Unraveling the electronic structures of low-valent naphthalene and anthracene iron complexes: X-ray, spectroscopic, and density functional theory studies

Low-Valent Transition Metalate Anions in Synthesis, Small Molecule Activation, and Catalysis

This review surveys the synthesis and reactivity of low-oxidation state metalate anions of the d-block elements, with an emphasis on contributions reported between 2006 and 2022. Although the field has a long and rich history, the chemistry of transition metalate anions has been greatly enhanced in the last 15 years by the application of advanced concepts in complex synthesis and ligand design. In recent years, the potential of highly reactive metalate complexes in the fields of small molecule activation and homogeneous catalysis has become increasingly evident. Consequently, exciting applications in small molecule activation have been developed, including in catalytic transformations. This article intends to guide the reader through the fascinating world of low-valent transition metalates. The first part of the review describes the synthesis and reactivity of d-block metalates stabilized by an assortment of ligand frameworks, including carbonyls, isocyanides, alkenes and polyarenes, phosphines and phosphorus heterocycles, amides, and redox-active nitrogen-based ligands. Thereby, the reader will be familiarized with the impact of different ligand types on the physical and chemical properties of metalates. In addition, ion-pairing interactions and metal-metal bonding may have a dramatic influence on metalate structures and reactivities. The complex ramifications of these effects are examined in a separate section. The second part of the review is devoted to the reactivity of the metalates toward small inorganic molecules such as H2, N2, CO, CO2, P4 and related species. It is shown that the use of highly electron-rich and reactive metalates in small molecule activation translates into impressive catalytic properties in the hydrogenation of organic molecules and the reduction of N2, CO, and CO2. The results discussed in this review illustrate that the potential of transition metalate anions is increasingly being tapped for challenging catalytic processes with relevance to organic synthesis and energy conversion. Therefore, it is hoped that this review will serve as a useful resource to inspire further developments in this dynamic research field.

Di-tert-butyldiphosphatetrahedrane as a Source of 1,2-Diphosphacyclobutadiene Ligands

Reactions of di‐tert‐butyldiphosphatetrahedrane (1) with cycloocta‐1,5‐diene‐ or anthracene‐stabilised metalate anions of iron and cobalt consistently afford complexes of the rarely encountered 1,2‐diphosphacyclobutadiene ligand, which have previously been very challenging synthetic targets. The subsequent reactivity of 1,2‐diphosphacyclobutadiene cobaltates toward various electrophiles has also been investigated and is compared to reactions of related 1,3‐diphosphacyclobutadiene complexes. The results highlight the distinct reactivity of such isomeric species, showing that the 1,2‐isomers can act as precursors for previously unknown triphospholium ligands. The electronic structures of the new complexes were investigated by several methods, including NMR, EPR and Mößbauer spectroscopies as well as quantum chemical calculations.

Synthesis and Characterization of Bidentate Isonitrile Iron Complexes

The divalent iron complexes trans-[FeBr₂(BINC)₂], [Cp*FeCl(BINC)] (Cp* = Me₅C₅), and [FeBr₂(CNAr₃NC)₂] with the chelating bis(isonitrile) ligands BINC (bis(2-isocyanophenyl)phenylphosphonate) and CNAr₃NC (2,2″-diisocyano-3,5,3″,5"tetramethyl-1,1':3',1″-terphenyl) have been prepared and characterized. Their subsequent reduction yields the di- and trinuclear compounds [Fe₃(BINC)₆], [Cp*Fe(BINC)]₂, [Fe(CNAr₃NC)₂]₂, and [K(Et₂O)]₂[Fe(CNAr₃NC)₂]₂. The molecular structures of all new species were determined by X-ray crystallography and compared to those of related iron carbonyl complexes, demonstrating that the bidentate isonitrile ligands are capable surrogates for two CO ligands with only minimal distortion of the tetrahedral or octahedral geometry of the parent complexes. The complexes were further characterized by NMR and IR spectroscopy, and the electrochemical properties of selected compounds were analyzed by UV-vis-NIR spectroelectrochemistry.

Enhanced Fe-Centered Redox Flexibility in Fe-Ti Heterobimetallic Complexes

Previously, we reported the synthesis of Ti[N(o-(NCH₂P(ⁱPr)₂)C₆H₄)₃] and the Fe–Ti complex, FeTi[N(o-(NCH₂P(ⁱPr)₂)C₆H₄)₃], abbreviated as TiL (1), and FeTiL (2), respectively. Herein, we describe the synthesis and characterization of the complete redox families of the monometallic Ti and Fe–Ti compounds. Cyclic voltammetry studies on FeTiL reveal both reduction and oxidation processes at −2.16 and −1.36 V (versus Fc/Fc⁺), respectively. Two isostructural redox members, [FeTiL]⁺ and [FeTiL]⁻ (2^ox and 2^red, respectively) were synthesized and characterized, along with BrFeTiL (2-Br) and the monometallic [TiL]⁺ complex (1^ox). The solid-state structures of the [FeTiL]^+/0/– series feature short metal–metal bonds, ranging from 1.94–2.38 Å, which are all shorter than the sum of the Ti and Fe single-bond metallic radii (cf. 2.49 Å). To elucidate the bonding and electronic structures, the complexes were characterized with a host of spectroscopic methods, including NMR, EPR, and ⁵⁷Fe Mössbauer, as well as Ti and Fe K-edge X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS). These studies, along with hybrid density functional theory (DFT) and time-dependent DFT calculations, suggest that the redox processes in the isostructural [FeTiL]^+,0,– series are primarily Fe-based and that the polarized Fe–Ti π-bonds play a role in delocalizing some of the additional electron density from Fe to Ti (net 13%).

An isostructural redox series of Fe≡Ti complexes was investigated using a combination of spectroscopic methods and density functional theory to elucidate their electronic structures and to understand their polarized metal−metal bonding. Overall, the results support that the redox changes occur primarily at the Fe site though some electron density is delocalized to Ti. Hence, the Ti plays an important role in enhancing the redox flexibility of the single Fe site.

Ferrocenyl naphthalenes: substituent- and substitution pattern-depending charge transfer studies

The synthesis and characterisation of a series of ferrocenyl-functionalized naphthalenes is reported, whereby the electrochemical behaviour and charge transfer properties depend on the substitution pattern.

Synthesis, electronic structure and redox properties of the diruthenium sandwich complexes [Cp*Ru(μ-C10H8)RuCp*]x (x = 0, 1+; Cp* = C5Me5; C10H8 = naphthalene)

Strong electronic coupling was observed between the metal centers in a naphthalene-bridged diruthenium complex.

Alkene Metalates as Hydrogenation Catalysts

First-row transition-metal complexes hold great potential as catalysts for hydrogenations and related reductive reactions. Homo- and heteroleptic arene/alkene metalates(1-) (M=Co, Fe) are a structurally distinct catalyst class with good activities in hydrogenations of alkenes and alkynes. The first syntheses of the heteroleptic cobaltates [K([18]crown-6)][Co(η4 -cod)(η2 -styrene)2 ] (5) and [K([18]crown-6)][Co(η4 -dct)(η4 -cod)] (6), and the homoleptic complex [K(thf)2 ][Co(η4 -dct)2 ] (7; dct=dibenzo[a,e]cyclooctatetraene, cod=1,5-cyclooctadiene), are reported. For comparison, two cyclopentadienylferrates(1-) were synthesized according to literature procedures. The isolated and fully characterized monoanionic complexes were competent precatalysts in alkene hydrogenations under mild conditions (2 bar H2 , r.t., THF). Mechanistic studies by NMR spectroscopy, ESI mass spectrometry, and poisoning experiments documented the operation of a homogeneous mechanism, which was initiated by facile redox-neutral π-ligand exchange with the substrates followed by H2 activation. The substrate scope of the investigated precatalysts was also extended to polar substrates (ketones and imines).

Pentaarylcyclopentadienyl Iron, Cobalt, and Nickel Halides

The preparation of new stable half-sandwich transition metal complexes, having a bulky cyclopentadienyl ligand C5(C6H4-4-Et)5 (Cp(Ar1)) or C5(C6H4-4-nBu)5 (Cp(Ar2)), is reported. The tetrahydrofuran (THF) adduct [Cp(Ar1)Fe(μ-Br)(THF)]2 (1a) was synthesized by reacting K[Cp(Ar1)] with [FeBr2(THF)2] in THF, and its molecular structure was determined by X-ray crystallography. Complex 1a easily loses its coordinated THF molecules under vacuum to form the solvent-free complex [Cp(Ar1)Fe(μ-Br)]2 (1b). The analogous complexes [Cp(Ar1)Co(μ-Br)]2 (2), [Cp(Ar1)Ni(μ-Br)]2 (3), and [Cp(Ar2)Ni(μ-Br)]2 (4) were synthesized from CoBr2 and [NiBr2(1,2-dimethoxyethane)]. The mononuclear, low-spin cobalt(III) and nickel(III) complexes [Cp(Ar2)MI2] (5, M = Co; 6, M = Ni) were prepared by reacting the radical Cp(Ar2) with NiI2 and CoI2. The complexes were characterized by NMR and UV-vis spectroscopies and by elemental analyses. Single-crystal X-ray structure analyses revealed that the dimeric complexes 1a, 1b, and 3 have a planar M2Br2 core, whereas 2 and 4 feature a puckered M2Br2 ring.

Crystal structure of [(1,2,3,4,11,12-η)-anthracene]tris-(tri-methyl-stann-yl)cobalt(III)

The first reported structure of a cobalt complex containing an η⁶-anthracene ligand is presented. The anthracene ligand is nearly flat and coordinates the metal asymmetrically, such that the ring junction carbon atoms are slightly further from the cobalt center than are the other four.

The asymmetric unit of the title structure, [Co(η⁶-C₁₄H₁₀){Sn(CH₃)₃}₃], contains two independent mol­ecules. Each anthracene ligand is η⁶-coordinating to a Co^III cation and is nearly planar [fold angles of 5.4 (3) and 9.7 (3)°], as would be expected for its behaving almost entirely as a donor to a high-oxidation-state metal center. The slight fold in each anthracene ligand gives rise to slightly longer Co—C bond lengths to the ring junction carbon atoms than to the other four. Each Co^III cation is further coordinated by three Sn(CH₃)₃ ligands, giving each mol­ecule a three-legged piano-stool geometry. In each of the two independent mol­ecules, the trio of SnMe₃ ligands are modeled as disordered over two positions, rotated by approximately 30%, such that the C atoms nearly overlap. In one mol­ecule, the disorder ratio refined to 0.9365 (8):0.0635 (8), while that for the other refined to 0.9686 (8):0.0314 (8). The mol­ecules are well separated, and thus no significant inter­molecular inter­actions are observed. The compound is of inter­est as the first structure report of an η⁶-anthracene cobalt(III) complex.

A tetradentate metalloligand: synthesis and coordination behaviour of a 2-pyridyl-substituted cyclobutadiene iron complex

A novel cyclobutadiene iron complex with four 2-pyridyl-substitutents acts as a bis(bidentate) chelate ligand toward Zn²⁺ cations.

Bis-N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC) stabilized η6-arene iron(0) complexes: synthesis, structure, reactivity, and catalytic activity

Reaction of FeCl2 with the chelating bis-N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC) bis-(N-Dipp-imidazole-2-ylidene)methylene (abbreviated {((Dipp)C:)2CH2}) (Dipp = 2,6-di-isopropylphenyl) affords the complex [FeCl2{((Dipp)C:)2CH2}] (1) in high yield. Reduction of complex 1 with excess KC8 with a 10-fold molar excess of PMe3 affords the Fe(II) complex [FeH{((Dipp)C:)2CH2}(PMe3)(η(2)-PMe2CH2)] (2) as a mixture of three stereoisomers. Complex 2, the first example of any iron(II) complex bearing mutually an NHC and PMe3 ligand, is likely obtained from the in situ, reductively generated 16 VE Fe(0) complex, [Fe{((Dipp)C:)2CH2}(PMe3)2] (2'), following intramolecular C-H activation of one of the phosphorus-bound CH3 groups. Complex 2 is unstable in aromatic solvents and forms, via a novel synthetic transformation involving intramolecular reductive elimination and concomitant PMe3 elimination, the Fe (0) arene complex [Fe{((Dipp)C:)2CH2}(η(6)-C6D6)] (4-d6) in C6D6. Complex 4-d6 represents the first example of an NHC stabilized iron (0) arene complex. The transformation from 2 to 4-d6 can be accelerated at higher temperature and at 60 °C forms immediately. Alternatively, the reduction of 1 in the presence of toluene or benzene affords the complexes [Fe{((Dipp)C:)2CH2}(η(6)-C7H8)] (3) and [Fe{((Dipp)C:)2CH2}(η(6)-C6H6)] (4), selectively and in good yields. DFT calculations characterizing the bonding situation in 3 and 4 reveal similar energies of the HOMO and LUMO orbitals, with the LUMO orbital of both complexes located on the Dipp rings of the bis-NHC. The HOMO orbital reflects a π-back-bonding interaction between the Fe(0) center and the chelating NHC ligand, while the HOMO-1 is associated with the arene interaction with the Fe(0) site. The calculations do not suggest any noninnocence of the coordinated arene in either complex. Moreover, the (57)Fe Mössbauer spectrum of 4 at 80K exhibits parameters (δ = 0.43 mm·s(-1); ΔEQ = 1.37 mm·s(-1)) which are consistent with a five-coordinate Fe(0) system, rendering 3 and 4 the first examples of well-defined authentic Fe(0)-η(6)-arene complexes of the type [Fe(η(6)-arene)L2] (L = η(1 or 2) neutral ligand, mono or bidentate). Some reactivitiy studies of 3 are also reported: The reaction of 3 with excess CO selectively yields the five-coordinate piano-stool complex [Fe{((Dipp)C:)2CH2}(CO)3] (6) in near quantitative yields, while the reaction of complex 3 with C6D6 under heating affords by toluene elimination 4-d6. The catalytic ability of 4 was also investigated with respect to amide reduction to amines, for a variety of substrates using Ph2SiH2 as a hydride source. In all cases good to excellent yields to the corresponding amines were obtained. The use of 4 as a precatalyst represents the first example of a well-defined Fe(0) complex to effect this catalytic process.

(18-Crown-6)potassium [(1,2,5,6-η)-cyclo-octa-1,5-diene][(1,2,3,4-η)-naph-tha-lene]-ferrate(-I)

The title salt, [K(C(12)H(24)O(6))][Fe(C(8)H(12))(C(10)H(8))], is the only known naphthalene complex containing iron in a formally negative oxidation state. Each (naphthalene)(1,5-cod)ferrate(-I) anion is in contact with one (18-crown-6)potassium cation via K⋯C contacts to the outer four carbon atoms of the naphthalene ligand (cod = 1,5-cyclo-octa-diene, 18-crown-6 = 1,4,7,10,13,16-hexa-oxacyclo-octa-deca-ne). When using the midpoints of the coordinating olefin bonds, the overall geometry of the coordination sphere around iron can be best described as distorted tetra-hedral. The naphthalene fold angle between the plane of the iron-coordinating butadiene unit and the plane containing the exo-benzene moiety is 19.2 (1)°.