Facile Preparation of Well-Defined AB2 Y-Shaped Miktoarm Star Polypeptide Copolymer via the Combination of Ring-Opening Polymerization and Click Chemistry

Self-Assembly of Poly(Amino Acid)s Mediated by Secondary Conformations

Self-assembly of block copolymers has recently drawn great attention due to its remarkable performance and wide variety of applications in biomedicine, biomaterials, microelectronics, photoelectric materials, catalysts, etc. Poly(amino acid)s (PAAs), formed by introducing synthetic amino acids into copolymer backbones, are able to fold into different secondary conformations when compared with traditional amphiphilic copolymers. Apart from changing the chemical composition and degree of polymerization of copolymers, the self-assembly behaviors of PAAs could be controlled by their secondary conformations, which are more flexible and adjustable for fine structure tailoring. In this article, we summarize the latest findings on the variables that influence secondary conformations, in particular the regulation of order-to-order conformational changes and the approaches used to manage the self-assembly behaviors of PAAs. These strategies include controlling pH, redox reactions, coordination, light, temperature, and so on. Hopefully, we can provide valuable perspectives that will be useful for the future development and use of synthetic PAAs.

Double hydrophilic copolymers - synthetic approaches, architectural variety, and current application fields

Solubility and functionality of polymeric materials are essential properties determining their role in any application. In that regard, double hydrophilic copolymers (DHC) are typically constructed from two chemically dissimilar but water-soluble building blocks. During the past decades, these materials have been intensely developed and utilised as, e.g., matrices for the design of multifunctional hybrid materials, in drug carriers and gene delivery, as nanoreactors, or as sensors. This is predominantly due to almost unlimited possibilities to precisely tune DHC composition and topology, their solution behavior, e.g., stimuli-response, and potential interactions with small molecules, ions and (nanoparticle) surfaces. In this contribution we want to highlight that this class of polymers has experienced tremendous progress regarding synthesis, architectural variety, and the possibility to combine response to different stimuli within one material. Especially the implementation of DHCs as versatile building blocks in hybrid materials expanded the range of water-based applications during the last two decades, which now includes also photocatalysis, sensing, and 3D inkjet printing of hydrogels, definitely going beyond already well-established utilisation in biomedicine or as templates.

The Structure-Self-Assembly Relationship in PDMAEMA/Polyester Miktoarm Stars

Well-defined miktoarm star-shaped polymers based on heterofunctional glucose derivative initiator, N,N’-dimethylaminoethyl methacrylate (DMAEMA) and various cyclic esters, such as ε-caprolactone (CL), lactide (LA), glycolide (GA), were obtained by combining atom...

Semiflexible polymer scaffolds: an overview of conjugation strategies

Semiflexible polymers are excellent scaffolds for the presentation of a wide variety of (bio)molecules. This manuscript reviews advantages and challenges of the most common conjugation strategies for the major classes of semiflexible polymers.

Responsive Polymers as Smart Nanomaterials Enable Diverse Applications

Responsive polymers undergo reversible or irreversible physical or chemical modifications in response to a change in environment or stimulus, e.g., temperature, pH, light, and magnetic or electric fields. Polymeric nanoparticles (NPs), which constitute a diverse set of morphologies, including micelles, vesicles, and core-shell geometries, have been successfully prepared from responsive polymers and have shown great promise in applications ranging from drug delivery to catalysis. In this review, we summarize pH, thermo-, photo-, and enzymatic responsiveness for a selection of polymers. We then discuss the formation of NPs made from responsive polymers. Finally, we highlight how NPs and other nanomaterials are enabling a wide range of smart applications with improved efficiency, as well as improved sustainability and recyclability of polymeric systems.

Enzyme triggered disassembly of amphiphilic linear-dendritic block copolymer micelles based on poly[N-(2-hydroxyethyl-l-glutamine)]

New amphiphilic linear-dendritic diblock copolymers based on poly[N-(2-hydroxyethyl-l-glutamine)] have been synthesized, and their micellar assemblies can disassemble and release encapsulated molecular cargo upon enzymatic activation.

Stepwise dual pH and redox-responsive cross-linked polypeptide nanoparticles for enhanced cellular uptake and effective cancer therapy

The systemic toxicity, reduced cellular internalization, and uncontrollable intracellular drug release of smart nanoparticles (NPs) still need to be overcome for effective cancer therapy.

Synthesis of μ-ABC Tricyclic Miktoarm Star Polymer via Intramolecular Click Cyclization

Cyclic polymers exhibit unique physical and chemical properties because of the restricted chain mobility and absence of chain ends. Although many types of homopolymers and diblock copolymers possessing cyclic architectures have been synthesized to date, there are relatively few reports of cyclic triblock terpolymers because of their synthetic difficulties. In this study, a novel synthetic approach for μ-ABC tricyclic miktoarm star polymers involving t-Bu-P₄-catalyzed ring-opening polymerization (ROP) of glycidyl ethers and intramolecular copper-catalyzed azido-alkyne cycloaddition (CuAAC) was developed. First, the t-Bu-P₄-catalyzed ROP of decyl glycidyl ether, dec-9-enyl glycidyl ether, and 2-(2-(2-methoxyethoxy) ethoxy) ethyl glycidyl ether with the aid of functional initiators and terminators was employed for the preparation of a clickable linear triblock terpolymer precursor possessing three azido and three ethynyl groups at the selected positions. Next, the intramolecular CuAAC of the linear precursor successfully produced the well-defined tricyclic triblock terpolymer with narrow dispersity in a reasonable yield. The present strategy is useful for synthesizing model polymers for studying the topological effects on the triblock terpolymer self-assembly.

Precise Synthesis, Properties, and Structures of Cyclic Poly(ε-caprolactone)s

Cyclic PCL (c-PCL) has drawn great attention from academia and industry because of its unique, unusual structure and property characteristics due to the absence of end groups in addition to the biocompatibility and biodegradability of its linear analogue. As a result of much research effort, several synthetic methods have been developed to produce c-PCLs so far. Their chain, morphology and property characteristics were investigated even though carried out on a very limited basis. This feature article reviews the research progress made in the synthesis, morphology, and properties of c-PCL; all results and their pros and cons are discussed in terms of purity and molecular weight distribution in addition to the cyclic topology effect. In addition, we attempted to synthesize a series of c-PCL products of high purity by using intramolecular azido-alkynyl click cyclization chemistry and subsequent precise and controlled separation and purification; and their thermal degradation and phase transitions were investigated in terms of the cyclic topology effect.

Gold Nanoparticles Grafted with PLL-b-PNIPAM: Interplay on Thermal/pH Dual-Response and Optical Properties

Narrowly distributed poly(l-lysine-b-N-isopropylacrylamide) (PLL-b-PNIPAM) was prepared through ring-opening polymerization of ε-benzyloxycarbonyl-l-lysine N-carboxy-α-amino anhydride and atom transfer radical polymerization of NIPAM, followed with the removal of ε-benzyloxycarbonyl group. Then gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) grafted with PLL-b-PNIPAM (PNIPAM-PLL-AuNPs) were obtained by the reduction of chloroauric acid with sodium citrate in the presence of PLL-b-PNIPAM. PNIPAM-PLL-AuNPs and its precursors were thoroughly characterized by proton magnetic resonance spectroscope, Fourier transform infrared spectroscope, UV-vis spectroscope, transmission electron microscopy, dynamic light scattering, thermogravimetric analysis, and circular dichroism. The obtained PNIPAM-PLL-AuNPs exhibited high colloid stability even at strong alkaline (pH = 12) and acidic (pH = 2) conditions. The thermal and pH dual-responsive behaviors of the grafting PLL-b-PNIPAM chains was observed to be affected by AuNPs, while not for the secondary structure of PLL chains. Correspondingly, the surface plasmon resonance (SPR) of AuNPs was found to be sensitive to both pH value and temperature. A blue shift in the SPR happened both with increasing pH value and increasing temperature. The stimuli-response was reversible in heating-cooling cycles. The gold nanoparticles with both pH and temperature response may have potential applications in biomedical areas and biosensors.

Zwitterionic polypeptides bearing carboxybetaine and sulfobetaine: synthesis, self-assembly, and their interactions with proteins

Zwitterionic polypeptides bearing carboxybetaine and sulfobetaine were synthesized and their self-assembly and protein interactions were evaluated.

pH-Responsive polymers

This review summarizes pH-responsive monomers, polymers and their derivative nano- and micro-structures including micelles, cross-linked micelles, microgels and hydrogels.

Schizophrenic poly(ε-caprolactone)s: synthesis, self-assembly and fluorescent decoration

Double hydrophilic copolymers PCCL-b-PPIL and their pyrene-modified copolymers showed pH-responsive “schizophrenic” aggregation behaviors.

Orthogonally reactive amino acids and end groups in NCA polymerization

We summarize recent strategies for the synthesis of orthogonally reactive polypeptides and polypeptoids by direct and post-polymerization approaches.

Janus long-chain hyperbranched copolymers of PSt and POEGMA from a self-assembly mediated click reaction

A Janus hyperbranched POEGMA/PSt copolymer with long sub-chains was prepared through a self-assembly mediated click reaction in selective solvents.

Synthesis of Y-shaped amphiphilic copolymers by macromolecular azo coupling reaction

The synthesis of well-defined AB₂ Y-shaped amphiphilic block copolymers by macromolecular azo coupling reaction is reported.

Supramolecular self-assembly of novel thermo-responsive double-hydrophilic and hydrophobic Y-shaped [MPEO-b-PEtOx-b-(PCL)2] terpolymers

Nonlinear amphiphilic block copolymer architectures with precisely controlled structures bring new challenges to biomedical materials research.

Dual responsive macroemulsion stabilized by Y-shaped amphiphilic AB2 miktoarm star copolymers

Y-shaped amphiphilic PS–(PDMAEMA)₂ miktoarm star copolymers stabilized o/w macroemulsion showed pH-induced demulsification and thermo-induced phase inversion.

PNIPAM-based heteroarm star-graft quarterpolymers: synthesis, characterization and pH-dependent thermoresponsiveness in aqueous media

We report the design of PS_n(P2VP-b-PAA-g-PNIPAM)_n heteroarm star-graft quarterpolymers, the thermoresponsiveness of which is strongly dependent on pH ionic strength, and their macromolecular features, e.g. arm number and grafting density.

Cyclodextrin-tunable reversible self-assembly of a thermoresponsive Y-shaped polymer

The reversible self-assembly behavior of thermoresponsive γ-shaped polymer can be effectively tuned based on the inclusion complexation, intermolecular hydrogen bonding and steric hindrance of β-CD.

Shell and core cross-linked poly(L-lysine)/poly(acrylic acid) complex micelles

We report the versatility of polyion complex (PIC) micelles for the preparation of shell and core cross-linked (SCL and CCL) micelles with their surface properties determined by the constituent polymer composition and cross-linking agent. The negatively and positively charged PIC micelles with their molecular structure and properties depending on the mixing weight percentage and polymer molecular weight were first prepared by mixing the negatively and positively charged polyions, poly(acrylic acid) (PAA) and poly(L-lysine) (PLL). The feasibility of preparing SCL micelles was demonstrated by cross-linking the shell of the negatively and positively charged micelles using cystamine and genipin, respectively. The core of the micelles can be cross-linked by silica deposition to stabilize the assemblies. The shell and/or core cross-linked micelles exhibited excellent colloid stability upon changing solution pH. The drug release from the drug-loaded SCL micelles revealed that the controllable permeability of the SCL micelles can be achieved by tuning the cross-linking degree and the SCL micelles exhibited noticeable pH-responsive behavior with accelerated release under acidic conditions. With the versatility of cross-linking strategies, it is possible to prepare a variety of SCL and CCL micelles from PIC micelles.

Self-Assembled Micelles Composed of Doxorubicin Conjugated Y-Shaped PEG-Poly(glutamic acid)2 Copolymers via Hydrazone Linkers

In this work, micelles composed of doxorubicin-conjugated Y-shaped copolymers (YMs) linked via an acid-labile linker were constructed. Y-shaped copolymers of mPEG-b-poly(glutamate-hydrazone-doxorubicin)₂ and linear copolymers of mPEG-b-poly(glutamate-hydrazone-doxorubicin) were synthesized and characterized. Particle size, size distribution, morphology, drug loading content (DLC) and drug release of the micelles were determined. Alterations in size and DLC of the micelles could be achieved by varying the hydrophobic block lengths. Moreover, at fixed DLCs, YMs showed a smaller diameter than micelles composed of linear copolymers (LMs). Also, all prepared micelles showed sustained release behaviors under physiological conditions over 72 h. DOX loaded in YMs was released more completely, with 30% more drug released in acid. The anti-tumor efficacy of the micelles against HeLa cells was evaluated by MTT assays, and YMs exhibited stronger cytotoxic effects than LMs in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Cellular uptake studied by CLSM indicated that YMs and LMs were readily taken up by HeLa cells. According to the results of this study, doxorubicin-conjugated Y-shaped PEG-(polypeptide)₂ copolymers showed advantages over linear copolymers, like assembling into smaller nanoparticles, faster drug release in acid, which may correspond to higher cellular uptake and enhanced extracellular/intracellular drug release, indicating their potential in constructing nano-sized drug delivery systems.

Self-Assembly of Hybridized Peptide Nucleic Acid Amphiphiles

In this report, a series of peptide nucleic acid amphiphiles (PNAAs) with hybridization properties were designed and synthesized. Driven by hydrophobic interaction, the hybridized PNAAs can form uniform micelles, the base stacking interaction from PNA segments further stabilized the micelles. The effects of hydrophobic alkyl chain length, structure of hydrophilic peptides, concentration, and pH on the self-assembly behavior of partly complementing PNAA duplexes were explored.

Synthesis and characterization of thermally cured polytriazole polymers incorporating main or side chain benzoxazine crosslinking moieties

Effect of the position of benzoxazine cross-linker on the thermal and mechanical properties of polymers.

How does a tiny terminal alkynyl end group drive fully hydrophilic homopolymers to self-assemble into multicompartment vesicles and flower-like complex particles?

We report an unusual self-assembly behavior driven by a tiny terminal alkynyl end group in fully hydrophilic homopolymers which form multicompartment vesicles and flower-like nanoparticles in aqueous solution.

Effects of cholesterol incorporation on the physicochemical, colloidal, and biological characteristics of pH-sensitive AB₂ miktoarm polymer-based polymersomes

In our previous study, a histidine-based AB2 miktoarm polymer, methoxy poly(ethylene glycol)-b-poly(l-histidine)2 (mPEG-b-(PolyHis)2), was designed to construct pH-sensitive polymersomes that transform in acidic pH; the polymer self-assembles into a structure that mimics phospholipids. In this study, the polymersomes further imitated liposomes due to the incorporation of cholesterol (CL). The hydrodynamic radii of the polymersomes increased with increasing CLwt% (e.g., 70 nm for 0 wt% vs. 91 nm for 1 wt%), resulting in an increased capacity for encapsulating hydrophilic drugs (e.g., 0.92 μL/mg for 0 wt% vs. 1.42 μL/mg for 1 wt%). The CL incorporation enhanced the colloidal stability of the polymersomes in the presence of serum protein and retarded their payload release. However, CL-incorporating polymersomes still demonstrated accelerated release of a hydrophilic dye (e.g., 5(6)-carboxyfluorescein (CF)) below pH 6.8 without losing their desirable pH sensitivity. CF-loaded CL-incorporating polymersomes showed better cellular internalization than the hydrophilic CF, whereas doxorubicin (DOX)-loaded CL-incorporating polymersomes presented similar or somewhat lower anti-tumor effects than free hydrophobic DOX. The findings suggest that CL-incorporating mPEG-b-(PolyHis)2-based polymersomes may have potential for intracellular drug delivery of chemical drugs due to their improved colloidal stability, lower drug loss during circulation, acidic pH-induced drug release, and endosomal disruption.

Preparation and characterization of bimodal porous poly(γ-benzyl-L-glutamate) scaffolds for bone tissue engineering

An ideal scaffold in bone tissue-engineering strategy should provide biomimetic extracellular matrix-like architecture and biological properties. Poly(γ-benzyl-L-glutamate) (PBLG) has been a popular model polypeptide for various potential biomedical applications due to its good biocompatibility and biodegradability. This study developed novel bimodal porous PBLG polypeptide scaffolds via a combination of biotemplating method and in situ ring-opening polymerization of γ-benzyl-L-gIutamate N-carboxyanhydride (BLG-NCA). The PBLG scaffolds were characterized by proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, differential scanning calorimetry, scanning electron microscope (SEM) and mechanical test. The results showed that the semi-crystalline PBLG scaffolds exhibited an anisotropic porous structure composed of honeycomb-like channels (100-200 μm in diameter) and micropores (5-20 μm), with a very high porosity of 97.4±1.6%. The compressive modulus and glass transition temperature were 402.8±20.6 kPa and 20.2°C, respectively. The in vitro biocompatibility evaluation with MC3T3-E1 cells using SEM, fluorescent staining and MTT assay revealed that the PBLG scaffolds had good biocompatibility and favored cell attachment, spread and proliferation. Therefore, the bimodal porous polypeptide scaffolds are promising for bone tissue engineering.