‡Polo Xerém, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, 21941-902, Brazil
| | - Marisa C. Suarez
- Instituto de Bioquímica Médica Leopoldo de Meis, Instituto
Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia de Biologia Estrutural e Bioimagem,
Centro Nacional de Ressonância Magnética Nuclear Jiri
Jonas, and ‡Polo Xerém, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, 21941-902, Brazil
| | - Debora Foguel
- Instituto de Bioquímica Médica Leopoldo de Meis, Instituto
Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia de Biologia Estrutural e Bioimagem,
Centro Nacional de Ressonância Magnética Nuclear Jiri
Jonas, and ‡Polo Xerém, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, 21941-902, Brazil
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16
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Follmer C. Monoamine oxidase and α-synuclein as targets in Parkinson’s disease therapy. Expert Rev Neurother 2014; 14:703-16. [DOI: 10.1586/14737175.2014.920235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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17
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Pitfalls associated with the use of Thioflavin-T to monitor anti-fibrillogenic activity. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2014; 24:3194-8. [PMID: 24835632 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2014.04.072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2014] [Revised: 04/13/2014] [Accepted: 04/18/2014] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Thioflavin-T (ThT) is a cationic benzothiazole dye that displays enhanced fluorescence upon binding to amyloid fibrils. This property makes ThT the current reagent of choice for the quantification of amyloid fibrils. Herein, we investigate the main pitfalls associated with the use of ThT-based assays to monitor the fibrillation of α-synuclein (α-syn), a protein linked to Parkinson's disease and other α-synucleinopathies. We demonstrated for the first time that ThT interacts with α-syn disordered monomer and accelerates the protein fibrillation in vitro. As a consequence, misleading conclusions may arise from the use of ThT-based real-time assays in the evaluation of anti-fibrillogenic compounds. Interestingly, NMR experiments indicated that C-terminal domain of α-syn is the main region perturbed by ThT interaction, similarly to that found for the pesticide paraquat, a well-documented accelerator of α-syn fibrillation. Moreover, we demonstrated that certain potent inhibitors of α-syn fibrillation, such as oxidized catecholamines and polyphenols, undergo spontaneous oxidation in aqueous solution, generating compounds that strongly quench ThT fluorescence. In light of these findings, we alert for possible artifacts associated to the measure of the anti-fibrillogenic activity based only on ThT fluorescence approach.
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18
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Pressure–temperature folding landscape in proteins involved in neurodegenerative diseases and cancer. Biophys Chem 2013; 183:9-18. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bpc.2013.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2013] [Revised: 06/03/2013] [Accepted: 06/03/2013] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
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19
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Danzer KM, McLean PJ. Drug targets from genetics: α-synuclein. CNS & NEUROLOGICAL DISORDERS-DRUG TARGETS 2013; 10:712-23. [PMID: 21838671 DOI: 10.2174/187152711797247867] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2010] [Revised: 07/22/2011] [Accepted: 07/24/2011] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
One of the critical issues in Parkinson disease (PD) research is the identity of the specific toxic, pathogenic moiety. In PD, mutations in α-synuclein (αsyn) or multiplication of the SNCA gene encoding αsyn, result in a phenotype of cellular inclusions, cell death, and brain dysfunction. While the historical point of view has been that the macroscopic aggregates containing αsyn are the toxic species, in the last several years evidence has emerged that suggests instead that smaller soluble species--likely oligomers containing misfolded αsyn--are actually the toxic moiety and that the fibrillar inclusions may even be a cellular detoxification pathway and less harmful. If soluble misfolded species of αsyn are the toxic moieties, then cellular mechanisms that degrade misfolded αsyn would be neuroprotective and a rational target for drug development. In this review we will discuss the fundamental mechanisms underlying αsyn toxicity including oligomer formation, oxidative stress, and degradation pathways and consider rational therapeutic strategies that may have the potential to prevent or halt αsyn induced pathogenesis in PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karin M Danzer
- MassGeneral Institute for Neurodegenerative Disease, Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, 02129, USA
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20
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da Silva FL, Coelho Cerqueira E, de Freitas MS, Gonçalves DL, Costa LT, Follmer C. Vitamins K interact with N-terminus α-synuclein and modulate the protein fibrillization in vitro. Exploring the interaction between quinones and α-synuclein. Neurochem Int 2012; 62:103-12. [PMID: 23064431 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2012.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2012] [Revised: 10/01/2012] [Accepted: 10/03/2012] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
In the last decades, a series of compounds, including quinones and polyphenols, has been described as having anti-fibrillogenic action on α-synuclein (α-syn) whose aggregation is associated to the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease (PD). Most of these molecules act as promiscuous anti-amyloidogenic agents, interacting with the diverse amyloidogenic proteins (mostly unfolded) through non-specific hydrophobic interactions. Herein we investigated the effect of the vitamins K (phylloquinone, menaquinone and menadione), which are 1,4-naphthoquinone (1,4-NQ) derivatives, on α-syn aggregation, comparing them with other anti-fibrillogenic molecules such as quinones, polyphenols and lipophilic vitamins. Vitamins K delayed α-syn fibrillization in substoichiometric concentrations, leading to the formation of short, sheared fibrils and amorphous aggregates, which are less prone to produce leakage of synthetic vesicles. In seeding conditions, menadione and 1,4-NQ significantly inhibited fibrils elongation, which could be explained by their ability to destabilize preformed fibrils of α-syn. Bidimensional NMR experiments indicate that a specific site at the N-terminal α-syn (Gly31/Lys32) is involved in the interaction with vitamins K, which is corroborated by previous studies suggesting that Lys is a key residue in the interaction with quinones. Together, our data suggest that 1,4-NQ, recently showed up by our group as a potential scaffold for designing new monoamine oxidase inhibitors, is also capable to modulate α-syn fibrillization in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernanda Luna da Silva
- Department of Physical Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-909, Brazil
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21
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Rochet JC, Hay BA, Guo M. Molecular insights into Parkinson's disease. PROGRESS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY AND TRANSLATIONAL SCIENCE 2012; 107:125-88. [PMID: 22482450 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-385883-2.00011-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Mutations in SNCA, PINK1, parkin, and DJ-1 are associated with autosomal-dominant or autosomal-recessive forms of Parkinson's disease (PD), the second most common neurodegenerative disorder. Studies on the structural and functional properties of the corresponding gene products have provided significant insights into the molecular underpinnings of familial PD and the much more common sporadic forms of the disease. Here, we review recent advances in our understanding of four PD-related gene products: α-synuclein, parkin, PINK1, and DJ-1. In Part 1, we review new insights into the role of α-synuclein in PD. In Part 2, we summarize the latest developments in understanding the role of mitochondrial dysfunction in PD, emphasizing the role of the PINK1/parkin pathway in regulating mitochondrial dynamics and mitophagy. The role of DJ-1 is also discussed. In Part 3, we point out converging pathways and future directions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Christophe Rochet
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA
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Esteves AR, Arduíno DM, Silva DFF, Oliveira CR, Cardoso SM. Mitochondrial Dysfunction: The Road to Alpha-Synuclein Oligomerization in PD. PARKINSON'S DISEASE 2011; 2011:693761. [PMID: 21318163 PMCID: PMC3026982 DOI: 10.4061/2011/693761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2010] [Revised: 12/21/2010] [Accepted: 12/27/2010] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
While the etiology of Parkinson's disease remains largely elusive, there is accumulating evidence suggesting that mitochondrial dysfunction occurs prior to the onset of symptoms in Parkinson's disease. Mitochondria are remarkably primed to play a vital role in neuronal cell survival since they are key regulators of energy metabolism (as ATP producers), of intracellular calcium homeostasis, of NAD(+)/NADH ratio, and of endogenous reactive oxygen species production and programmed cell death. In this paper, we focus on mitochondrial dysfunction-mediated alpha-synuclein aggregation. We highlight some of the findings that provide proof of evidence for a mitochondrial metabolism control in Parkinson's disease, namely, mitochondrial regulation of microtubule-dependent cellular traffic and autophagic lysosomal pathway. The knowledge that microtubule alterations may lead to autophagic deficiency and may compromise the cellular degradation mechanisms that culminate in the progressive accumulation of aberrant protein aggregates shields new insights to the way we address Parkinson's disease. In line with this knowledge, an innovative window for new therapeutic strategies aimed to restore microtubule network may be unlocked.
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Affiliation(s)
- A. R. Esteves
- Centro de Neurociências e Biologia Celular, Universidade de Coimbra, 3004 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - D. M. Arduíno
- Centro de Neurociências e Biologia Celular, Universidade de Coimbra, 3004 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - D. F. F. Silva
- Centro de Neurociências e Biologia Celular, Universidade de Coimbra, 3004 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - C. R. Oliveira
- Centro de Neurociências e Biologia Celular, Universidade de Coimbra, 3004 Coimbra, Portugal
- Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Coimbra, 3000 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - S. M. Cardoso
- Centro de Neurociências e Biologia Celular, Universidade de Coimbra, 3004 Coimbra, Portugal
- Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Coimbra, 3000 Coimbra, Portugal
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Melatonin attenuates the amphetamine-induced decrease in vesicular monoamine transporter-2 expression in postnatal rat striatum. Neurosci Lett 2011; 488:154-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2010.11.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2010] [Revised: 11/05/2010] [Accepted: 11/05/2010] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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The anti-Parkinsonian drug selegiline delays the nucleation phase of α-synuclein aggregation leading to the formation of nontoxic species. J Mol Biol 2010; 405:254-73. [PMID: 21050861 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2010.10.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2010] [Revised: 08/28/2010] [Accepted: 10/16/2010] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a movement disorder characterized by the loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra and the formation of intraneuronal inclusions called Lewy bodies, which are composed mainly of α-synuclein (α-syn). Selegiline (Sel) is a noncompetitive monoamino oxidase B inhibitor that has neuroprotective effects and has been administered to PD patients as monotherapy or in combination with l-dopa. Besides its known effect of increasing the level of dopamine (DA) by monoamino oxidase B inhibition, Sel induces other effects that contribute to its action against PD. We evaluated the effects of Sel on the in vitro aggregation of A30P and wild-type α-syn. Sel delays fibril formation by extending the lag phase of aggregation. In the presence of Sel, electron microscopy reveals amorphous heterogeneous aggregates, including large annular species, which are innocuous to a primary culture enriched in dopaminergic neurons, while their age-matched counterparts are toxic. The inhibitory effect displayed by Sel is abolished when seeds (small fibril pieces) are added to the aggregation reaction, reinforcing the hypothesis that Sel interferes with early nuclei formation and, to a lesser extent, with fibril elongation. NMR experiments indicate that Sel does not interact with monomeric α-syn. Interestingly, when added in combination with DA (which favors the formation of toxic protofibrils), Sel overrides the inhibitory effect of DA and favors fibrillation. Additionally, Sel blocks the formation of smaller toxic aggregates by perturbing DA-dependent fibril disaggregation. These effects might be beneficial for PD patients, since the sequestration of protofibrils into fibrils or the inhibition of fibril dissociation could alleviate the toxic effects of protofibrils on dopaminergic neurons. In nondopaminergic neurons, Sel might slow the fibrillation, giving rise to the formation of large nontoxic aggregates.
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An Y, Tang L, Jiang X, Chen H, Yang M, Jin L, Zhang S, Wang C, Zhang W. A Photoelectrochemical Immunosensor Based on Au-Doped TiO2 Nanotube Arrays for the Detection of α-Synuclein. Chemistry 2010; 16:14439-46. [DOI: 10.1002/chem.201001654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 179] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Rekas A, Knott RB, Sokolova A, Barnham KJ, Perez KA, Masters CL, Drew SC, Cappai R, Curtain CC, Pham CLL. The structure of dopamine induced alpha-synuclein oligomers. EUROPEAN BIOPHYSICS JOURNAL: EBJ 2010; 39:1407-19. [PMID: 20309679 DOI: 10.1007/s00249-010-0595-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2009] [Revised: 02/22/2010] [Accepted: 02/28/2010] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Inclusions of aggregated alpha-synuclein (alpha-syn) in dopaminergic neurons are a characteristic histological marker of Parkinson's disease (PD). In vitro, alpha-syn in the presence of dopamine (DA) at physiological pH forms SDS-resistant non-amyloidogenic oligomers. We used a combination of biophysical techniques, including sedimentation velocity analysis, small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) and circular dichroism spectroscopy to study the characteristics of alpha-syn oligomers formed in the presence of DA. Our SAXS data show that the trimers formed by the action of DA on alpha-syn consist of overlapping worm-like monomers, with no end-to-end associations. This lack of structure contrasts with the well-established, extensive beta-sheet structure of the amyloid fibril form of the protein and its pre-fibrillar oligomers. We propose on the basis of these and earlier data that oxidation of the four methionine residues at the C- and N-terminal ends of alpha-syn molecules prevents their end-to-end association and stabilises oligomers formed by cross linking with DA-quinone/DA-melanin, which are formed as a result of the redox process, thus inhibiting formation of the beta-sheet structure found in other pre-fibrillar forms of alpha-syn.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agata Rekas
- Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation (ANSTO), Menai, NSW, Australia.
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27
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Membrane-disruptive properties of the bioinsecticide Jaburetox-2Ec: implications to the mechanism of the action of insecticidal peptides derived from ureases. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-PROTEINS AND PROTEOMICS 2009; 1794:1848-54. [PMID: 19751848 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2009.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2009] [Revised: 08/28/2009] [Accepted: 09/03/2009] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Jaburetox-2Ec, a recombinant peptide derived from an urease isoform (JBURE-II), displays high insecticidal activity against important pests such as Spodoptera frugiperda and Dysdercus peruvianus. Although the molecular mechanism of action of ureases-derived peptides remains unclear, previous ab initio data suggest the presence of structural motifs in Jaburetox-2Ec with characteristics similar to those found in a class of pore-forming peptides. Here, we investigated the molecular aspects of the interaction between Jaburetox-2Ec and large unilamellar vesicles. Jaburetox-2Ec displays membrane-disruptive ability on acidic lipid bilayers and this effect is greatly influenced by peptide aggregation. Corroborating with this finding, molecular modeling studies revealed that Jaburetox-2Ec might adopt a well-defined beta-hairpin conformation similar to those found in antimicrobial peptides with membrane disruption properties. In addition, molecular dynamics simulations suggest that the protein is able to anchor at a polar/non-polar interface. In the light of these findings, for the first time it was possible to point out some evidence that the peptide Jaburetox-2Ec interacting with lipid vesicles promotes membrane permeabilization.
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Molecular and neurochemical mechanisms in PD pathogenesis. Neurotox Res 2009; 16:271-9. [PMID: 19526278 DOI: 10.1007/s12640-009-9059-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2009] [Revised: 04/07/2009] [Accepted: 04/29/2009] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Oxidation of dopamine to aminochrome seems to be a normal process leading to aminochrome polymerization to form neuromelanin, since normal individuals have this pigment in their dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra. The neurons lost in individuals with Parkinson's disease are dopaminergic neurons containing neuromelanin. This raises two questions. First, why are those cells containing neuromelanin lost in this disease? Second, what is the identity of the neurotoxin that induces this cell death? We propose that aminochrome is the agent responsible for the death of dopaminergic neurons containing neuromelanin in individuals with Parkinson's disease. The normal oxidative pathway of dopamine, in which aminochrome polymerizes to form neuromelanin, can be neurotoxic if DT-diaphorase is inhibited under certain conditions. Inhibition of DT-diaphorase allows two neurotoxic reactions to proceed: (i) the formation of aminochrome adducts with alpha-synuclein, which induce and stabilize the formation of neurotoxic protofibrils; and (ii) the one electron reduction of aminochrome to the neurotoxic leukoaminochrome o-semiquinone radical. Therefore, we propose that DT-diaphorase is an important neuroprotective enzyme in dopaminergic neurons containing neuromelanin.
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Leong SL, Cappai R, Barnham KJ, Pham CLL. Modulation of alpha-synuclein aggregation by dopamine: a review. Neurochem Res 2009; 34:1838-46. [PMID: 19444607 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-009-9986-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2008] [Accepted: 04/23/2009] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder that is characterized by (1) the selective loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra and (2) the deposition of misfolded alpha-synuclein (alpha-syn) as amyloid fibrils in the intracellular Lewy bodies in various region of the brain. Current thinking suggests that an interaction between alpha-syn and dopamine (DA) leads to the selective death of neuronal cells and the accumulation of misfolded alpha-syn. However, the exact mechanism by which this occurs is not fully defined. DA oxidation could play a key role is the pathogenesis of PD by causing oxidative stress, mitochondria dysfunction and impairment of protein metabolism. Here, we review the literature on the role of DA and its oxidative intermediates in modulating the aggregation pathways of alpha-syn.
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Affiliation(s)
- Su Ling Leong
- Department of Pathology, Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
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Song W, Patel A, Qureshi HY, Han D, Schipper HM, Paudel HK. The Parkinson disease-associated A30P mutation stabilizes alpha-synuclein against proteasomal degradation triggered by heme oxygenase-1 over-expression in human neuroblastoma cells. J Neurochem 2009; 110:719-33. [PMID: 19457084 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2009.06165.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Proteosomal degradation of proteins is one of the major mechanisms of intracellular protein turnover. Failure of the proteosome to degrade misfolded protein is implicated in the accumulation of alpha-synuclein in Parkinson's disease (PD). Heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), an enzyme that converts heme to free iron, carbon monoxide (CO) and biliverdin (bilirubin precursor) is expressed in response to various stressors. HO-1 is up-regulated in PD- and Alzheimer's disease-affected neural tissues. In this study, we found that HO-1 over-expression engenders dose-dependent decreases in alpha-synuclein protein levels in human neuroblastoma M17 cells. When over-expression of HO-1 was silenced in HO-1 transfected cells, level of alpha-synuclein was restored. Likewise, treatment of HO-1 over-expressing cells with the HO-1 inhibitor, tin mesoporphyrin, the iron chelator deferoxamine or antagonist of CO-dependent cGMP activation, methylene blue, mitigated the HO-1-induced reduction in alpha-synuclein levels. Furthermore, when HO-1 over-expressing cells were treated with the proteosome inhibitors, lactacystin and MG132, level of alpha-synuclein was almost completely restored. In contrast to the effect on alpha-synuclein [wild-type (WT)] levels, HO-1 over-expression did not significantly impact PD-associated alpha-synuclein (A30P) levels in these cells. HO-1 also significantly reduced aggregation of alpha-synuclein (WT) but not that of A30P. Our results suggest that HO-1, which is expressed when neurons are exposed to toxic stimuli capable of inducing protein misfolding, triggers proteosomal degradation of proteins and prevents intracellular accumulation of protein aggregates and inclusions. Resistance to HO-1 induced proteosomal degradation may render the familial PD-associated A30P mutation prone to toxic intracellular aggregation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Song
- Bloomfield Center for Research in Aging, Lady Davis Institute for Medical Research, Sir Mortimer B. Davis-Jewish General Hospital, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
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Pham CL, Leong SL, Ali FE, Kenche VB, Hill AF, Gras SL, Barnham KJ, Cappai R. Dopamine and the Dopamine Oxidation Product 5,6-Dihydroxylindole Promote Distinct On-Pathway and Off-Pathway Aggregation of α-Synuclein in a pH-Dependent Manner. J Mol Biol 2009; 387:771-85. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2009.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2008] [Revised: 01/06/2009] [Accepted: 02/04/2009] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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32
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Silva JL, Foguel D. Hydration, cavities and volume in protein folding, aggregation and amyloid assembly. Phys Biol 2009; 6:015002. [DOI: 10.1088/1478-3975/6/1/015002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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Rochet JC, Liu F. Inhibition of α-Synuclein Aggregation by Antioxidants and Chaperones in Parkinson’s Disease. PROTEIN FOLDING AND MISFOLDING: NEURODEGENERATIVE DISEASES 2008. [DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4020-9434-7_8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Zhou ZD, Kerk SY, Xiong GG, Lim TM. Dopamine auto-oxidation aggravates non-apoptotic cell death induced by over-expression of human A53T mutant alpha-synuclein in dopaminergic PC12 cells. J Neurochem 2008; 108:601-10. [PMID: 19046408 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2008.05795.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
In this study, we demonstrated that transient transfection and over-expression of human mutant A53T alpha-synuclein (alpha-syn) could induce expression level- and time-dependent, non-apoptotic cell death in PC12 cells, while wild-type and mutant A30P alpha-syn could not. The non-apoptotic cell death induced by over-expression of A53T alpha-syn in PC12 cells was found to be dopamine (DA) related. It could be alleviated by nerve growth factor but not by chemicals that abrogate endoplasmic reticulum stress. Furthermore, PC12 cell death could be alleviated by N-acetyl-cysteine (NAC) as well as by L-cysteine; but not by cell permeable tyrosinase inhibitors. NAC could prevent DA auto-oxidation and tyrosinase-catalyzed DA oxidation, whereas L-cysteine could potently abrogate DA auto-oxidation but could not prevent tyrosinase-catalyzed DA oxidation. Both NAC and L-cysteine could increase the reduced and total GSH levels, and concurrently decrease the oxidized GSH level in PC12 cells. On the other hand, over-expression of human mutant A53T alpha-syn could decrease the reduced and total GSH levels, and increase the oxidized GSH level in the cells. Taken together, we concluded that auto-oxidation of endogenous DA aggravates non-apoptotic cell death induced by over-expression of human mutant A53T alpha-syn in PC12 cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhi Dong Zhou
- Department of Biological Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
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Caudle WM, Colebrooke RE, Emson PC, Miller GW. Altered vesicular dopamine storage in Parkinson's disease: a premature demise. Trends Neurosci 2008; 31:303-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tins.2008.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2007] [Revised: 02/22/2008] [Accepted: 02/25/2008] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Chesselet MF. In vivo alpha-synuclein overexpression in rodents: a useful model of Parkinson's disease? Exp Neurol 2008; 209:22-7. [PMID: 17949715 PMCID: PMC2262051 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2007.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 133] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2007] [Revised: 08/03/2007] [Accepted: 08/13/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Mutations in alpha-synuclein were the first genetic defect linked to Parkinson's disease (PD). The relevance of alpha-synuclein to sporadic PD is strongly supported by the presence of alpha-synuclein aggregates in neurons of patients. This has prompted the development of numerous animal models based on alpha-synuclein overexpression, primarily through genetic methods in mice and viral transduction in rats. In mice, different promoters and transgenes lead to a wide variety of phenotypes accompanied by non-existent, late onset, or non-specific neurodegeneration. Rapid neurodegeneration, in contrast, is observed after viral transduction but is limited to the targeted region and does not mimic the broad pathology observed in the disease. Overall, each model reproduces a subset of features of PD and can be used to identify therapeutic targets and test disease-modifying therapies. The predictive value of all models of the disease, however, remains speculative in the absence of effective neuroprotective treatments for PD in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie-Francoise Chesselet
- Department of Neurology and Neurobiology, David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA.
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