Occurrence and Significance of Insecticide-Induced Hormesis in Insects

Agricultural insect pests as models for studying stress-induced evolutionary processes

Agricultural insect pests (AIPs) are widely successful in adapting to natural and anthropogenic stressors, repeatedly overcoming population bottlenecks and acquiring resistance to intensive management practices. Although they have been largely overlooked in evolutionary studies, AIPs are ideal systems for understanding rapid adaptation under novel environmental conditions. Researchers have identified several genomic mechanisms that likely contribute to adaptive stress responses, including positive selection on de novo mutations, polygenic selection on standing allelic variation and phenotypic plasticity (e.g., hormesis). However, new theory suggests that stress itself may induce epigenetic modifications, which may confer heritable physiological changes (i.e., stress-resistant phenotypes). In this perspective, we discuss how environmental stress from agricultural management generates the epigenetic and genetic modifications that are associated with rapid adaptation in AIPs. We summarise existing evidence for stress-induced evolutionary processes in the context of insecticide resistance. Ultimately, we propose that studying AIPs offers new opportunities and resources for advancing our knowledge of stress-induced evolution.

Comparing the effectiveness of different insecticide application orders for suppressing Drosophila suzukii Matsumura (Diptera: Drosophilidae) infestation: experimental and modeling approaches

Drosophila suzukii Matsumura (Diptera: Drosophilidae) is a key pest of soft-skinned fruit such as blackberry and blueberry. Differing seasonal spray regimes are expected to have variable effects on D. suzukii populations. Semi-field cage trials were performed at three locations in the United States (Georgia, Oregon, and North Carolina) on blueberry and blackberry crops to evaluate this hypothesis. Insecticides with different efficacy rates (ZC - zeta-cypermethrin, SPI - spinetoram, CYAN - cyantraniliprole) were applied during field experiments conducted within large cages. Treatment schedules consisted of two insecticide applications which performed over three weeks. Seasonal treatment schedules were applied in the following order: ZC-CYAN and CYAN-ZC in rabbiteye and highbush blueberry with the addition of a ZC-SPI treatment applied in blackberry. In addition, a population model was applied to simulate the relative efficacy of the insecticide schedules in Oregon on D. suzukii population model based on previously published efficacy, biological, and weather parameters. Overall, all schedules resulted in reduced D. suzukii infestation compared to untreated control (UTC) treatments, with statistical differences in all three locations. The numerically lower infestation was found in some cases in ZC-CYAN schedule. Population modeling conducted exclusively for blueberry, and the simulations indicated no discernible differences between the two respective schedules (ZC-CYAN vs CYAN-ZC). The present study demonstrates that seasonal infestation of D. suzukii could be suppressed irrespective of application order. Additional research is required to assess the optimal timing and sequence of insecticide applications for controlling seasonal populations of D. suzukii in fruit crops. Such information could be invaluable for growers who are seeking to strategize their insecticide applications.

Sublethal effects of chlorfenapyr on Plutella xylostella (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae)

BACKGROUND

The diamondback moth (DBM), Plutella xylostella (L.), is the most destructive pest of cruciferous vegetables worldwide. Chlorfenapyr is an important insecticide for controlling DBM. The impacts of three sublethal doses (LC₁ , LC₁₀ and LC₃₀ ) of chlorfenapyr on the chlorfenapyr-exposed DBM individuals and their unexposed F₁ and F₂ offspring were investigated in order to reveal the non-lethal deleterious effects of chlorfenapyr and its potential hormetic effects.

RESULTS

LC₁ significantly increased female pupa weight of F₀ and F₁ generations, and F₀ fecundity as well as F₁ gross reproduction rate (GRR). The LC₁ -elicited rise in emergency rate and fecundity was significantly greater in F₀ than in F₁ . By contrast, LC₃₀ significantly decreased age-specific survival rates, pupation rate, male pupal weight, emergence rate and fecundity of F₀ and F₁ generations as well as female adult proportion and GRR, net reproduction rate (R₀ ), intrinsic rate of increase (r_m ) and finite rate of increase (λ) of F₁ generation. The LC₃₀ -induced reductions in pupation rate, adult emergence rate, male and female pupa weight, and fecundity were greater in F₁ than in F₀ . While LC₁₀ elicited only a mild inhibition (extension of pupal duration) in F₀ , it yielded both deleterious (drops in female proportion and age-specific survivals) and hormetic effects (ups in male longevity and female fecundity) in F₁ .

CONCLUSION

The results demonstrate that the sublethal effects of chlorfenapyr on DBM vary from inhibition to stimulatory hormesis, depending on the dose and generation. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Sublethal Effects of Thiamethoxam on Biological Traits and Detoxification Enzyme Activities in the Small Brown Planthopper, Laodelphax striatellus (Fallén)

The small brown planthopper (Laodelphax striatellus (Fallén), Hemiptera: Delphacidae), is an important agricultural pest of rice, and neonicotinoid insecticides are commonly used for controlling L. striatellus. However, the sublethal effects of thiamethoxam on L. striatellus remain relatively unknown. In this study, an age-stage life table procedure was used to evaluate the sublethal effects of thiamethoxam on the biological parameters of L. striatellus. Additionally, activities of carboxylesterase, glutathione S-transferase, and cytochrome P450 monooxygenase in the third instar nymphs were analyzed. The results indicated that the survival time of F0 adults and the fecundity of female adults decreased significantly after the third instar nymphs were treated with sublethal concentrations of thiamethoxam (LC15 0.428 mg/liter and LC30 0.820 mg/liter). The developmental duration, adult preoviposition period, total preoviposition period, and mean generation time of the F1 generation increased significantly, whereas the fecundity of the female adults, intrinsic rate of increase (ri), and finite rate of increase (λ) decreased significantly. The oviposition period was significantly shorter for the insects treated with LC30 than for the control insects. Neither sublethal concentrations had significant effects on the adult longevity, net reproduction rate (R0), or gross reproduction rate (GRR) of the F1 generation. The activities of carboxylesterase, glutathione-S-transferase, and cytochrome P450 monooxygenase increased significantly after the thiamethoxam treatments. These results indicate that sublethal concentrations of thiamethoxam can inhibit L. striatellus population growth and enhance detoxification enzyme activities.

The Synergistic Effect of Thiamethoxam and Synapsin dsRNA Targets Neurotransmission to Induce Mortality in Aphis gossypii

Sublethal doses of insecticides have many impacts on pest control and agroecosystems. Insects that survive a sublethal dose of insecticide could adapt their physiological and behavioral functions and resist this environmental stress, which contributes to the challenge of pest management. In this study, the sublethal effects of thiamethoxam on gene expression were measured through RNA sequencing in the melon aphid Aphis gossypii. Genes regulating energy production were downregulated, while genes related to neural function were upregulated. To further address the function of genes related to neurotransmission, RNA interference (RNAi) was implemented by transdermal delivery of dsRNA targeting synapsin (syn), a gene regulating presynaptic vesicle clustering. The gene expression of synapsin was knocked down and the mortality of aphids was increased significantly over the duration of the assay. Co-delivery of syn-dsRNA and thiamethoxam reversed the upregulation of synapsin caused by low-dose thiamethoxam and resulted in lethality to melon aphids, suggesting that the decreased presynaptic function may contribute to this synergistic lethal effect. In addition, the nanocarrier star polycation, which could bind both dsRNA and thiamethoxam, greatly improved the efficacy of lethality. These results increase our knowledge of the gene regulation induced by sublethal exposure to neonicotinoids and indicated that synapsin could be a potential RNAi target for resistance management of the melon aphid.

Insecticide resistance in Australian Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E. Smith) and development of testing procedures for resistance surveillance

Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E. Smith) is a highly invasive noctuid pest first reported in northern Australia during early 2020. To document current status of resistance in S. frugiperda in Australia, insecticide toxicity was tested in field populations collected during the first year of establishment, between March 2020 and March 2021. Dose-response was measured by larval bioassay in 11 populations of S. frugiperda and a susceptible laboratory strain of Helicoverpa armigera. Emamectin benzoate was the most efficacious insecticide (LC50 0.023μg/ml) followed by chlorantraniliprole (LC50 0.055μg/ml), spinetoram (LC50 0.098μg/ml), spinosad (LC50 0.526μg/ml), and methoxyfenozide (1.413μg/ml). Indoxacarb was the least toxic selective insecticide on S. frugiperda (LC50 3.789μg/ml). Emamectin benzoate, chlorantraniliprole and methoxyfenozide were 2- to 7-fold less toxic on S. frugiperda compared with H. armigera while spinosyns were equally toxic on both species. Indoxacarb was 28-fold less toxic on S. frugiperda compared with H. armigera. There was decreased sensitivity to Group 1 insecticides and synthetic pyrethroids in S. frugiperda compared with H. armigera: toxicity was reduced up to 11-fold for methomyl, 56 to 199-fold for cyhalothrin, and 44 to 132-fold for alpha cypermethrin. Synergism bioassays with metabolic inhibitors suggest involvement of mixed function oxidase in pyrethroid resistance. Recommended diagnostic doses for emamectin benzoate, chlorantraniliprole, spinetoram, spinosad, methoxyfenozide and indoxacarb are 0.19, 1.0, 0.75, 6, 12 and 48μg/μl, respectively.

Are Pesticides Used to Control Thrips Harmonious with Soil-Dwelling Predatory Mite Cosmolaelaps sabelis (Mesostigmata: Laelapidae)?

Edaphic predatory mites could be introduced in pest management programs of pests that live, or spend part of their life cycle, in the soil. Some mesostigmatic mites have been widely used for the management of different species of thrips (Thysanoptera), especially in protected cultivation. The edaphic predator Cosmolaelaps sabelis (Mesostigmata: Laelapidae) was a model species in this study, being exposed to the most applied insecticides for the control of thrips in Brazil. After lethal, sublethal and transgenerational effects were evaluated. The pesticides acephate, acetamiprid + etofenprox, azadirachtin, spinetoram, formetanate hydrochloride, and imidacloprid were classified according to the IOBC/WPRS (International Organization for Biological Control-West Paleartic Regional Section) recommendation, considering the acute toxicity and the effects on adult females' reproduction, in the maternal and first generation. The pesticides acetamiprid + etofenprox and azadirachtin were classified as slightly harmful (Class 2), while spinetoram was classified as moderately harmful (Class 3). Acephate and formetanate hydrochloride were classified as harmful (Class 4). Only imidacloprid didn't cause negative effects on the females. Regarding effects on the first generation, acetamiprid + etofenprox, azadirachtin, and spinetoram caused reduction in the oviposition rates. Therefore, we suggest that complimentary bioassays should be done under semi-field and field conditions using the pesticides that were considered harmful in this study, to assess their effects on this predator in other environments prior to recommending not to use them in integrated programs to manage soil-based pests using chemical and biological tools.

Operant conditioning in antlion larvae and its impairment following exposure to elevated temperatures

Although ambush predators were previously considered limited in their cognitive abilities compared to their widely foraging relatives, there is accumulating evidence it does not hold true. Pit-building antlions are already known to associate vibrations in the sand with the arrival of prey. We used a T-maze and successfully trained antlions to turn right or left against their initial turning bias, leading to a suitable substrate for digging traps. We present here the first evidence for operant conditioning and T-maze solving in antlions. Furthermore, we show that exposure of second instar larvae to an elevated temperature led to impaired retention of what was learned in a T-maze when tested after moulting into the third instar, compared to larvae raised under a more benign temperature. We suggest that climate change, involving an increase in mean temperatures as well as rare events (e.g., heatwaves) might negatively affect the retention of operant conditioning in antlions, alongside known, more frequently studied effects, such as changes in body size and distribution.

Neonicotinoid Exposures that Stimulate Predatory Stink Bug, Podisus maculiventris (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae), Reproduction Do Not Inhibit Its Behavior

Exposure to sublethal amounts of pesticide can compromise life-history traits and behavior of natural enemies thereby reducing their effectiveness as predators. However, sublethal exposures to pesticides and other stressors may also stimulate insects, a dose-response phenomenon known as hormesis. We previously reported stimulatory effects on reproduction in the beneficial insect predator Podisus maculiventris (Say) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) following exposure to sublethal concentrations of imidacloprid. Here we examined whether these same treatments stimulated behavior and/or predation of P. maculiventris. Stimulation of some behaviors occurred at a reproductively hormetic concentration and two additional sublethal concentrations, depending upon bioassay design and sex. We observed no substantial inhibition of behavior or predation at a reproductively hormetic concentration, demonstrating that reproductive fitness in P. maculiventris may be stimulated without compromising behaviors important in its effectiveness as a natural enemy.

Survival, development and reproduction of Harmonia axyridis (Pallas, 1773) (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) under effects of insecticides used in tomato plants

Agriculture depends on the correct use of different methods for pest control, however the cultivation methods adopted for Solanaceae demands numerous pesticide applications. These products can be either harmful or selective to beneficial organisms, such as Coccinellidae predators. The aim of this study was to assess the physiological selectivity of insecticides, registered for tomato pest control, on Harmonia axyridis (Pallas, 1773) (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae). The maximum recommended field dosage of the insecticides spinetoram, spiromesifen, methoxyfenozide, metaflumizone, tebufenozide and methomyl was used. They were sprayed on eggs, third instar larvae, pupae and adults of H. axyridis using Potter´s tower; control treatment consisted of water. Methoxyfenozide didn't reduce any biological feature of the predator. Spiromesifen only reduced survival over time when sprayed on third instar larvae. Spinetoram shortened larval period and reduced survival of adults. When sprayed on larvae, metaflumizone reduced larval survival. Tebufenozide reduced egg viability, pupal period and larval survival over time. It is concluded that methoxyfenozide, spiromesifen and spinetoram are the least toxic to H. axyridis, and their usage should be prioritized in integrated pest management (IPM) programs; both tebufenozide and metaflumizone are harmful to some important biological features of the predator. Methomyl is highly toxic in controlled conditions, so its toxicity to H. axyridis should be confirmed in field and greenhouse tests, we also suggest further studies with the other compounds in different concentration and route of exposure.

Low Doses of a Neonicotinoid Stimulate Reproduction in a Beneficial Predatory Insect

Biological stimulation induced by low doses of toxicants or other stressors is known as hormesis. Hormetic stimulation of life history traits in insect pests can negatively impact agriculture, but stimulation of beneficial insects could be leveraged to enhance biological control agents. We examined whether low doses of imidacloprid could enhance oviposition, fecundity, fertility, and survival in the beneficial stink bug predator, Podisus maculiventris (Say) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae), exposed at different life stages and across two generations. When treated as young adults, P. maculiventris fecundity was stimulated at 0.5 and 1.0 mg/liter imidacloprid (<2% of the field rate) without changes in time to oviposition, fertility, and survival. Nymphs exposed to 0.015 mg/liter imidacloprid (<1% of the field rate) also had stimulated reproduction without effects on oviposition, fertility, and survival, but treatment of nymphs at 0.15 and 1.5 mg/liter imidacloprid stimulated fecundity at the expense of fertility and survival. In another experiment we found reproductive stimulation can occur trans-generationally without major reduction in fertility or survival. Our results suggest biocontrol producers may be able to strategically apply low doses of stress to natural enemies during culturing without compromising fitness in subsequent generations.

The Role of Fumonisins in the Biological Interaction between Fusarium verticillioides and Sitophilus zeamais

The aim of the current study was to investigate the entomopathogenic capacity of the mold Fusarium verticillioides and the effect of its mycotoxins fumonisins, on the grain beetle Sitophilus zeamais. We evaluated the capacity of this fungus to infect live insects, the antifungal activity of constituents of the insect's epicuticle, and the effect of a fumonisin extract on the fitness of the insects. We found that F. verticillioides could not penetrate the cuticle of S. zeamais and that the fumonisin extract had no negative effects on the fitness of the insects. However, the progeny of the insects increased, and the fumonisin extract had repellent effects. This is the first report about the effects of fumonisins on the relationship between F. verticillioides and S. zeamais, which may provide useful information about interactions between pathogenic microorganisms and insects, especially on stored product pests.

Low herbicide doses can change the responses of weeds to subsequent treatments in the next generation: metamitron exposed PSII-target-site resistant Chenopodium album as a case study

BACKGROUND

It is well known that exposure to mild stress can precondition organisms to better tolerate subsequent stress exposure in the same or future generations. Since herbicide hormesis also represents a moderate stress to exposed plants, a transgenerational priming is likely but not proven. Especially in herbicide-resistant weeds showing enhanced reproductive fitness after regular herbicide treatments, the ability to induce resilient offspring phenotypes via hormesis may hasten the evolution of herbicide resistance in weeds. This hypothesis was studied for the triazinone metamitron in an F1 offspring generation of PSII target-site resistant (TSR) plants of Chenopodium album propagated after parental conditioning with various metamitron doses.

RESULTS

In two independent dose-response greenhouse trials, there was a positive correlation between the strength of the stimulatory response during parental preconditioning and the magnitude of transgenerational changes in herbicide sensitivity and hormesis expression. Parental conditioning at subhormetic and toxic concentrations lead to less resilient offspring, while conditioning doses that induced a pronounced hormetic effect in F0 plants had a sensitivity-reducing and hormesis-promoting effect on the offspring. The observed reduction in sensitivity in F1 plants compared to unconditioned F1 plants was up to 2.2-fold.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrates that hormetic herbicide treatments have the ability to prime weeds for enhanced tolerance to subsequent treatments in the next generation. Effects proved dose sensitive and may act in concert with other stimulatory adaptations in plant populations. This is relevant for weed control and herbicide resistance evolution, but also for herbicide side-effects that go beyond the exposed area. © 2020 The Author. Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Rapid cold hardening: ecological relevance, physiological mechanisms and new perspectives

Rapid cold hardening (RCH) is a type of phenotypic plasticity that allows ectotherms to quickly enhance cold tolerance in response to brief chilling (lasting minutes to hours). In this Review, we summarize the current state of knowledge of this important phenotype and provide new directions for research. As one of the fastest adaptive responses to temperature known, RCH allows ectotherms to cope with sudden cold snaps and to optimize their performance during diurnal cooling cycles. RCH and similar phenotypes have been observed across a diversity of ectotherms, including crustaceans, terrestrial arthropods, amphibians, reptiles, and fish. In addition to its well-defined role in enhancing survival to extreme cold, RCH also protects against nonlethal cold injury by preserving essential functions following cold stress, such as locomotion, reproduction, and energy balance. The capacity for RCH varies across species and across genotypes of the same species, indicating that RCH can be shaped by selection and is likely favored in thermally variable environments. Mechanistically, RCH is distinct from other rapid stress responses in that it typically does not involve synthesis of new gene products; rather, the existing cellular machinery regulates RCH through post-translational signaling mechanisms. However, the protective mechanisms that enhance cold hardiness are largely unknown. We provide evidence that RCH can be induced by multiple triggers in addition to low temperature, and that rapidly induced tolerance and cross-tolerance to a variety of environmental stressors may be a general feature of stress responses that requires further investigation.

Larval development and proteolytic activity of Anticarsia gemmatalis Hübner (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) exposed to different soybean protease inhibitors

Anticarsia gemmatalis represents a relevant factor for lowering soybean and other legume crop productivities. Protease inhibitors affect protein degradation and reduce the availability of amino acids, impairing the development and survival of insect pests. To evaluate the possible use of proteinaceous protease inhibitors in the management of this pest, the activities of midgut proteases and the growth and development of A. gemmatalis larvae exposed to soybean Bowman-Birk trypsin-chymotrypsin inhibitor (SBBI) and soybean Kunitz trypsin inhibitor (SKTI) were determined. The survival curves obtained using Kaplan-Meier estimators indicated that SKTI and SBBI stimulated larval survival. However, the development of A. gemmatalis was delayed, and prepupal weight decreased in the presence of both inhibitors. The results showed that SKTI and SBBI inhibited the trypsin-like and total proteolytic activities of larvae on the 12th day after eclosion. On the 15th day after eclosion, larvae exposed to SKTI increased the activities of trypsin and total proteases. Although SKTI and SBBI did not affect the survival of the insect, they had effects on midgut proteases in a stage wherein A. gemmatalis fed voraciously, increased the larval cycle, and decreased prepupal weight. These findings provide baseline information about the potential of proteinaceous protease inhibitors to manage the velvetbean caterpillar, avoiding chemical pesticides.

Increased fecundity of Aphis fabae on Vicia faba plants following seed or leaf inoculation with the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana

Since the discovery that entomopathogenic fungi can live inside plants as endophytes, researchers have been trying to understand how this affects mainly plants and herbivores. We studied how inoculation of Vicia faba L. (Fabales: Fabaceae) plants with Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo-Crivelli) Vuillemin (Ascomycota: Hypocreales) (strain GHA) either via the seeds or leaves influenced the nymph production of two successive generations of Aphis fabae Scopoli (Hemiptera: Aphididae). While we did not find any difference in nymph production for the first generation of aphids, second-generation aphids on both seed- and spray inoculated plants produced significantly higher numbers of nymphs than aphids on uninoculated plants. This emphasizes the importance of two (or multi-) generational experimentation. Beauveria bassiana was recovered from 26.0, 68.8 and 6.3% of respectively seed-, spray inoculated and control plants, thus, demonstrating its ability to live as an endophyte in V. faba. The confirmation that plants inoculated with entomopathogenic fungi can have a positive effect on pest insects makes careful consideration of these multi-trophic interactions imperative.

The two faces of nanomaterials: A quantification of hormesis in algae and plants

The rapid progress in nanotechnology has dramatically promoted the application of engineered nanomaterials in numerous sectors. The wide application of nanomaterials and the potential accumulation in the environment sparked interest in studying the effects of nanomaterials on algae and plants. Hormesis is a dose response phenomenon characterized by a biphasic dose response with a low dose stimulation and a high dose inhibition. This paper quantifies for the first time nanomaterial-induced hormesis in algae and plants. Five hundred hormetic concentration-response relationships were mined from the published literature. The median maximum stimulatory response (MAX) was 123%, and commonly below 200%, of control response. It was also lower in algae than in plants, and occurred commonly at concentrations <100 mg L^-1. The no-observed-adverse-effect-level (NOAEL) to MAX ratio was 2.4 for algae and 1.7 for plants, and the two distributions differed significantly. Ag nanoparticles induced higher MAX than TiO₂ and ZnO nanoparticles. The MAX varied upon nanomaterial application methods, growth stage of application (seed versus vegetative), type of endpoint and time window. While nanomaterial size did not affect significantly the MAX, sizes ≤50 nm appeared to have lower NOAEL:MAX ratio than sizes ≥100 nm, suggesting higher risks from incorrect application. The mechanisms underlying nanomaterial-induced hormetic concentration responses are discussed. This paper provides a strong foundation for enhancing research protocols of studies on nanomaterial effects on algae and plants as well as for incorporating hormesis into the risk assessment practices.

Prey Foraging Under Sublethal Lambda-Cyhalothrin Exposure on Pyrethroid-Susceptible and -Resistant Lady Beetles (Eriopis connexa (Coleoptera: Coccinelidae))

Sublethal insecticide exposure may affect foraging of insects, including natural enemies, although the subject is usually neglected. The lady beetle Eriopis connexa (Germar, 1824) (Coleoptera: Coccinelidae) is an important predator of aphids with existing pyrethroid-resistant populations that are undergoing scrutiny for potential use in pest management systems characterized by frequent insecticide use. However, the potential effect of sublethal pyrethroid exposure on this predator's foraging activity has not yet been assessed and may compromise its use in biological control. Therefore, our objective was to assess the effect of sublethal lambda-cyhalothrin exposure on three components of the prey foraging activity (i.e., walking, and prey searching and handling), in both pyrethroid-susceptible and -resistant adults of E. connexa. Both lady beetle populations exhibited similar walking patterns without insecticide exposure in noncontaminated arenas, but in partially contaminated arenas walking differed between strains, such that the resistant insects exhibited greater walking activity. Behavioral avoidance expressed as repellence to lambda-cyhalothrin was not observed for either the susceptible or resistant populations of E. connexa, but the insecticide caused avoidance by means of inducing irritability in 40% of the individuals, irrespective of the strain. Insects remained in the insecticide-contaminated portion of the arena for extended periods resulting in greater exposure. Although lambda-cyhalothrin exposure did not affect prey searching by susceptible lady beetles, prey searching was extended for exposed resistant predators. In contrast, prey handling was not affected by population or by lambda-cyhalothrin exposure. Thus, sublethal exposure to the insecticide in conjunction with the insect resistance profile can affect prey foraging with pyrethroid-exposed resistant predators exhibiting longer prey searching time associated with higher walking activity reducing its predatory performance.