Assignment of free and disulfide-bonded cysteine residues in testis angiotensin-converting enzyme: functional implications

Multiple genes in the Pate5-13 genomic region contribute to ADAM3 processing†

Sperm proteins undergo post-translational modifications during sperm transit through the epididymis to acquire fertilizing ability. We previously reported that the genomic region coding Pate family genes is key to the proteolytic processing of the sperm membrane protein ADAM3 and male fertility. This region contains nine Pate family genes (Pate5-13), and two protein-coding genes (Gm27235 and Gm5916), with a domain structure similar to Pate family genes. Therefore, in this study, we aimed to identify key factors by narrowing the genomic region. We generated three knockout (KO) mouse lines using CRISPR/Cas9: single KO mice of Pate10 expressed in the caput epididymis; deletion KO mice of six caput epididymis-enriched genes (Pate5-7, 13, Gm27235, and Gm5916) (Pate7-Gm5916 KO); and deletion KO mice of four genes expressed in the placenta and epididymis (Pate8, 9, 11, and 12) (Pate8-12 KO). We observed that the fertility of only Pate7-Gm5916 KO males was reduced, whereas the rest remained unaffected. Furthermore, when the caput epididymis-enriched genes, Pate8 and Pate10 remained in Pate7-Gm5916 KO mice were independently deleted, both KO males displayed more severe subfertility due to a decrease in mature ADAM3 and a defect in sperm migration to the oviduct. Thus, our data showed that multiple caput epididymis-enriched genes within the region coding Pate5-13 cooperatively function to ensure male fertility in mice.

Novel ACE mutations mimicking sarcoidosis by increasing blood ACE levels

An elevated blood angiotensin I-converting enzyme (ACE) supports diagnosis of sarcoidosis and Gaucher disease. However, some ACE mutations increase ACE shedding, and patients with these mutations are therefore at risk of being incorrectly diagnosed with sarcoidosis because of elevated serum ACE levels. We applied a novel approach called "ACE phenotyping" to identify possible ACE mutations in 3 pulmonary clinic patients that had suspected sarcoidosis based on elevated blood ACE levels. Conformational fingerprinting of ACE indicated that these mutations may be localized in the stalk region of the protein and these were confirmed by whole exome sequencing. Index patient 1 (IP1) had a mutation (P1199L) that had been previously identified, while the other 2 patients had novel ACE mutations. IP2 had 2 mutations, T887M and N1196K (eliminating a putative glycosylation site), while IP3 had a stop codon mutation Q1124X (eliminating the transmembrane anchor). We also performed a comprehensive analysis of the existing database of all ACE mutations to estimate the proportion of mutations increasing ACE shedding. The frequency of ACE mutations resulting in increased blood ACE levels may be much higher than previously estimated. ACE phenotyping, together with whole exome sequencing, is a diagnostic approach that could prevent unnecessary invasive and/or costly diagnostic procedures, or potentially harmful treatment for patients misdiagnosed on the basis of elevated blood ACE levels.

Investigation into the Mechanism of Homo- and Heterodimerization of Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme

Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) plays a central role in the renin-angiotensin system (RAS), which is primarily responsible for blood pressure homeostasis. Studies have shown that ACE inhibitors yield cardiovascular benefits that cannot be entirely attributed to the inhibition of ACE catalytic activity. It is possible that these benefits are due to interactions between ACE and RAS receptors that mediate the protective arm of the RAS, such as angiotensin II receptor type 2 (AT2R) and the receptor MAS. Therefore, in this study, we investigated the molecular interactions of ACE, including ACE homodimerization and heterodimerization with AT2R and MAS, respectively. Molecular interactions were assessed by fluorescence resonance energy transfer and bimolecular fluorescence complementation in human embryonic kidney 293 cells and Chinese hamster ovary-K1 cells transfected with vectors encoding fluorophore-tagged proteins. The specificity of dimerization was verified by competition experiments using untagged proteins. These techniques were used to study several potential requirements for the germinal isoform of angiotensin-converting enzyme expressed in the testes (tACE) dimerization as well as the effect of ACE inhibitors on both somatic isoforms of angiotensin-converting enzyme expressed in the testes (sACE) and tACE dimerization. We demonstrated constitutive homodimerization of sACE and of both of its domains separately, as well as heterodimerization of both sACE and tACE with AT2R, but not MAS. In addition, we investigated both soluble sACE and the sACE N domain using size-exclusion chromatography-coupled small-angle X-ray scattering and we observed dimers in solution for both forms of the enzyme. Our results suggest that ACE homo- and heterodimerization does occur under physiologic conditions.

Crystal structures of sampatrilat and sampatrilat-Asp in complex with human ACE - a molecular basis for domain selectivity

Angiotensin‐1‐converting enzyme (ACE) is a zinc metallopeptidase that consists of two homologous catalytic domains (known as nACE and cACE) with different substrate specificities. Based on kinetic studies it was previously reported that sampatrilat, a tight‐binding inhibitor of ACE, K_i = 13.8 nm and 171.9 nm for cACE and nACE respectively [Sharma et al., Journal of Chemical Information and Modeling (2016), 56, 2486–2494], was 12.4‐fold more selective for cACE. In addition, samAsp, in which an aspartate group replaces the sampatrilat lysine, was found to be a nonspecific and lower micromolar affinity inhibitor. Here, we report a detailed three‐dimensional structural analysis of sampatrilat and samAsp binding to ACE using high‐resolution crystal structures elucidated by X‐ray crystallography, which provides a molecular basis for differences in inhibitor affinity and selectivity for nACE and cACE. The structures show that the specificity of sampatrilat can be explained by increased hydrophobic interactions and a H‐bond from Glu403 of cACE with the lysine side chain of sampatrilat that are not observed in nACE. In addition, the structures clearly show a significantly greater number of hydrophilic and hydrophobic interactions with sampatrilat compared to samAsp in both cACE and nACE consistent with the difference in affinities. Our findings provide new experimental insights into ligand binding at the active site pockets that are important for the design of highly specific domain selective inhibitors of ACE.

Database

The atomic coordinates and structure factors for N‐ and C‐domains of ACE bound to sampatrilat and sampatrilat‐Asp complexes (6F9V, 6F9R, 6F9T and 6F9U respectively) have been deposited in the Protein Data Bank, Research Collaboratory for Structural Bioinformatics, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ (http://www.rcsb.org/).

[Angiotensin converting enzyme: the antigenic properties of the domain, role in Alzheimer's disease and tumor progression]

Angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE, EC 3.4.15.1) was discovered and characterized in the Laboratory of biochemistry and chemical pathology of proteins under the direction of academician V.N. Orekhovich, where its physiological function, associated with a key role in the regulation of the renin-angiotensin (RAS) and the kallikrein-kinin systems that control blood flow in the body and homeostasis was first deciphered. We carried out a search for structural differences between the two highly homologous domains (N- and C-domains) of somatic ACE (sACE); it was based on a comparative analysis of antigenic determinants (or B-epitopes) of both domains. The revealed epitopes were classified with variable and conserved regions and functionally important sites of the molecule ACE. Essential difference was demonstrated between locations of the epitopes in the N- and C-domains. These data indicate the existence of structural differences between the domains of sACE. We studied the role of the domains of ACE in the metabolism of human amyloid beta peptide (Ab) - the main component of senile plaques, found in the brains of patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD). Our results demonstrated that only N-domain ACE cleaved the Ab between residues R5-H6, while, the C-domain of ACE failed to hydrolyze this region. In addition, the effect of post-translational modifications of Ab on its hydrolysis by the ACE was investigated. We show that isomerization of residue D7, a common non-enzymatic age-related modification found in AD-associated species, does not reduce the affinity of the peptide to the N-domain of ACE, and conversely, it increases. According to our data, the role of ACE in the metabolism of Ab becomes more significant in the development of AD. RAS is involved in malignant transformation and tumor progression. RAS components, including ACE and angiotensin II receptors type 1 (AT1R) are expressed in various human tumors. We found a significant increase in the level of ACE activity in the tumor tissue of squamous cell carcinoma of the cervix. In our viewpoint, the increase in ACE activity may be a marker of poor clinical prognosis.

Conformational changes of blood ACE in chronic uremia

Background

The pattern of binding of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) to 16 epitopes on human angiotensin I-converting enzyme (ACE) comprise a conformational ACE fingerprint and is a sensitive marker of subtle protein conformational changes.

Hypothesis

Toxic substances in the blood of patients with uremia due to End Stage Renal Disease (ESRD) can induce local conformational changes in the ACE protein globule and alter the efficacy of ACE inhibitors.

Methodology/Principal Findings

The recognition of ACE by 16 mAbs to the epitopes on the N and C domains of ACE was estimated using an immune-capture enzymatic plate precipitation assay. The precipitation pattern of blood ACE by a set of mAbs was substantially influenced by the presence of ACE inhibitors with the most dramatic local conformational change noted in the N-domain region recognized by mAb 1G12. The “short” ACE inhibitor enalaprilat (tripeptide analog) and “long” inhibitor teprotide (nonapeptide) produced strikingly different mAb 1G12 binding with enalaprilat strongly increasing mAb 1G12 binding and teprotide decreasing binding. Reduction in S-S bonds via glutathione and dithiothreitol treatment increased 1G12 binding to blood ACE in a manner comparable to enalaprilat. Some patients with uremia due to ESRD exhibited significantly increased mAb 1G12 binding to blood ACE and increased ACE activity towards angiotensin I accompanied by reduced ACE inhibition by inhibitory mAbs and ACE inhibitors.

Conclusions/Significance

The estimation of relative mAb 1G12 binding to blood ACE detects a subpopulation of ESRD patients with conformationally changed ACE, which activity is less suppressible by ACE inhibitors. This parameter may potentially serve as a biomarker for those patients who may need higher concentrations of ACE inhibitors upon anti-hypertensive therapy.

High-resolution crystal structures of Drosophila melanogaster angiotensin-converting enzyme in complex with novel inhibitors and antihypertensive drugs

Angiotensin I-converting enzyme (ACE), one of the central components of the renin-angiotensin system, is a key therapeutic target for the treatment of hypertension and cardiovascular disorders. Human somatic ACE (sACE) has two homologous domains (N and C). The N- and C-domain catalytic sites have different activities toward various substrates. Moreover, some of the undesirable side effects of the currently available and widely used ACE inhibitors may arise from their targeting both domains leading to defects in other pathways. In addition, structural studies have shown that although both these domains have much in common at the inhibitor binding site, there are significant differences and these are greater at the peptide binding sites than regions distal to the active site. As a model system, we have used an ACE homologue from Drosophila melanogaster (AnCE, a single domain protein with ACE activity) to study ACE inhibitor binding. In an extensive study, we present high-resolution structures for native AnCE and in complex with six known antihypertensive drugs, a novel C-domain sACE specific inhibitor, lisW-S, and two sACE domain-specific phosphinic peptidyl inhibitors, RXPA380 and RXP407 (i.e., nine structures). These structures show detailed binding features of the inhibitors and highlight subtle changes in the orientation of side chains at different binding pockets in the active site in comparison with the active site of N- and C-domains of sACE. This study provides information about the structure-activity relationships that could be utilized for designing new inhibitors with improved domain selectivity for sACE.

Angiotensin I-converting enzyme Gln1069Arg mutation impairs trafficking to the cell surface resulting in selective denaturation of the C-domain

Background

Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE; Kininase II; CD143) hydrolyzes small peptides such as angiotensin I, bradykinin, substance P, LH-RH and several others and thus plays a key role in blood pressure regulation and vascular remodeling. Complete absence of ACE in humans leads to renal tubular dysgenesis (RTD), a severe disorder of renal tubule development characterized by persistent fetal anuria and perinatal death.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Patient with RTD in Lisbon, Portugal, maintained by peritoneal dialysis since birth, was found to have a homozygous substitution of Arg for Glu at position 1069 in the C-terminal domain of ACE (Q1069R) resulting in absence of plasma ACE activity; both parents and a brother who are heterozygous carriers of this mutation had exactly half-normal plasma ACE activity compared to healthy individuals. We hypothesized that the Q1069R substitution impaired ACE trafficking to the cell surface and led to accumulation of catalytically inactive ACE in the cell cytoplasm. CHO cells expressing wild-type (WT) vs. Q1069R-ACE demonstrated the mutant accumulates intracellularly and also that it is significantly degraded by intracellular proteases. Q1069R-ACE retained catalytic and immunological characteristics of WT-ACE N domain whereas it had 10–20% of the nativity of the WT-ACE C domain. A combination of chemical (sodium butyrate) or pharmacological (ACE inhibitor) chaperones with proteasome inhibitors (MG 132 or bortezomib) significantly restored trafficking of Q1069R-ACE to the cell surface and increased ACE activity in the cell culture media 4-fold.

Conclusions/Significance

Homozygous Q1069R substitution results in an ACE trafficking and processing defect which can be rescued, at least in cell culture, by a combination of chaperones and proteasome inhibitors. Further studies are required to determine whether similar treatment of individuals with this ACE mutation would provide therapeutic benefits such as concentration of primary urine.

Porcine germinal angiotensin I-converting enzyme: isolation, characterization and molecular cloning

Germinal angiotensin I-converting enzyme (gACE) was purified to homogeneity from porcine seminal plasma. The molecular weight of the purified enzyme was calculated to be 182,000 on non-denaturing PAGE and 94,000 and 93,000 on SDS-PAGE in the absence and presence of beta-ME, respectively. These findings suggest that the enzyme is composed of two identical subunits in seminal plasma. The K(m), V(max), K(cat) and K(cat)/K(m) values of gACE at optimal pH (pH 7.2) were 680 microM, 1.0 micromol/mg/min, 33.1 s(-1) and 4.87 x 10(4) s(-1) M(-1) for Z-Val-Lys-Met-MCA, respectively. gACE was potently inhibited by EDTA, 1,10-phenanthroline, captopril and lisinopril, and it promptly released the dipeptides His-Leu and Phe-Arg from angiotensin I and bradykinin. Met- and Leu-enkephalins, neuromedine B and beta-neo-endorphin were also good natural substrates for gACE. We determined the structure of gACE cDNA from the porcine testis, and deduced the amino acid sequence of gACE. The cDNA is composed of 2508 bp of nucleotides in length and encodes 745 amino acids in the coding region. The overall homology of amino acid sequences between porcine, human, sheep and rat gACEs is 72.6 to 84.7%. Zinc-binding motif, chloride-binding site and positions of cysteine residues were well conserved.

Combining Fluorescence Detection and Mass Spectrometric Analysis for Comprehensive and Quantitative Analysis of Redox-Sensitive Cysteines in Native Membrane Proteins

Monobromobimane (MBB) is a lipophilic reagent that selectively modifies free cysteine residues in proteins. Because of its lipophilic character, MBB is capable of labeling cysteine residues in membrane proteins under native conditions. Reaction of MBB with the sulfhydryl groups of free cysteines leads to formation of highly fluorescent derivatives. Here we describe a procedure for the detection and relative quantitation of MBB-labeled cysteines using fluorescence and mass spectrometric analyses, which allow determination of free cysteine content and unambiguous identification of MBB-modified cysteine residues. We have applied this approach to the analysis of the free and redox-sensitive cysteine residues of a large membrane protein, the sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ release channel with a molecular mass of 2.2 million Da. Labeling was performed under physiologic conditions where the channel complex is in its native environment and is functionally active. The purified MBB-labeled channel complex was enzymatically digested, and the resulting peptides were separated by reversed-phase high-performance chromatography. MBB-labeled peptides were detected by fluorescence and identified by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) mass spectrometry. Under MALDI conditions, partial photolytic fragmentation of the MBB-peptide bound occurred, thus allowing convenient screening for the MBB-modified peptides in the MS spectrum by detection of the specific mass increment of 190.07 Da for MBB-modified cysteine residues. Modification of the peptides was further confirmed by tandem mass spectrometric analysis, utilizing sequencing information and the presence of the specific immonium ion for the MBB-modified cysteine residues at m/z 266.6. Quantitative information was obtained by comparison of both fluorescence and MS signal intensities of MBB-modified peptides. Combination of fluorescence with MS detection and analysis of MBB-labeled peptides supported by a customized software program provides a convenient method for identifying and quantifying redox-sensitive cysteines in membrane proteins of native biological systems. Identification of one redox-sensitive cysteine (2327) in the native membrane-bound sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ release channel is described.

Zofenoprilat-glutathione mixed disulfide as a specific S-thiolating agent of bovine lens aldose reductase

The ability of Zofenoprilat, an angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor carrying a thiol group, to intervene in protein S-thiolation processes was tested on bovine lens aldose reductase (ALR2). Zofenoprilat, more susceptible to oxidation than glutathione (GSH), forms with this physiological thiol a rather stable mixed disulfide (ZSSG). ZSSG, whose generation through the transthiolation reaction between GSH and Zofenoprilat homodisulfide was shown to be enhanced by a micro-class glutathione S-transferase, appears to be a specific donor of the Zofenoprilat moiety in the S-thiolation processes. This is indicated by the apparent stability of ZSSG to reduction by GSH and by the specificity of the transfer of the group on ALR2, used as a protein model. Indeed, the S-thiolation of ALR2 by ZSSG occurred exclusively through the insertion of the Zofenoprilat moiety of ZSSG on the enzyme. The modified ALR2 is shown to retain the same activity of the native enzyme, but displays a reduced sensitivity to inhibition. The S-thiolation of specific target enzymes is proposed as an event potentially relevant for the antioxidant action of Zofenoprilat.

Renal effects of inhaled nitric oxide in humans

We measured renal sodium and water excretion in five healthy male volunteers who inhaled nitric oxide. Urine volumes, urinary sodium and creatinine, and plasma sodium and creatinine were measured before, during and after a 2-h period inhaling nitric oxide (40 vpm in air). A control experiment, excluding the nitric oxide, was done on a separate day. Nitric oxide increased urinary volume (mean increase 85%, SEM 22%) and prevented a decrease in fractional excretion of sodium (32% SEM 8%) seen in the control experiments, without a detectable change in creatinine clearance. The results suggest the inhaled nitric oxide may alter tubular salt and water resorbtion in humans. The mechanism for this remains unclear.

Strategies for locating disulfide bonds in a monoclonal antibody via mass spectrometry

The location of the disulfide bonds in a recombinant monoclonal antibody was confirmed by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time-of-flight (MALDI-TOF) and electrospray ionization (ESI) mass spectrometry (MS). A non-reduced Endoproteinase Lys-C (Endo Lys-C) digest of the antibody was analyzed directly by MALDI-TOFMS. The sample was then reduced on-plate by depositing dithiothreitol (DTT) on the sample spot and re-analyzed by MALDI-TOFMS. The disulfide bonds were assigned based on the disappearance of certain mass ions in the non-reduced digest and the appearance of product ions in the reduced digest. A rapid LC/ESI-MS protocol was also developed to determine the location of the disulfide bonds. The peptides generated from the Endo Lys-C digest of the antibody were partially separated on a high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) column by utilizing a steep gradient and analyzed by ESI-MS. The masses of the partially resolved peptides were determined by deconvoluting the mass spectra.

Identification of N-linked glycosylation sites in human testis angiotensin-converting enzyme and expression of an active deglycosylated form

The sites of glycosylation of Chinese hamster ovary cell expressed testicular angiotensin-converting enzyme (tACE) have been determined by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization/time of flight/mass spectrometry of peptides generated by proteolytic and cyanogen bromide digestion. Two of the seven potential N-linked glycosylation sites, Asn90 and Asn109, were found to be fully glycosylated by analysis of peptides before and after treatment with a series of glycosidases and with endoproteinase Asp-N. The mass spectra of the glycopeptides exhibit characteristic clusters of peaks which indicate the N-linked glycans in tACE to be mostly of the biantennary, fucosylated complex type. This structural information was used to demonstrate that three other sites, Asn155, Asn337, and Asn586, are partially glycosylated, whereas Asn72 appears to be fully glycosylated. The only potential site that was not modified is Asn620. Sequence analysis of tryptic peptides obtained from somatic ACE (human kidney) identified six glycosylated and one unglycosylated Asn. Only one of these glycosylation sites had a counterpart in tACE. Comparison of the two proteins reveals a pattern in which amino-terminal N-linked sites are preferred. The functional significance of glycosylation was examined with a tACE mutant lacking the O-glycan-rich first amino-terminal 36 residues and truncated at Ser625. When expressed in the presence of the alpha-glucosidase I inhibitor N-butyldeoxynojirimycin and treated with endoglycosidase H to remove all but the terminal N-acetylglucosamine residues, it retained full enzymatic activity, was electrophoretically homogeneous, and is a good candidate for crystallographic studies.