Electrocatalytic Ammonia Oxidation by a Low-Coordinate Copper Complex

Electrocatalytic Oxidation of Ammonia by (Salen)ruthenium(III) Ammine Complexes: Direct Evidence for a Ruthenium(VI) Nitrido Active Intermediate

The electrocatalytic oxidation of ammonia using molecular catalysts has attracted much attention recently due to its potential for fuel cell applications. In this study, we report the electrocatalytic ammonia oxidation (AO) by [RuIII(salchda)(NH3)(CH3CN)]+ (RuNH3, salchda = N,N'-bis(salicylidene)-o-cyclohexyldiamine dianion) and its bromo derivative. Controlled potential electrolysis at 0.65 V versus Fc+/0 for 3.2 h of a solution of RuNH3 and NH3 in CH3CN produced N2 with a TON of 26 and Faradaic efficiency (FE) close to 100%. The TON was increased to 79 and 147 when electrolysis was carried out at 0.7 and 0.80 V vs Fc+/0, respectively, with FE maintained at >99%, which are the highest among molecular ruthenium catalysts. An active intermediate was detected and shown to be the corresponding ruthenium(VI) nitrido complex [RuVI(salchda)(N)]+ (RuN) by direct comparison with an authentic sample of RuN, which we have previously synthesized and fully characterized. Direct kinetic studies on the oxidation of NH3 to N2 have also been carried out and the results are consistent with parallel electrophilic attack of NH3 by RuN and bimolecular N···N coupling of RuN to produce N2. DFT calculations have also been performed to support the proposed mechanism.

Understanding the factors governing the ammonia oxidation reaction by a mononuclear ruthenium complex

Precise regulation of the active site of molecular catalysts is appealing because it could provide insights into the catalytic mechanism and possibly provide a new strategy for catalyst design. A ruthenium complex, [Ru(dppMe, COMe)(bipy)(Cl)] (CSU-3), containing -Me and -COMe substituted dipyridylpyrrole as a pincer ligand, was designed and synthesized. The CSU-3 complex featured a Cl- ligand at the axial position as the active site for ammonia oxidation (AO), and is structurally analogous to AO catalyst [Ru(trpy)(dmabpy)(NH3)][PF6]2 (1) bearing a terpyridine ligand, but different from AO catalyst [Ru(dpp)(bipy)(NH3)] (CSU-2) containing unsubstituted dipyridylpyrrole as a hemilabile ligand with the active site at an equatorial position. To gain insight into the role of active-site and ligand regulation in the AO reaction, the structure and electrochemical properties of CSU-3 and its catalytic performance and mechanism for the AO reaction were comparably studied. Complex CSU-3 has good selective catalytic performance for the oxidation of ammonia to hydrazine with a turnover frequency (TOF) of 258.8 h-1 and N2H4 formation selectivity of 84.7% at E app of 1.0 V. The DFT calculations reveal that N2H4 as a dominant product is generated via an ammonia nucleophilic attack of ruthenium(iv)-imide to form N2H4 followed by N2H4-by-NH3 substitution.

Electrocatalytic Ammonia Oxidation by a Ruthenium Complex Bearing a 2,6-Pyridinedicarboxylate Ligand

Molecular catalysts for the electrocatalytic ammonia oxidation reaction (eAOR) have much to offer in terms of mechanistic investigations and practical energy issues. This work reports the use of complex [Ru(pdc-κ-N1O2)(bpy)(NH3)] (Ru-NH 3 ) (H2pdc = 2, 6-pyridinedicarboxylic acid; bpy = 2,2'-bipyridine) bearing a readily accessible pdc2- ligand to catalyze ammonia oxidation under electrochemical conditions. The rich structural variations of Ru-NH 3 in coordinating solvents and an ammonia atmosphere were fully characterized by cyclic voltammograms (CVs), NMR, and XRD. CV experiments showed that Ru-NH 3 promotes electrocatalytic ammonia oxidation at a low overpotential of 0.85 V with a calculated catalytic rate (k obs) of 18.9 s-1. Controlled potential electrolysis (CPE) at an applied potential of 0.3 V vs Fc+/0 achieves 76.1 equiv of N2 with a faradaic efficiency of 89.8%. Experimental and computational analyses indicated that oxidation of Ru-NH 3 generates a reactive Ru III -NH 3 intermediate, which undergoes sequential electron and proton transfer steps to form a Ru VI ≡N species. N-N bond formation occurs via the nucleophilic attack of an ammonia molecule on the Ru VI ≡N moiety with a facile barrier of 8.6 kcal/mol. Eventually, N2 evolved as the product after releasing two electrons and three protons.

Mapping the Catalytic Cycle of Ru-Catalyzed Ammonia Oxidation

This study presents a mechanism of ammonia oxidation catalyzed by [RuII(NH3)][PF6]2 (Ru=Ru(tpy)(dmabpy)) complexes. All intermediates, including the elusive [RuIII(NH2)]2+ and [RuIV(NH)]2+, were detected, with several intermediates characterized spectroscopically. The catalytic cycle follows multiple reaction pathways branching at the key intermediates [RuIII(NH2)]2+ and [RuII(N2H4)]2+. The competition between the pathways is influenced by ammonia concentration and the local proton concentration generated during electrooxidation at the anode. In the N-N bond-forming steps, dimerization of [RuIII(NH2)]2+ and nucleophilic attack of [RuIV(NH)]2+ by ammonia compete, while in the subsequent [RuII(N2H4)]2+ oxidation, direct oxidation competes with proton-catalyzed disproportionation. These findings provide molecular-level insights into the catalytic cycle and offer guidance for developing more efficient ruthenium-based ammonia oxidation catalysts.

Electrocatalytic Ammonia Oxidation by Pyridyl-Substituted Ferrocenes

Ammonia (NH3) is a promising carbon-free fuel when prepared from sustainable resources. First-row transition metal electrocatalysts for ammonia oxidation are an enabling technology for sustainable energy production. We describe electrocatalytic ammonia oxidation using robust molecular complexes based on Earth-abundant iron. Electrochemical studies of ferrocenes with covalently attached pyridine arms reveal facile ammonia oxidation in DMSO (2.4 M NH3) with modest overpotentials (η = 770-820 mV) and turnover frequencies (125-560 h-1). Experimental and computational studies indicate that the pendant pyridyl base serves as an H-bond acceptor with an N-H bond of ammonia that transfers a proton to the pyridine following oxidation by the attached ferrocenium moiety in a proton-coupled electron transfer (PCET) step. This generates an amidyl (•NH2) radical stabilized via H-bonding to a pendant pyridinium moiety that rapidly dimerizes to hydrazine (H2N-NH2), which is easily oxidized to nitrogen (N2) at the glassy carbon working electrode. This report identifies a general strategy to oxidize ammonia via H-bonding to a base (B:), thereby activating [B···H-NH2] toward PCET by a proximal oxidant to form [BH···NH2]+/• radical cations, which are susceptible to dimerization to form easily oxidized hydrazine.

Defect Engineering of Metal-Based Atomically Thin Materials for Catalyzing Small-Molecule Conversion Reactions

Recently, metal-based atomically thin materials (M-ATMs) have experienced rapid development due to their large specific surface areas, abundant electrochemically accessible sites, attractive surface chemistry, and strong in-plane chemical bonds. These characteristics make them highly desirable for energy-related conversion reactions. However, the insufficient active sites and slow reaction kinetics leading to unsatisfactory electrocatalytic performance limited their commercial application. To address these issues, defect engineering of M-ATMs has emerged to increase the active sites, modify the electronic structure, and enhance the catalytic reactivity and stability. This review provides a comprehensive summary of defect engineering strategies for M-ATM nanostructures, including vacancy creation, heteroatom doping, amorphous phase/grain boundary generation, and heterointerface construction. Introducing recent advancements in the application of M-ATMs in electrochemical small molecule conversion reactions (e.g., hydrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and sulfur), which can contribute to a circular economy by recycling molecules like H2, O2, CO2, N2, and S. Furthermore, a crucial link between the reconstruction of atomic-level structure and catalytic activity via analyzing the dynamic evolution of M-ATMs during the reaction process is established. The review also outlines the challenges and prospects associated with M-ATM-based catalysts to inspire further research efforts in developing high-performance M-ATMs.

Synthesis, Structure, and Reactivity of Copper(I) Proazaphosphatrane Complexes

Copper(I) complexes of isobutyl- (i-BuL) and isopropyl-substituted (i-PrL) proazaphosphatranes have been synthesized. Structural and computational studies of a series of monomeric complexes i-BuLCuX (X = Cl, Br, I) and dimeric [i-PrLCuCl]2 provide insight into the transannulation within and steric properties of the proazaphosphatrane ligand. These halide complexes are competent precatalysts in a model borylation reaction, and the silylamido complex i-BuLCuN(TMS)2 catalyzes hydrosilylation of benzaldehyde under mild conditions.

pH-Dependent Electrocatalytic Aqueous Ammonia Oxidation to Nitrite and Nitrate by a Copper(II) Complex with an Oxidation-Resistant Ligand

The electrocatalytic aqueous ammonia oxidation (AO) represents a more sustainable alternative to accessing nitrite (NO2-) and nitrate (NO3-). We now report that Cu(pyalk)2 {pyalk = 2-(pyridin-2-yl)propan-2-oate}, previously employed as a homogeneous water oxidation (WO) catalyst, is also active for selective AO in aqueous environments. The traditional Griess analytical test for NO2-/NO3- was modified to permit the operation in the presence of the otherwise interfering Cu2+ ion. Choosing the right pH is crucial for achieving high AO selectivity, with optimal formation of NO2- occurring at pH 9 (faradaic efficiency 62%). Electrochemical analysis reveals a monometallic reaction pathway and offers a plausible explanation for the chemoselectivity: at pH 9, AO is dominant, while at elevated pH 13, WO dominates.

Selective Electrocatalytic Oxidation of Ammonia by Ru-dpp Complexes Containing Aromatic Nitrogen Donor as Axial Ligand

Inspired by the rapid growth of Ru-based complexes as molecular ammonia oxidation catalysts, we propose novel Ru-dpp complexes bearing a nitrogen donor as the axial ligand into the ammonia oxidation catalysts family. Herein, a series of Ru-dpp complexes [Ru(K3-N,N',N″-dpp)(bpy)(L)]·PF6 (where Hdpp = 2-[5-(pyridin-2-yl)-1H-pyrrol-2-yl]pyridine; bpy = 2,2'-bipyridine; L = pyridine (Ru-py); 4-methylpyridine (Ru-pic); pyrimidine (Ru-pmd); isoquinoline (Ru-isoq)) containing aromatic nitrogen donor axial ligand are synthesized and fully characterized by NMR, IR, and ESI-MS. The structural analysis displays that dpp- as a pincer ligand coordinates to ruthenium, and nitrogen donor L binds to ruthenium at an axial ligand. The reaction of Ru-L with ammonia generates ammonia-ligated Ru-L-NH3 complexes, which are monitored by NMR and UV-vis spectra. The electrochemical properties are studied by cyclic voltammetry and density functional theory calculation. These titled complexes have good electrocatalytic performances for selective oxidation of ammonia into hydrazine at 0.6 V versus Cp2Fe+/0 onset potential. The turnover frequency of N2H4 formation is 326.4-393.4 h-1, and the faraday efficiency of generating hydrazine exceeds 97%. The N-N formation mechanism via bimolecular coupling of ruthenium amide/imide is proposed. The aminyl character of ruthenium amide intermediate is confirmed by EPR spectra.

Electrodegradation of nitrogenous pollutants in sewage: from reaction fundamentals to energy valorization applications

The excessive accumulation of nitrogen pollutants (mainly nitrate, nitrite, ammonia nitrogen, hydrazine, and urea) in water bodies seriously disrupts the natural nitrogen cycle and poses a significant threat to human life and health. Electrolysis is considered a promising method to degrade these nitrogenous pollutants in sewage, with the advantages of high efficiency, wide generality, easy operability, retrievability, and environmental friendliness. For particular energy devices, including metal-nitrate batteries, direct fuel cells, and hybrid water electrolyzers, the realization of energy valorization from sewage purification processes (e.g., valuable chemical generation, electricity output, and hydrogen production) becomes feasible. Despite the progress in the research on pollutant electrodegradation, the development of electrocatalysts with high activity, stability, and selectivity for pollutant removal, coupled with corresponding energy devices, remains a challenge. This review comprehensively provides advanced insights into the electrodegradation processes of nitrogenous pollutants and relevant energy valorization strategies, focusing on the reaction mechanisms, activity descriptors, electrocatalyst design, and actuated electrodes and operation parameters of tailored energy conversion devices. A feasibility analysis of electrodegradation on real wastewater samples from the perspective of pollutant concentration, pollutant accumulation, and electrolyte effects is provided. Challenges and prospects for the future development of electrodegradation systems are also discussed in detail to bridge the gap between experimental trials and commercial applications.

Reserving Electrons in Cofactor Decorated Coordination Capsules for Biomimetic Electrosynthesis of α-Hydroxy/amino Esters

Sustainable electricity-to-chemical conversion via the utilization of artificial catalysts inspired by redox biological systems holds great significance for catalyzing synthesis. Herein, we develop a biomimetic electrosynthesis strategy mediated by a nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) mimic-containing coordination capsule for efficiently producing α-hydroxy/amino esters. The coordination saturated metal centers worked as an electron relay to consecutively accept single electrons while donating two electrons to the NAD+ mimics simultaneously. The protonation of the intermediate generated active NADH mimics for biomimetic hydrogenation of the substrates via the conventional enzymatic manifold with or without the presence of natural enzymes. The pocket of the capsule encapsulated the substrate and enforced the close proximity between the substrate and the NADH mimics, forming a preorganized intermediate to shift the redox potential by 0.4 V anodically. The cobalt capsule gave methyl mandelate over a range of applied potentials, with an improved yield of 92% when operated at -1.2 V compared to that of Hantzsch ester or natural NADH. Kinetic experiments revealed a Michaelis-Menten mechanism with a Km of 7.5 mM and a Kcat of 1.1 × 10-2 s-1. This extended strategy in tandem with an enzyme exhibited a TON of 650 molE-1 with an initial TOF of 185 molE-1·h-1, outperforming relevant Rh-mediated enzymatic electrosynthesis systems and providing an attractive avenue toward advanced artificial electrosynthesis.

Oxidation of Ammonia Catalyzed by a Molecular Iron Complex: Translating Chemical Catalysis to Mediated Electrocatalysis

Ammonia is a promising candidate in the quest for sustainable, clean energy. With its capacity to serve as an energy carrier, the oxidation of ammonia opens avenues for carbon-neutral approaches to address worldwide growing energy needs. We report the catalytic chemical oxidation of ammonia by an Earth-abundant transition metal complex, trans-[LFeII(MeCN)2][PF6]2, where L is a macrocyclic ligand bearing four N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC) donors. Using triarylaminium radical cations in MeCN, up to 182 turnovers of N2 per Fe were obtained from chemical catalysis with an extremely low loading of the Fe catalyst (0.043 mM, 0.004 mol % catalyst). This chemical catalysis was successfully transitioned to mediated electrocatalysis for the oxidation of ammonia. Molecular electrocatalysis by the Fe catalyst and the mediator (p-MeOC6H4)3N exhibited a catalytic half-wave potential (Ecat/2) of 0.18 V vs [Cp2Fe]+/0 in MeCN, and achieved 9.3 turnovers of N2 at an applied potential of 0.20 V vs [Cp2Fe]+/0 at -20 °C in controlled-potential electrolysis, with a Faradaic efficiency of 75 %. Based on computational results, the catalyst undergoes sequential oxidation and deprotonation steps to form [LFeIV(NH2)2]2+, and thereafter bimetallic coupling to form an N-N bond.

Additive Effects in Metal/Lewis Acid Cooperativity Assessed in a Tetrahedral Copper Hydrazine Complex Featuring an Appended Borane

Within metal/ligand cooperative systems employing acidic groups, studies that empirically assess distance relationships are needed to maximize cooperative interactions with substrates. We report the formation of two Cu(I)-N2H4 complexes using 1,4,7-triazacyclononane ligand frameworks bearing two tert-butyl groups and either a Lewis acidic trialkylborane or an inert alkyl group. Metal/Lewis acid cooperativity imparts heightened acidification of the hydrazine substrate and plays a key role in the release of substrate to a competitive Lewis acidic group.

Dual Pathways in Catalytic Ammonia Oxidation by a Ruthenium Complex Bearing a Tetradentate Bipyridine-Bipyrazole Ligand: Isolation of a Diruthenium Intermediate with a μ-Hexazene Derivative

We report herein chemical and electrochemical ammonia oxidation (AO) catalyzed by a Ru complex, [RuII(H2L)(pic)2]2+ [1, H2L = 6,6'-di(1H-pyrazol-3-yl)-2,2'-bipyridine, pic = 4-picoline], where H2L is a tetradentate ligand with a bipyridyl unit connected to two pyrazoles. 1 functions as an efficient electrocatalyst for the oxidation of NH3 to N2, with a low overpotential of 0.51 V vs Fc+/0 and a Faradaic efficiency of 96%. 1 also undergoes catalytic chemical AO using (4-BrPh)3N•+ as an oxidant, with a turnover number for N2 reaching 41. A novel binuclear complex, [RuIII(L)(pic)2(N2)RuIII(L)(pic)2]4+ (2), was isolated and structurally characterized in the catalytic chemical AO by 1. Complex 2 possesses a zigzag dianionic μ-hexazene unit where the N2 derived from ammonia oxidation is bonded to the pyrazoles, with an NN2-NN2 bond length of 1.3091(70) Å. 2 readily releases N2 upon treating with NH3. Based on experimental and DFT studies, in chemical AO the formation of an N-N bond is proposed to occur via bimolecular coupling of a ruthenium pyrazole imido intermediate to give 2; while in electrochemical AO the N-N bond is formed by nucleophilic attack of NH3 on the intermediate.

Double Hydroxide Nanocatalysts for Urea Electrooxidation Engineered toward Environmentally Benign Products

Recent advancements in the electrochemical urea oxidation reaction (UOR) present promising avenues for wastewater remediation and energy recovery. Despite progress toward optimized efficiency, hurdles persist in steering oxidation products away from environmentally unfriendly products, mostly due to a lack of understanding of structure-selectivity relationships. In this study, the UOR performance of Ni and Cu double hydroxides, which show marked differences in their reactivity and selectivity is evaluated. CuCo hydroxides predominantly produce N2, reaching a current density of 20 mA cmgeo -2 at 1.04 V - 250 mV less than NiCo hydroxides that generate nitrogen oxides. A collection of in-situ spectroscopies and scattering experiments reveal a unique in situ generated Cu(2-x)+-OO-• active sites in CuCo, which initiates nucleophilic substitution of NH2 from the amide, leading to N-N coupling between *NH on Co and Cu. In contrast, the formation of nitrogen oxides on NiCo is primarily attributed to the presence of high-valence Ni3+ and Ni4+, which facilitates N-H activation. This process, in conjunction with the excessive accumulation of OH- ions on Jahn-Teller (JT) distorted Co sites, leads to the generation of NO2 - as the primary product. This work underscores the importance of catalyst composition and structural engineering in tailoring innocuous UOR products.

Synthesis and Characterization of Bridging-Diazene Diiron Half-Sandwich Complexes: The Role of Sulfur Hydrogen Bonding

We report two bridging-diazene diiron complexes [Cp*Fe(8-quinolinethiolate)]2(μ-N2H2) (1-N2H2) and [Cp*Fe(1,2-Cy2PC6H4S)]2(μ-N2H2) (2-N2H2), synthesized by the reaction of hydrazine with the corresponding thiolate-based iron half-sandwich complex, [Cp*Fe(8-quinolinethiolate)]2 (1) and Cp*Fe(1,2-Cy2PC6H4S) (2). Crystallographic analysis reveals that the thiolate sites in 1-N2H2 and 2-N2H2 can engage in N-H···S hydrogen bonding with the diazene protons. 1-N2H2 is thermally stable in both solid and solution states, allowing for one-electron oxidation to afford a cationic diazene radical complex [1-N2H2]+ at room temperature. In contrast, 2-N2H2 tends to undergo N2H2/N2 transformation, leading to the formation of a Fe(III)-H species by the loss of N2. In addition to stabilizing HN=NH species through the hydrogen bonding, the thiolate-based ligands also seem to facilitate proton-coupled electron transfer, thereby promoting N-H cleavage.

Crystal-Phase-Engineered High-Entropy Alloy Aerogels for Enhanced Ethylamine Electrosynthesis from Acetonitrile

Crystal-phase engineering that promotes the rearrangement of active atoms to form new structural frameworks achieves excellent result in the field of electrocatalysis and optimizes the performance of various electrochemical reactions. Herein, for the first time, it is found that the different components in metallic aerogels will affect the crystal-phase transformation, especially in high-entropy alloy aerogels (HEAAs), whose crystal-phase transformation during annealing is more difficult than medium-entropy alloy aerogels (MEAAs), but they still show better electrochemical performance. Specifically, PdPtCuCoNi HEAAs with the parent phase of face-centered cubic (FCC) PdCu possess excellent 89.24% of selectivity, 746.82 mmol h-1 g-1 cat. of yield rate, and 90.75% of Faraday efficiency for ethylamine during acetonitrile reduction reaction (ARR); while, maintaining stability under 50 h of long-term testing and ten consecutive electrolysis cycles. The structure-activity relationship indicates that crystal-phase regulation from amorphous state to FCC phase promotes the atomic rearrangement in HEAAs, thereby optimizing the electronic structure and enhancing the adsorption strength of reaction intermediates, improving the catalytic performance. This study provides a new paradigm for developing novel ARR electrocatalysts and also expands the potential of crystal-phase engineering in other application areas.

Computational Analysis of Low Overpotential Ammonia Oxidation by Metal-Metal Bonded Ruthenium Catalysts, and Predictions for Related Osmium Catalysts

The catalyzed electrochemical oxidation of ammonia to nitrogen (AOR) is an important fuel-cell half-reaction that underpins a future nitrogen-based energy economy. Our laboratory has reported spontaneous chemical and electrochemical oxidation of ammonia to dinitrogen via reaction of ammonia with the metal-metal bonded diruthenium complex Ru2(chp)4OTf (chp- = 2-chloro-6-hydroxypyridinate, TfO- = trifluoromethanesulfonate). This complex facilitates electrocatalytic ammonia oxidation at mild applied potentials of -255 mV vs ferrocene, which is the [Ru2(chp)4(NH3)]0/+ redox potential. We now report a comprehensive computational investigation of possible mechanisms for this reaction and electronic structure analysis of key intermediates therein. We extend this analysis to proposed second-generation electrocatalysts bearing structurally similar fhp and hmp (2-fluoro-6-hydroxypyridinate and 2-hydroxy-6-methylpyridinate, respectively) equatorial ligands, and we further expand this study from Ru2 to analogous Os2 cores. Predicted M24+/5+ redox potentials, which we expect to correlate with experimental AOR overpotential, depend strongly on the identity of the metal center, and to a lesser degree on the nature of the equatorial supporting ligand. Os2 complexes are easier to oxidize than analogous Ru2 complexes by ∼640 mV, on average. In contrast to mono-Ru catalysts, which oxidize ammonia via a rate-limiting activation of the strong N-H bond, we find lowest-energy reaction pathways for Ru2 and Os2 complexes that involve direct N-N bond formation onto electrophilic intermediates having terminal amido, imido, or nitrido groups. While transition state energies for Os2 complexes are high, those for Ru2 complexes are moderate and notably lower than those for mono-Ru complexes. We attribute these lower barriers to enhanced electrophilicity of the Ru2 intermediates, which is a consequence of their metal-metal bonded structure. Os2 intermediates are found to be, surprisingly, less electrophilic, and we suggest that Os2 complexes may require access to oxidation states higher than Os25+ in order to perform AOR at reasonable reaction rates.

Oxidation-induced ambiphilicity triggers N-N bond formation and dinitrogen release in octahedral terminal molybdenum(v) nitrido complexes

Coupling of octahedral, terminal d1 molybdenum(v) nitrido complexes supported by a dianionic pentadentate ligand via N-N bond formation to give μ-dinitrogen complexes was found to be thermodynamically feasible but faces significant kinetic barriers. However, upon oxidation, a kinetically favored nucleophilic/electrophilic N-N bond forming mechanism was enabled to give monocationic μ-dinitrogen dimers. Computational and experimental evidence for this "oxidation-induced ambiphilic nitrido coupling" mechanism is presented. The factors influencing release of dinitrogen from the resulting μ-dinitrogen dimers were also probed and it was found that further oxidation to a dicationic species is required to induce (very rapid) loss of dinitrogen. The mechanistic path discovered for N-N bond formation and dinitrogen release follows an ECECC sequence (E = "electrochemical step"; C = "chemical step"). Experimental evidence for the intermediacy of a highly electrophilic, cationic d0 molybdenum(vi) nitrido in the N-N bond forming mechanism via trapping with an isonitrile reagent is also discussed. Together these results are relevant to the development of molecular catalysts capable of mediating ammonia oxidation to dihydrogen and dinitrogen.

Effective chloramine management without "burn" in biofilm affected nitrifying tanks using a low dose of copper

This paper highlights the potential to effectively inhibit nitrification and restore chloramine levels using a low copper concentration in a biofilm-affected (surface-to-volume ratio 16 m-1) continuous-flow laboratory-scale chloraminated system. High nitrite and low chloramine containing tanks are always recovered with chlorine "burn" by water utilities. The "burn" is not only costly and operationally complex, but also compromises the water quality, public health, and customer relations. A laboratory system comprising five reactors connected in series was operated. Each reactor simulated conditions typically encountered in full-scale systems. Low amount of copper (0.1-0.2 mg-Cu L-1) was dosed once per day into nitrified reactors. At any given time, only one reactor was dosed with copper. Not only inhibition of nitrification, chloramine decay associated with bulk water, biofilm and sediments also improved. However, the improvement was quicker and more significant when the influent to the reactor contained a high chloramine and a low nitrite concentration. Ammonia oxidising microbes exhibited resilience when exposed to low copper and chloramine concentrations for an extended period. Chloramine decay due to planktonic microbes and chemical reactions in bulk water decreased more rapidly than decay attributed to biofilm and sediments. The concept "biostable residual chlorine" explained how copper and chloramine can inhibit nitrification. Once nitrification was inhibited, the chloramine supplied from upstream effectively continued to suppress downstream nitrification, and this effect lasted more than 50 days even at 22 °C. The findings could be used to develop short-term copper dosing strategies and prevent negative impacts of nitrification and breakpoint chlorination.

DFT Study of N-modified Co3Mo3C Electrocatalyst with Separated Active Sites for Enhanced Ammonia Oxidation

Since the facile oxidation of ammonia is one key for its utilization as a zero-carbon fuel in a direct ammonia fuel cell, developing the ammonia oxidation reaction (AOR) catalysts with cost-effective and higher activity is urgently required. However, the catalytic activity of AOR is limited by the scaling relationship of the intermediate adsorption. Based on the density functional theory, the N-modified Co3Mo3C with separated active sites of NH3 dehydrogenation and N-N coupling has been designed and investigated, which is a promising strategy to circumvent the scaling relationship, achieving improved AOR catalytic performance with a lower theoretical overpotential of 0.59 V under fast reaction kinetics condition. The calculation results show that the hollow site (Co-Mo-Mo and Co-Co-Mo) and Co site in N-modified Co3Mo3C play essential roles in NH3 dehydrogenation and N-N coupling, respectively. This work not only benefits for understanding the mechanism of AOR, but also provides a fundamental guidance for rational design of AOR catalysts.

Divergent Bimetallic Mechanisms in Copper(II)-Mediated C-C, N-N, and O-O Oxidative Coupling Reactions

Copper-catalyzed aerobic oxidative coupling of diaryl imines provides a route for conversion of ammonia to hydrazine. The present study uses experimental and density functional theory computational methods to investigate the mechanism of N-N bond formation, and the data support a mechanism involving bimolecular coupling of Cu-coordinated iminyl radicals. Computational analysis is extended to CuII-mediated C-C, N-N, and O-O coupling reactions involved in the formation of cyanogen (NC-CN) from HCN, 1,3-butadiyne from ethyne (i.e., Glaser coupling), hydrazine from ammonia, and hydrogen peroxide from water. The results reveal two different mechanistic pathways. Heteroatom ligands with an uncoordinated lone pair (iminyl, NH2, OH) undergo charge transfer to CuII, generating ligand-centered radicals that undergo facile bimolecular radical-radical coupling. Ligands lacking a lone pair (CN and CCH) form bridged binuclear diamond-core structures that undergo C-C coupling. This mechanistic bifurcation is rationalized by analysis of spin densities in key intermediates and transition states, as well as multiconfigurational calculations. Radical-radical coupling is especially favorable for N-N coupling owing to energetically favorable charge transfer in the intermediate and thermodynamically favorable product formation.

Synthesis and Reactivity of Fe(II) Complexes Containing Cis Ammonia Ligands

The development of earth-abundant transition-metal complexes for electrocatalytic ammonia oxidation is needed to facilitate a renewable energy economy. Important to this goal is a fundamental understanding of how ammonia binds to complexes as a function of ligand geometry and electronic effects. We report the synthesis and characterization of a series of Fe(II)-NH3 complexes supported by tetradentate, facially binding ligands with a combination of pyridine and N-heterocyclic carbene donors. Electronic modification of the supporting ligand led to significant shifts in the FeIII/II potential and variations in NH bond acidities. Finally, investigations of ammonia oxidation by cyclic voltammetry, controlled potential bulk electrolysis, and through addition of stoichiometric organic radicals, TEMPO and tBu3ArO• are reported. No catalytic oxidation of NH3 to N2 was observed, and 15N2 was detected only in reactions with tBu3ArO•.

Electrocatalytic Ammonia Oxidation with a Tailored Molecular Catalyst Heterogenized via Surface Host-Guest Complexation

Macrocyclic host molecules bound to electrode surfaces enable the complexation of catalytically active guests for molecular heterogeneous catalysis. We present a surface-anchored host-guest complex with the ability to electrochemically oxidize ammonia in both organic and aqueous solutions. With an adamantyl motif as the binding group on the backbone of the molecular catalyst [Ru(bpy-NMe2)(tpada)(Cl)](PF6) (1) (where bpy-NMe2 is 4,4'-bis(dimethylamino)-2,2'-bipyridyl and tpada is 4'-(adamantan-1-yl)-2,2':6',2″-terpyridine), high binding constants with β-cyclodextrin were observed in solution (in DMSO-d6:D2O (7:3), K11 = 492 ± 21 M-1). The strong binding affinities were also transferred to a mesoporous ITO (mITO) surface functionalized with a phosphonated derivative of β-cyclodextrin. The newly designed catalyst (1) was compared to the previously reported naphthyl-substituted catalyst [Ru(bpy-NMe2)(tpnp)(Cl)](PF6) (2) (where tpnp is 4'-(naphthalene-2-yl)-2,2':6',2″-terpyridine) for its stability during catalysis. Despite the insulating nature of the adamantyl substituent serving as the binding group, the stronger binding of this unit to the host-functionalized electrode and the resulting shorter distance between the catalytic active center and the surface led to better performance and higher stability. Both guests are able to oxidize ammonia in both organic and aqueous solutions, and the host-anchored electrode can be refunctionalized multiple times (>3) following the loss of the catalytic activity, without a reduction in performance. Guest 1 exhibits significantly higher stability in comparison to guest 2 toward basic conditions, which often constitutes a challenge for anchored molecular systems. Ammonia oxidation in water led to the selective formation of NO3- with Faradaic efficiencies of up to 100%.

Deciphering the Mechanism of Base-Triggered Conversion of Ammonia to Molecular Nitrogen and Methylamine to Cyanide

We report an in-depth investigation into the ammonia oxidation mechanism by the catalyst [RuIII(tpy)(dmabpy)NH3]3+ ([Ru(NH3)]3+). Stoichiometric reactions of [Ru(NH3)]3+ were carried out with exogenous noncoordinating bases to trigger a proposed redox disproportionation reaction, which was followed using variable-temperature NMR spectroscopy. An intermediate species was identified as a dinitrogen-bridged complex using 15N NMR and Raman spectroscopy on isotopically labeled complexes. This intermediate is proposed to derive from coupling of nitridyl species formed upon sequential redox disproportion reactions. Acetonitrile displaces the dinitrogen bridge to yield free N2. DFT calculations support this lower-energy pathway versus that previously reported for ammonia oxidation by the parent [RuIII(tpy)(bpy)NH3]3+ complex. These experimental and computational results are consistent with the interpretation of redox disproportionation involving sequential hydrogen atom transfer reactions by an amide/aminyl intermediate, [Ru(NH2)-]+ ⇔ [Ru(NH2)•]+, formed upon deprotonation of the parent complex. Control experiments employing a large excess of ammonia as a base indicate this new proposed lower-energy pathway contributes to the oxidation of ammonia to dinitrogen in conditions relevant to electrocatalysis. In addition, analogous methylamine complexes, [Ru(NH2CH3)]2+/3+, were prepared to further test the proposed mechanism. Treating [Ru(NH2CH3)]3+ with a base cleanly yields two products [Ru(NH2CH3)]2+ and [Ru(CN)]+ in an ∼3:1 ratio, fully consistent with the proposed cascade of hydrogen atom transfer reactions by an intermediate.

Improving Molecular Iron Ammonia Oxidation Electrocatalysts via Substituent Effects That Modulate Standard Potential and Stability

Molecular ammonia oxidation (AO) catalysis is a rapidly evolving research area. Among the catalysts studied, featuring metals including ruthenium, iron, manganese, nickel, and copper, polypyridyl iron complexes are attractive owing to fast catalytic rates and significant turnover numbers (TON). Building upon our previous work on AO using [(TPA)Fe(MeCN)2]2+ and [(BPM)Fe(MeCN)2]2+, this study investigates factors that impact rate and TON within and across catalyst series based on polypyridyl ligand frameworks. The synthesis and analysis of derivatives functionalized in the 4-pyridyl position with electron-donating and electron-withdrawing groups (NMe2, OMe, CF3) are described; a combination of electroanalytical, UV-vis, and NMR analyses provide insights into the relative importance of catalyst standard potential (E°) and 4-pyridyl substituent to rate and stability. These findings constrain hypotheses rationalizing the nature of improved catalysis comparing two classes of polypyridyl ligands for [(Laux)Fe(MeCN)2]2+ species, and help define a roadmap for future catalyst development. For the most active catalyst studied herein, [(BPMOMe)Fe(MeCN)2]2+, a TON of 381 is demonstrated after 48 h of sustained catalysis.

Heterogeneous Electrochemical Ammonia Oxidation with a Ru-bda Oligomer Anchored on Graphitic Electrodes via CH-π Interactions

Molecular catalysts can promote ammonia oxidation, providing mechanistic insights into the electrochemical N₂ cycle for a carbon-free fuel economy. We report the ammonia oxidation activity of carbon anodes functionalized with the oligomer {[Ru^II(bda-κ-N ² O ²)(4,4'-bpy)]₁₀(4,4'-bpy)}, Rubda-10, where bda is [2,2'-bipyridine]-6,6'-dicarboxylate and 4,4'-bpy is 4,4'-bipyridine. Electrocatalytic studies in propylene carbonate demonstrate that the Ru-based hybrid anode used in a 3-electrode configuration transforms NH₃ to N₂ and H₂ in a 1:3 ratio with near-unity faradaic efficiency at an applied potential of 0.1 V vs Fc^+/0, reaching turnover numbers of 7500. X-ray absorption spectroscopic analysis after bulk electrolysis confirms the molecular integrity of the catalyst. Based on computational studies together with electrochemical evidence, ammonia nucleophilic attack is proposed as the primary pathway that leads to critical N-N bond formation.