1
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Das B, Chokkalingam P, Shareef MA, Shukla S, Das S, Saito M, Weiss LM. Methionine aminopeptidases: Potential therapeutic target for microsporidia and other microbes. J Eukaryot Microbiol 2024; 71:e13036. [PMID: 39036929 PMCID: PMC11576263 DOI: 10.1111/jeu.13036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2024] [Revised: 05/06/2024] [Accepted: 05/16/2024] [Indexed: 07/23/2024]
Abstract
Methionine aminopeptidases (MetAPs) have emerged as a target for medicinal chemists in the quest for novel therapeutic agents for treating cancer, obesity, and other disorders. Methionine aminopeptidase is a metalloenzyme with two structurally distinct forms in humans, MetAP-1 and MetAP-2. The MetAP2 inhibitor fumagillin, which was used as an amebicide in the 1950s, has been used for the successful treatment of microsporidiosis in humans; however, it is no longer commercially available. Despite significant efforts and investments by many pharmaceutical companies, no new MetAP inhibitors have been approved for the clinic. Several lead compounds have been designed and synthesized by researchers as potential inhibitors of MetAP and evaluated for their potential activity in a wide range of diseases. MetAP inhibitors such as fumagillin, TNP-470, beloranib, and reversible inhibitors and their analogs guide new prospects for MetAP inhibitor development in the ongoing quest for new pharmacological indications. This perspective provides insights into recent advances related to MetAP, as a potential therapeutic target in drug discovery, bioactive small molecule MetAP2 inhibitors, and data on the role of MetAP-2 as a therapeutic target for microsporidiosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bhaskar Das
- Arnold and Marie Schwartz College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Long Island University, Brooklyn, NY, USA
- Department of Medicine and Pharmacological Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Parthiban Chokkalingam
- Arnold and Marie Schwartz College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Long Island University, Brooklyn, NY, USA
| | - Mohammed Adil Shareef
- Arnold and Marie Schwartz College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Long Island University, Brooklyn, NY, USA
| | - Srushti Shukla
- Arnold and Marie Schwartz College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Long Island University, Brooklyn, NY, USA
| | - Sasmita Das
- Arnold and Marie Schwartz College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Long Island University, Brooklyn, NY, USA
| | - Mariko Saito
- Nathan S. Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, Orangeburg, NY 10962, USA
| | - Louis M. Weiss
- Department of Pathology and Medicine (Infectious Diseases) Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY-10461, USA
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2
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Giannangelo C, Challis MP, Siddiqui G, Edgar R, Malcolm TR, Webb CT, Drinkwater N, Vinh N, Macraild C, Counihan N, Duffy S, Wittlin S, Devine SM, Avery VM, De Koning-Ward T, Scammells P, McGowan S, Creek DJ. Chemoproteomics validates selective targeting of Plasmodium M1 alanyl aminopeptidase as an antimalarial strategy. eLife 2024; 13:RP92990. [PMID: 38976500 PMCID: PMC11230628 DOI: 10.7554/elife.92990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/10/2024] Open
Abstract
New antimalarial drug candidates that act via novel mechanisms are urgently needed to combat malaria drug resistance. Here, we describe the multi-omic chemical validation of Plasmodium M1 alanyl metalloaminopeptidase as an attractive drug target using the selective inhibitor, MIPS2673. MIPS2673 demonstrated potent inhibition of recombinant Plasmodium falciparum (PfA-M1) and Plasmodium vivax (PvA-M1) M1 metalloaminopeptidases, with selectivity over other Plasmodium and human aminopeptidases, and displayed excellent in vitro antimalarial activity with no significant host cytotoxicity. Orthogonal label-free chemoproteomic methods based on thermal stability and limited proteolysis of whole parasite lysates revealed that MIPS2673 solely targets PfA-M1 in parasites, with limited proteolysis also enabling estimation of the binding site on PfA-M1 to within ~5 Å of that determined by X-ray crystallography. Finally, functional investigation by untargeted metabolomics demonstrated that MIPS2673 inhibits the key role of PfA-M1 in haemoglobin digestion. Combined, our unbiased multi-omic target deconvolution methods confirmed the on-target activity of MIPS2673, and validated selective inhibition of M1 alanyl metalloaminopeptidase as a promising antimalarial strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlo Giannangelo
- Drug Delivery, Disposition and Dynamics, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash UniversityParkvilleAustralia
| | - Matthew P Challis
- Drug Delivery, Disposition and Dynamics, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash UniversityParkvilleAustralia
| | - Ghizal Siddiqui
- Drug Delivery, Disposition and Dynamics, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash UniversityParkvilleAustralia
| | - Rebecca Edgar
- School of Medicine, Deakin UniversityGeelongAustralia
- The Institute for Mental and Physical Health and Clinical Translation, Deakin UniversityGeelongAustralia
| | - Tess R Malcolm
- Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute and Department of Microbiology, Monash UniversityClaytonAustralia
- Centre to Impact AMR, Monash UniversityClaytonAustralia
| | - Chaille T Webb
- Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute and Department of Microbiology, Monash UniversityClaytonAustralia
- Centre to Impact AMR, Monash UniversityClaytonAustralia
| | - Nyssa Drinkwater
- Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute and Department of Microbiology, Monash UniversityClaytonAustralia
- Centre to Impact AMR, Monash UniversityClaytonAustralia
| | - Natalie Vinh
- Medicinal Chemistry, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash UniversityParkvilleAustralia
| | - Christopher Macraild
- Drug Delivery, Disposition and Dynamics, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash UniversityParkvilleAustralia
| | - Natalie Counihan
- School of Medicine, Deakin UniversityGeelongAustralia
- The Institute for Mental and Physical Health and Clinical Translation, Deakin UniversityGeelongAustralia
| | - Sandra Duffy
- Discovery Biology, Centre for Cellular Phenomics, Griffith UniversityNathanAustralia
| | - Sergio Wittlin
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health InstituteAllschwilSwitzerland
- University of BaselBaselSwitzerland
| | - Shane M Devine
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical ResearchParkvilleAustralia
- Department of Medical Biology, The University of MelbourneParkvilleAustralia
| | - Vicky M Avery
- Discovery Biology, Centre for Cellular Phenomics, Griffith UniversityNathanAustralia
- School of Environment and Science, Griffith UniversityNathanAustralia
| | - Tania De Koning-Ward
- School of Medicine, Deakin UniversityGeelongAustralia
- The Institute for Mental and Physical Health and Clinical Translation, Deakin UniversityGeelongAustralia
| | - Peter Scammells
- Medicinal Chemistry, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash UniversityParkvilleAustralia
| | - Sheena McGowan
- Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute and Department of Microbiology, Monash UniversityClaytonAustralia
- Centre to Impact AMR, Monash UniversityClaytonAustralia
| | - Darren J Creek
- Drug Delivery, Disposition and Dynamics, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash UniversityParkvilleAustralia
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3
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Mahanta PJ, Lhouvum K. Plasmodium falciparum proteases as new drug targets with special focus on metalloproteases. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2024; 258:111617. [PMID: 38554736 DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2024.111617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2023] [Revised: 02/15/2024] [Accepted: 03/10/2024] [Indexed: 04/02/2024]
Abstract
Malaria poses a significant global health threat particularly due to the prevalence of Plasmodium falciparum infection. With the emergence of parasite resistance to existing drugs including the recently discovered artemisinin, ongoing research seeks novel therapeutic avenues within the malaria parasite. Proteases are promising drug targets due to their essential roles in parasite biology, including hemoglobin digestion, merozoite invasion, and egress. While exploring the genomic landscape of Plasmodium falciparum, it has been revealed that there are 92 predicted proteases, with only approximately 14 of them having been characterized. These proteases are further distributed among 26 families grouped into five clans: aspartic proteases, cysteine proteases, metalloproteases, serine proteases, and threonine proteases. Focus on metalloprotease class shows further role in organelle processing for mitochondria and apicoplasts suggesting the potential of metalloproteases as viable drug targets. Holistic understanding of the parasite intricate life cycle and identification of potential drug targets are essential for developing effective therapeutic strategies against malaria and mitigating its devastating global impact.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kimjolly Lhouvum
- Department of Biotechnology, National Institute of Technology, Arunachal Pradesh, India.
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4
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Creek D, Giannangelo C, Challis M, Siddiqui G, Edgar R, Malcolm T, Webb C, Drinkwater N, Vinh N, MacRaild C, Counihan N, Duffy S, Wittlin S, Devine S, Avery V, de Koning-Ward T, Scammells P, McGowan S. Chemoproteomics validates selective targeting of Plasmodium M1 alanyl aminopeptidase as an antimalarial strategy. RESEARCH SQUARE 2024:rs.3.rs-3251230. [PMID: 38746424 PMCID: PMC11092810 DOI: 10.21203/rs.3.rs-3251230/v3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/16/2024]
Abstract
New antimalarial drug candidates that act via novel mechanisms are urgently needed to combat malaria drug resistance. Here, we describe the multi-omic chemical validation of Plasmodium M1 alanyl metalloaminopeptidase as an attractive drug target using the selective inhibitor, MIPS2673. MIPS2673 demonstrated potent inhibition of recombinant Plasmodium falciparum ( Pf A-M1) and Plasmodium vivax ( Pv A-M1) M1 metalloaminopeptidases, with selectivity over other Plasmodium and human aminopeptidases, and displayed excellent in vitro antimalarial activity with no significant host cytotoxicity. Orthogonal label-free chemoproteomic methods based on thermal stability and limited proteolysis of whole parasite lysates revealed that MIPS2673 solely targets Pf A-M1 in parasites, with limited proteolysis also enabling estimation of the binding site on Pf A-M1 to within ~5 Å of that determined by X-ray crystallography. Finally, functional investigation by untargeted metabolomics demonstrated that MIPS2673 inhibits the key role of Pf A-M1 in haemoglobin digestion. Combined, our unbiased multi-omic target deconvolution methods confirmed the on-target activity of MIPS2673, and validated selective inhibition of M1 alanyl metalloaminopeptidase as a promising antimalarial strategy.
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5
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Goettig P, Koch NG, Budisa N. Non-Canonical Amino Acids in Analyses of Protease Structure and Function. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:14035. [PMID: 37762340 PMCID: PMC10531186 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241814035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2023] [Revised: 08/18/2023] [Accepted: 08/20/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
All known organisms encode 20 canonical amino acids by base triplets in the genetic code. The cellular translational machinery produces proteins consisting mainly of these amino acids. Several hundred natural amino acids serve important functions in metabolism, as scaffold molecules, and in signal transduction. New side chains are generated mainly by post-translational modifications, while others have altered backbones, such as the β- or γ-amino acids, or they undergo stereochemical inversion, e.g., in the case of D-amino acids. In addition, the number of non-canonical amino acids has further increased by chemical syntheses. Since many of these non-canonical amino acids confer resistance to proteolytic degradation, they are potential protease inhibitors and tools for specificity profiling studies in substrate optimization and enzyme inhibition. Other applications include in vitro and in vivo studies of enzyme kinetics, molecular interactions and bioimaging, to name a few. Amino acids with bio-orthogonal labels are particularly attractive, enabling various cross-link and click reactions for structure-functional studies. Here, we cover the latest developments in protease research with non-canonical amino acids, which opens up a great potential, e.g., for novel prodrugs activated by proteases or for other pharmaceutical compounds, some of which have already reached the clinical trial stage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Goettig
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Institute of Pharmacy, Paracelsus Medical University, Strubergasse 21, 5020 Salzburg, Austria
| | - Nikolaj G. Koch
- Biocatalysis Group, Technische Universität Berlin, 10623 Berlin, Germany;
- Bioanalytics Group, Institute of Biotechnology, Technische Universität Berlin, 10623 Berlin, Germany;
| | - Nediljko Budisa
- Bioanalytics Group, Institute of Biotechnology, Technische Universität Berlin, 10623 Berlin, Germany;
- Department of Chemistry, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada
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6
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Aguado ME, Izquierdo M, González-Matos M, Varela AC, Méndez Y, Del Rivero MA, Rivera DG, González-Bacerio J. Parasite Metalo-aminopeptidases as Targets in Human Infectious Diseases. Curr Drug Targets 2023; 24:416-461. [PMID: 36825701 DOI: 10.2174/1389450124666230224140724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2022] [Revised: 12/25/2022] [Accepted: 01/02/2023] [Indexed: 02/25/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Parasitic human infectious diseases are a worldwide health problem due to the increased resistance to conventional drugs. For this reason, the identification of novel molecular targets and the discovery of new chemotherapeutic agents are urgently required. Metalo- aminopeptidases are promising targets in parasitic infections. They participate in crucial processes for parasite growth and pathogenesis. OBJECTIVE In this review, we describe the structural, functional and kinetic properties, and inhibitors, of several parasite metalo-aminopeptidases, for their use as targets in parasitic diseases. CONCLUSION Plasmodium falciparum M1 and M17 aminopeptidases are essential enzymes for parasite development, and M18 aminopeptidase could be involved in hemoglobin digestion and erythrocyte invasion and egression. Trypanosoma cruzi, T. brucei and Leishmania major acidic M17 aminopeptidases can play a nutritional role. T. brucei basic M17 aminopeptidase down-regulation delays the cytokinesis. The inhibition of Leishmania basic M17 aminopeptidase could affect parasite viability. L. donovani methionyl aminopeptidase inhibition prevents apoptosis but not the parasite death. Decrease in Acanthamoeba castellanii M17 aminopeptidase activity produces cell wall structural modifications and encystation inhibition. Inhibition of Babesia bovis growth is probably related to the inhibition of the parasite M17 aminopeptidase, probably involved in host hemoglobin degradation. Schistosoma mansoni M17 aminopeptidases inhibition may affect parasite development, since they could participate in hemoglobin degradation, surface membrane remodeling and eggs hatching. Toxoplasma gondii M17 aminopeptidase inhibition could attenuate parasite virulence, since it is apparently involved in the hydrolysis of cathepsin Cs- or proteasome-produced dipeptides and/or cell attachment/invasion processes. These data are relevant to validate these enzymes as targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mirtha E Aguado
- Center for Protein Studies, Faculty of Biology, University of Havana, Calle 25 #455 Entre I y J, 10400, Vedado, La Habana, Cuba
| | - Maikel Izquierdo
- Center for Protein Studies, Faculty of Biology, University of Havana, Calle 25 #455 Entre I y J, 10400, Vedado, La Habana, Cuba
| | - Maikel González-Matos
- Center for Protein Studies, Faculty of Biology, University of Havana, Calle 25 #455 Entre I y J, 10400, Vedado, La Habana, Cuba
| | - Ana C Varela
- Center for Protein Studies, Faculty of Biology, University of Havana, Calle 25 #455 Entre I y J, 10400, Vedado, La Habana, Cuba
| | - Yanira Méndez
- Center for Natural Products Research, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Havana, Zapata y G, 10400, La Habana, Cuba
| | - Maday A Del Rivero
- Center for Protein Studies, Faculty of Biology, University of Havana, Calle 25 #455 Entre I y J, 10400, Vedado, La Habana, Cuba
| | - Daniel G Rivera
- Center for Natural Products Research, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Havana, Zapata y G, 10400, La Habana, Cuba
| | - Jorge González-Bacerio
- Center for Protein Studies, Faculty of Biology, University of Havana, Calle 25 #455 Entre I y J, 10400, Vedado, La Habana, Cuba
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Biology, University of Havana, calle 25 #455 entre I y J, 10400, Vedado, La Habana, Cuba
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7
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Edgar RCS, Siddiqui G, Hjerrild K, Malcolm TR, Vinh NB, Webb CT, Holmes C, MacRaild CA, Chernih HC, Suen WW, Counihan NA, Creek DJ, Scammells PJ, McGowan S, de Koning-Ward TF. Genetic and chemical validation of Plasmodium falciparum aminopeptidase PfA-M17 as a drug target in the hemoglobin digestion pathway. eLife 2022; 11:e80813. [PMID: 36097817 PMCID: PMC9470162 DOI: 10.7554/elife.80813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2022] [Accepted: 08/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Plasmodium falciparum, the causative agent of malaria, remains a global health threat as parasites continue to develop resistance to antimalarial drugs used throughout the world. Accordingly, drugs with novel modes of action are desperately required to combat malaria. P. falciparum parasites infect human red blood cells where they digest the host's main protein constituent, hemoglobin. Leucine aminopeptidase PfA-M17 is one of several aminopeptidases that have been implicated in the last step of this digestive pathway. Here, we use both reverse genetics and a compound specifically designed to inhibit the activity of PfA-M17 to show that PfA-M17 is essential for P. falciparum survival as it provides parasites with free amino acids for growth, many of which are highly likely to originate from hemoglobin. We further show that loss of PfA-M17 results in parasites exhibiting multiple digestive vacuoles at the trophozoite stage. In contrast to other hemoglobin-degrading proteases that have overlapping redundant functions, we validate PfA-M17 as a potential novel drug target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca CS Edgar
- School of Medicine, Deakin UniversityGeelongAustralia
- The Institute for Mental and Physical Health and Clinical Translation, Deakin UniversityGeelongAustralia
| | - Ghizal Siddiqui
- Drug Delivery, Disposition and Dynamics, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash UniversityParkvilleAustralia
| | | | - Tess R Malcolm
- Biomedicine Discovery Institute and Department of Microbiology, Monash UniversityClaytonAustralia
- Centre to Impact AMR, Monash UniversityMelbourneAustralia
| | - Natalie B Vinh
- Medicinal Chemistry, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash UniversityParkvilleAustralia
| | - Chaille T Webb
- Biomedicine Discovery Institute and Department of Microbiology, Monash UniversityClaytonAustralia
- Centre to Impact AMR, Monash UniversityMelbourneAustralia
| | - Clare Holmes
- CSIRO Australian Centre for Disease PreparednessGeelongAustralia
| | - Christopher A MacRaild
- Drug Delivery, Disposition and Dynamics, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash UniversityParkvilleAustralia
| | - Hope C Chernih
- School of Medicine, Deakin UniversityGeelongAustralia
- The Institute for Mental and Physical Health and Clinical Translation, Deakin UniversityGeelongAustralia
| | - Willy W Suen
- CSIRO Australian Centre for Disease PreparednessGeelongAustralia
| | - Natalie A Counihan
- School of Medicine, Deakin UniversityGeelongAustralia
- The Institute for Mental and Physical Health and Clinical Translation, Deakin UniversityGeelongAustralia
| | - Darren J Creek
- Drug Delivery, Disposition and Dynamics, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash UniversityParkvilleAustralia
| | - Peter J Scammells
- Medicinal Chemistry, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash UniversityParkvilleAustralia
| | - Sheena McGowan
- Biomedicine Discovery Institute and Department of Microbiology, Monash UniversityClaytonAustralia
- Centre to Impact AMR, Monash UniversityMelbourneAustralia
| | - Tania F de Koning-Ward
- School of Medicine, Deakin UniversityGeelongAustralia
- The Institute for Mental and Physical Health and Clinical Translation, Deakin UniversityGeelongAustralia
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8
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Vourloumis D, Mavridis I, Athanasoulis A, Temponeras I, Koumantou D, Giastas P, Mpakali A, Magrioti V, Leib J, van Endert P, Stratikos E, Papakyriakou A. Discovery of Selective Nanomolar Inhibitors for Insulin-Regulated Aminopeptidase Based on α-Hydroxy-β-amino Acid Derivatives of Bestatin. J Med Chem 2022; 65:10098-10117. [PMID: 35833347 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.2c00904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The oxytocinase subfamily of M1 zinc aminopeptidases comprises emerging drug targets, including the ER-resident aminopeptidases 1 and 2 (ERAP1 and ERAP2) and insulin-regulated aminopeptidase (IRAP); however, reports on clinically relevant inhibitors are limited. Here we report a new synthetic approach of high diastereo- and regioselectivity for functionalization of the α-hydroxy-β-amino acid scaffold of bestatin. Stereochemistry and mechanism of inhibition were investigated by a high-resolution X-ray crystal structure of ERAP1 in complex with a micromolar inhibitor. By exploring the P1 side-chain functionalities, we achieve significant potency and selectivity, and we report a cell-active, low-nanomolar inhibitor of IRAP with >120-fold selectivity over homologous enzymes. X-ray crystallographic analysis of IRAP in complex with this inhibitor suggest that interactions with the GAMEN loop is an unappreciated key determinant for potency and selectivity. Overall, our results suggest that α-hydroxy-β-amino acid derivatives may constitute useful chemical tools and drug leads for this group of aminopeptidases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dionisios Vourloumis
- National Centre for Scientific Research "Demokritos", Ag. Paraskevi, GR-15341 Athens, Greece
| | - Ioannis Mavridis
- National Centre for Scientific Research "Demokritos", Ag. Paraskevi, GR-15341 Athens, Greece
| | - Alexandros Athanasoulis
- National Centre for Scientific Research "Demokritos", Ag. Paraskevi, GR-15341 Athens, Greece
| | - Ioannis Temponeras
- National Centre for Scientific Research "Demokritos", Ag. Paraskevi, GR-15341 Athens, Greece.,Department of Pharmacy, University of Patras, 26504 Patra, Greece
| | - Despoina Koumantou
- National Centre for Scientific Research "Demokritos", Ag. Paraskevi, GR-15341 Athens, Greece
| | - Petros Giastas
- Department of Biotechnology, Agricultural University of Athens, GR-11855 Athens, Greece
| | - Anastasia Mpakali
- National Centre for Scientific Research "Demokritos", Ag. Paraskevi, GR-15341 Athens, Greece.,Department of Chemistry, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, GR-15784 Athens, Greece
| | - Victoria Magrioti
- Department of Chemistry, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, GR-15784 Athens, Greece
| | - Jacqueline Leib
- Université Paris Cité, INSERM, CNRS, Institut Necker Enfants Malades, F-75015 Paris, France
| | - Peter van Endert
- Université Paris Cité, INSERM, CNRS, Institut Necker Enfants Malades, F-75015 Paris, France.,Service Immunologie Biologique, AP-HP, Hôpital Universitaire Necker-Enfants Malades, F-75015 Paris, France
| | - Efstratios Stratikos
- National Centre for Scientific Research "Demokritos", Ag. Paraskevi, GR-15341 Athens, Greece.,Department of Chemistry, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, GR-15784 Athens, Greece
| | - Athanasios Papakyriakou
- National Centre for Scientific Research "Demokritos", Ag. Paraskevi, GR-15341 Athens, Greece
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9
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Marapaka AK, Sankoju P, Zhang G, Ding Y, Ma C, Pillalamarri V, Sudhakar R, Reddi B, Sijwali PS, Zhang Y, Addlagatta A. Development of peptidomimetic hydroxamates as PfA-M1 and PfA-M17 dual inhibitors: Biological evaluation and structural characterization by cocrystallization. CHINESE CHEM LETT 2022; 33:2550-2554. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cclet.2021.09.102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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10
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Mills B, Isaac RE, Foster R. Metalloaminopeptidases of the Protozoan Parasite Plasmodium falciparum as Targets for the Discovery of Novel Antimalarial Drugs. J Med Chem 2021; 64:1763-1785. [PMID: 33534577 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.0c01721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Malaria poses a significant threat to approximately half of the world's population with an annual death toll close to half a million. The emergence of resistance to front-line antimalarials in the most lethal human parasite species, Plasmodium falciparum (Pf), threatens progress made in malaria control. The prospect of losing the efficacy of antimalarial drugs is driving the search for small molecules with new modes of action. Asexual reproduction of the parasite is critically dependent on the recycling of amino acids through catabolism of hemoglobin (Hb), which makes metalloaminopeptidases (MAPs) attractive targets for the development of new drugs. The Pf genome encodes eight MAPs, some of which have been found to be essential for parasite survival. In this article, we discuss the biological structure and function of each MAP within the Pf genome, along with the drug discovery efforts that have been undertaken to identify novel antimalarial candidates of therapeutic value.
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Affiliation(s)
- Belinda Mills
- School of Chemistry, University of Leeds, Leeds, U.K., LS2 9JT
| | - R Elwyn Isaac
- School of Biology, University of Leeds, Leeds, U.K., LS2 9JT
| | - Richard Foster
- School of Chemistry, University of Leeds, Leeds, U.K., LS2 9JT
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11
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Bestatin and bacitracin inhibit porcine kidney cortex dipeptidyl peptidase IV activity and reduce human melanoma MeWo cell viability. Int J Biol Macromol 2020; 164:2944-2952. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.08.157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2020] [Revised: 08/19/2020] [Accepted: 08/20/2020] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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12
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Driving antimalarial design through understanding of target mechanism. Biochem Soc Trans 2020; 48:2067-2078. [PMID: 32869828 PMCID: PMC7609028 DOI: 10.1042/bst20200224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2020] [Revised: 07/23/2020] [Accepted: 07/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Malaria continues to be a global health threat, affecting approximately 219 million people in 2018 alone. The recurrent development of resistance to existing antimalarials means that the design of new drug candidates must be carefully considered. Understanding of drug target mechanism can dramatically accelerate early-stage target-based development of novel antimalarials and allows for structural modifications even during late-stage preclinical development. Here, we have provided an overview of three promising antimalarial molecular targets, PfDHFR, PfDHODH and PfA-M1, and their associated inhibitors which demonstrate how mechanism can inform drug design and be effectively utilised to generate compounds with potent inhibitory activity.
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13
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X-ray crystal structure and specificity of the Toxoplasma gondii ME49 TgAPN2. Biochem J 2020; 477:3819-3832. [PMID: 32926129 PMCID: PMC7557147 DOI: 10.1042/bcj20200569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2020] [Revised: 09/03/2020] [Accepted: 09/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Toxoplasmosis is a parasitic disease caused by infection with Toxoplasma gondii that currently has few therapeutic options. The M1 aminopeptidase enzymes have been shown to be attractive targets for anti-parasitic agents and/or vaccine candidates, suggesting potential to re-purpose inhibitors between parasite M1 aminopeptidase targets. The M1 aminopeptidase TgAPN2 has been suggested to be a potential new drug target for toxoplasmosis. Here we investigate the structure and function of TgAPN2, a homologue of the antimalarial drug target PfA-M1, and evaluate the capacity to use inhibitors that target PfA-M1 against TgAPN2. The results show that despite a similar overall fold, the TgAPN2 has a unique substrate specificity and inhibition profile. Sequence and structure differences are investigated and show how comparative structure-activity relationships may provide a route to obtaining potent inhibitors of TgAPN2.
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14
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Aminobenzosuberone derivatives as PfA-M1 inhibitors: Molecular recognition and antiplasmodial evaluation. Bioorg Chem 2020; 98:103750. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2020.103750] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2019] [Revised: 01/27/2020] [Accepted: 03/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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15
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Wang F, Hu X, Zhou B. Structural characterization of plasmodial aminopeptidase: a combined molecular docking and QSAR-based in silico approaches. Mol Divers 2019; 23:965-984. [DOI: 10.1007/s11030-019-09921-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2018] [Accepted: 01/18/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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16
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Vinh NB, Drinkwater N, Malcolm TR, Kassiou M, Lucantoni L, Grin PM, Butler GS, Duffy S, Overall CM, Avery VM, Scammells PJ, McGowan S. Hydroxamic Acid Inhibitors Provide Cross-Species Inhibition of Plasmodium M1 and M17 Aminopeptidases. J Med Chem 2018; 62:622-640. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.8b01310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Natalie B. Vinh
- Medicinal Chemistry, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, Melbourne, VIC 3052, Australia
| | - Nyssa Drinkwater
- Department of Microbiology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Melbourne, VIC 3800, Australia
| | - Tess R. Malcolm
- Department of Microbiology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Melbourne, VIC 3800, Australia
| | - Michael Kassiou
- School of Chemistry, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Leonardo Lucantoni
- Discovery Biology, Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD 4111, Australia
| | | | | | - Sandra Duffy
- Discovery Biology, Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD 4111, Australia
| | | | - Vicky M. Avery
- Discovery Biology, Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD 4111, Australia
| | - Peter J. Scammells
- Medicinal Chemistry, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, Melbourne, VIC 3052, Australia
| | - Sheena McGowan
- Department of Microbiology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Melbourne, VIC 3800, Australia
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17
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Yang W, Riley BT, Lei X, Porebski BT, Kass I, Buckle AM, McGowan S. Mapping the Pathway and Dynamics of Bestatin Inhibition of the
Plasmodium falciparum
M1 Aminopeptidase
Pf
A‐M1. ChemMedChem 2018; 13:2504-2513. [DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.201800563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2018] [Revised: 10/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Wei Yang
- Infection and Immunity Program, Department of Microbiology, Biomedicine Discovery InstituteMonash University Clayton VIC 3800 Australia
| | - Blake T. Riley
- Infection and Immunity Program, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biomedicine Discovery InstituteMonash University Clayton VIC 3800 Australia
| | - Xiangyun Lei
- School of Chemical and Biomolecular EngineeringGeorgia Institute of Technology Atlanta GA USA
| | - Benjamin T. Porebski
- Infection and Immunity Program, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biomedicine Discovery InstituteMonash University Clayton VIC 3800 Australia
- Current address: Medical Research Council Laboratory of Molecular Biology Francis Crick Avenue Cambridge CB2 0QH UK
| | - Itamar Kass
- Infection and Immunity Program, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biomedicine Discovery InstituteMonash University Clayton VIC 3800 Australia
- Victorian Life Sciences Computation CentreMonash University Clayton VIC 3800 Australia
| | - Ashley M. Buckle
- Infection and Immunity Program, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biomedicine Discovery InstituteMonash University Clayton VIC 3800 Australia
| | - Sheena McGowan
- Infection and Immunity Program, Department of Microbiology, Biomedicine Discovery InstituteMonash University Clayton VIC 3800 Australia
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18
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Salomon E, Schmitt M, Marapaka AK, Stamogiannos A, Revelant G, Schmitt C, Alavi S, Florent I, Addlagatta A, Stratikos E, Tarnus C, Albrecht S. Aminobenzosuberone Scaffold as a Modular Chemical Tool for the Inhibition of Therapeutically Relevant M1 Aminopeptidases. Molecules 2018; 23:molecules23102607. [PMID: 30314342 PMCID: PMC6222927 DOI: 10.3390/molecules23102607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2018] [Revised: 10/08/2018] [Accepted: 10/10/2018] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
The synthesis of racemic substituted 7-amino-5,7,8,9-tetrahydrobenzocyclohepten-6-one hydrochlorides was optimized to enhance reproducibility and increase the overall yield. In order to investigate their specificity, series of enzyme inhibition assays were carried out against a diversity of proteases, covering representative members of aspartic, cysteine, metallo and serine endopeptidases and including eight members of the monometallic M1 family of aminopeptidases as well as two members of the bimetallic M17 and M28 aminopeptidase families. This aminobenzosuberone scaffold indeed demonstrated selective inhibition of M1 aminopeptidases to the exclusion of other tested protease families; it was particularly potent against mammalian APN and its bacterial/parasitic orthologues EcPepN and PfAM1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuel Salomon
- Laboratoire d'Innovation Moléculaire et Applications, Université de Haute-Alsace, Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, 68093 Mulhouse, France.
| | - Marjorie Schmitt
- Laboratoire d'Innovation Moléculaire et Applications, Université de Haute-Alsace, Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, 68093 Mulhouse, France.
| | - Anil Kumar Marapaka
- Centre for Chemical Biology, CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad 500007, Telangana, India.
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Rafi Marg, New Dehli 110001, India.
| | - Athanasios Stamogiannos
- Protein Chemistry Laboratory, INRASTES, National Centre for Scientific Research Demokritos, Agia Paraskevi, 15310 Athens, Greece.
| | - Germain Revelant
- Laboratoire d'Innovation Moléculaire et Applications, Université de Haute-Alsace, Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, 68093 Mulhouse, France.
| | - Céline Schmitt
- Laboratoire d'Innovation Moléculaire et Applications, Université de Haute-Alsace, Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, 68093 Mulhouse, France.
| | - Sarah Alavi
- Laboratoire d'Innovation Moléculaire et Applications, Université de Haute-Alsace, Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, 68093 Mulhouse, France.
| | - Isabelle Florent
- Molécules de Communication et Adaptation des Micro-organismes, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, CNRS, 75231 Paris, France.
| | - Anthony Addlagatta
- Centre for Chemical Biology, CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad 500007, Telangana, India.
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Rafi Marg, New Dehli 110001, India.
| | - Efstratios Stratikos
- Protein Chemistry Laboratory, INRASTES, National Centre for Scientific Research Demokritos, Agia Paraskevi, 15310 Athens, Greece.
| | - Céline Tarnus
- Laboratoire d'Innovation Moléculaire et Applications, Université de Haute-Alsace, Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, 68093 Mulhouse, France.
| | - Sébastien Albrecht
- Laboratoire d'Innovation Moléculaire et Applications, Université de Haute-Alsace, Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, 68093 Mulhouse, France.
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19
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Shang S, Willems AV, Chauhan SS. A practical diastereoselective synthesis of (-)-bestatin. J Pept Sci 2018; 24. [PMID: 29430772 DOI: 10.1002/psc.3067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2017] [Revised: 11/29/2017] [Accepted: 01/09/2018] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Diastereoselective addition of nitromethane to Boc-D-Phe-H in the presence of sodium hydride in diethyl ether/hexane containing 15-crown-5 and subsequent N,O-protection with 2,2-dimethoxypropane gave trans-oxazolidine in a diastereomeric ratio of >16:1. The oxazolidine was easily separated by column chromatography, which after Nef reaction was coupled to H-Leu-OtBu. The 8-step synthesis afforded (-)-bestatin in an overall yield of 24.7% after deprotection and ion exchange.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suisheng Shang
- Peptides International Inc., 11621 Electron Drive, Louisville, KY, 40299, USA
| | - Andreas V Willems
- Peptides International Inc., 11621 Electron Drive, Louisville, KY, 40299, USA
| | - Satendra S Chauhan
- Peptides International Inc., 11621 Electron Drive, Louisville, KY, 40299, USA
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20
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Bounaadja L, Schmitt M, Albrecht S, Mouray E, Tarnus C, Florent I. Selective inhibition of PfA-M1, over PfA-M17, by an amino-benzosuberone derivative blocks malaria parasites development in vitro and in vivo. Malar J 2017; 16:382. [PMID: 28934959 PMCID: PMC5609037 DOI: 10.1186/s12936-017-2032-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2017] [Accepted: 09/18/2017] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Plasmodium falciparum M1 family aminopeptidase is currently considered as a promising target for anti-malarial chemotherapy. Several series of inhibitors developed by various research groups display IC50/Ki values down to nM range on native PfA-M1 or recombinant forms and block the parasite development in culture at µM to sub-µM concentrations. A handful of these inhibitors has been tested on murine models of malaria and has shown anti plasmodial in vivo activity. However, most of these inhibitors do also target the other neutral malarial aminopeptidase, PfA-M17, often with lower Ki values, which questions the relative involvement and importance of each enzyme in the parasite biology. Results An amino-benzosuberone derivative from a previously published collection of chemicals targeting specifically the M1-aminopeptidases has been identified; it is highly potent on PfA-M1 (Ki = 50 nM) and devoid of inhibitory activity on PfA-M17 (no inhibition up to 100 µM). This amino-benzosuberone derivative (T5) inhibits, in the µM range, the in vitro growth of two P. falciparum strains, 3D7 and FcB1, respectively chloroquino-sensitive and resistant. Evaluated in vivo, on the murine non-lethal model of malaria Plasmodium chabaudi chabaudi, this amino-benzosuberone derivative was able to reduce the parasite burden by 44 and 40% in a typical 4-day Peters assay at a daily dose of 12 and 24 mg/kg by intraperitoneal route of administration. Conclusions The evaluation of a highly selective inhibitor of PfA-M1, over PfA-M17, active on Plasmodium parasites in vitro and in vivo, highlights the relevance of PfA-M1 in the biological development of the parasite as well as in the list of promising anti-malarial targets to be considered in combination with current or future anti-malarial drugs. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12936-017-2032-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lotfi Bounaadja
- Molécules de Communication et Adaptation des Microorganismes, (MCAM, UMR7245), Muséum National Histoire Naturelle, Sorbonne Universités, CNRS, CP 52, 57 Rue Cuvier, 75005, Paris, France
| | - Marjorie Schmitt
- Laboratoire de Chimie Moléculaire, CNRS-UMR7509, Université de Strasbourg, 67037, Strasbourg Cedex 2, France
| | - Sébastien Albrecht
- Laboratoire de Chimie Organique et Bioorganique, EA4566, Université de Haute Alsace, 68093, Mulhouse Cedex, France
| | - Elisabeth Mouray
- Molécules de Communication et Adaptation des Microorganismes, (MCAM, UMR7245), Muséum National Histoire Naturelle, Sorbonne Universités, CNRS, CP 52, 57 Rue Cuvier, 75005, Paris, France
| | - Céline Tarnus
- Laboratoire de Chimie Organique et Bioorganique, EA4566, Université de Haute Alsace, 68093, Mulhouse Cedex, France
| | - Isabelle Florent
- Molécules de Communication et Adaptation des Microorganismes, (MCAM, UMR7245), Muséum National Histoire Naturelle, Sorbonne Universités, CNRS, CP 52, 57 Rue Cuvier, 75005, Paris, France.
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21
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Yang W, Riley BT, Lei X, Porebski BT, Kass I, Buckle AM, McGowan S. Generation of AMBER force field parameters for zinc centres of M1 and M17 family aminopeptidases. J Biomol Struct Dyn 2017; 36:2595-2604. [DOI: 10.1080/07391102.2017.1364669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Wei Yang
- Infection and Immunity Program, Department of Microbiology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Blake T. Riley
- Infection and Immunity Program, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Xiangyun Lei
- School of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 311 Ferst Drive N.W., Atlanta, GA, 30332-0100, USA
| | - Benjamin T. Porebski
- Infection and Immunity Program, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
- Medical Research Council Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Francis Crick Avenue, Cambridge, CB2 0QH, UK
| | - Itamar Kass
- Infection and Immunity Program, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
- Victorian Life Sciences Computation Centre, Monash University, Clayton 3800, Victoria, Australia
| | - Ashley M. Buckle
- Infection and Immunity Program, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Sheena McGowan
- Infection and Immunity Program, Department of Microbiology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
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22
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Rosati M, Dalal S, Klemba M. Two cap residues in the S1 subsite of a Plasmodium falciparum M1-family aminopeptidase promote broad specificity and enhance catalysis. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2017; 217:7-12. [PMID: 28811124 DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2017.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2017] [Revised: 08/04/2017] [Accepted: 08/05/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The aminopeptidase PfA-M1 is a key contributor to peptide catabolism in the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. PfA-M1 substrate specificity is shaped by the cylindrical S1 subsite, which accommodates the sidechain of the substrate P1 residue. At the top of the S1 subsite are two "cap" residues, E572 and M1034, that are positioned to influence S1 subsite specificity. In this study, we have mutated the cap residues, individually and together, and have evaluated the effects on PfA-M1 specificity and catalytic efficiency. When the P1 residue was too small to engage the cap residues, the mutations had no effect on catalysis. Hydrolysis of dipeptide substrates with a basic P1 residue was significantly impaired in the E572A mutant, most likely due to the loss of a stabilizing salt bridge between E572 and the P1 sidechain. With M1034A, a substantial reduction in catalytic efficiency was observed when the P1 sidechain was large and non-polar. The double E572A/M1034A exhibited significant decreases in catalytic efficiency for most substrates. This effect was not reversed with the polar substitutions E572N/M1034Q, which replaced the PfA-M1 cap residues with those of Escherichia coli aminopeptidase N. Both E572 and M1034 contributed to the binding of the competitive aminopeptidase inhibitor bestatin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Rosati
- Department of Biochemistry, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
| | - Seema Dalal
- Department of Biochemistry, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
| | - Michael Klemba
- Department of Biochemistry, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA.
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23
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González-Bacerio J, Maluf SEC, Méndez Y, Pascual I, Florent I, Melo PMS, Budu A, Ferreira JC, Moreno E, Carmona AK, Rivera DG, Alonso Del Rivero M, Gazarini ML. KBE009: An antimalarial bestatin-like inhibitor of the Plasmodium falciparum M1 aminopeptidase discovered in an Ugi multicomponent reaction-derived peptidomimetic library. Bioorg Med Chem 2017; 25:4628-4636. [PMID: 28728898 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2017.06.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2017] [Revised: 06/23/2017] [Accepted: 06/27/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Malaria is a global human parasitic disease mainly caused by the protozoon Plasmodium falciparum. Increased parasite resistance to current drugs determines the relevance of finding new treatments against new targets. A novel target is the M1 alanyl-aminopeptidase from P. falciparum (PfA-M1), which is essential for parasite development in human erythrocytes and is inhibited by the pseudo-peptide bestatin. In this work, we used a combinatorial multicomponent approach to produce a library of peptidomimetics and screened it for the inhibition of recombinant PfA-M1 (rPfA-M1) and the in vitro growth of P. falciparum erythrocytic stages (3D7 and FcB1 strains). Dose-response studies with selected compounds allowed identifying the bestatin-based peptidomimetic KBE009 as a submicromolar rPfA-M1 inhibitor (Ki=0.4μM) and an in vitro antimalarial compound as potent as bestatin (IC50=18μM; without promoting erythrocyte lysis). At therapeutic-relevant concentrations, KBE009 is selective for rPfA-M1 over porcine APN (a model of these enzymes from mammals), and is not cytotoxic against HUVEC cells. Docking simulations indicate that this compound binds PfA-M1 without Zn2+ coordination, establishing mainly hydrophobic interactions and showing a remarkable shape complementarity with the active site of the enzyme. Moreover, KBE009 inhibits the M1-type aminopeptidase activity (Ala-7-amido-4-methylcoumarin substrate) in isolated live parasites with a potency similar to that of the antimalarial activity (IC50=82μM), strongly suggesting that the antimalarial effect is directly related to the inhibition of the endogenous PfA-M1. These results support the value of this multicomponent strategy to identify PfA-M1 inhibitors, and make KBE009 a promising hit for drug development against malaria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorge González-Bacerio
- Centro de Estudio de Proteínas, Facultad de Biología, Universidad de La Habana, Calle 25 #455 entre I y J, 10400, Vedado, La Habana, Cuba.
| | - Sarah El Chamy Maluf
- Departamento de Biofísica, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Rua Pedro de Toledo, 669, 7 andar, 04039-032, Vila Mariana, São Paulo, Brazil.
| | - Yanira Méndez
- Centro de Estudio de Productos Naturales, Facultad de Química, Universidad de La Habana, Zapata y G, 10400 La Habana, Cuba.
| | - Isel Pascual
- Centro de Estudio de Proteínas, Facultad de Biología, Universidad de La Habana, Calle 25 #455 entre I y J, 10400, Vedado, La Habana, Cuba.
| | - Isabelle Florent
- Unité Molécules de Communication et Adaptation des Microorganismes, (MCAM, UMR 7245), Sorbonne Universités, Muséum National Histoire Naturelle, CNRS, CP 52, 57 Rue Cuvier, 75005 Paris, France.
| | - Pollyana M S Melo
- Departamento de Biofísica, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Rua Pedro de Toledo, 669, 7 andar, 04039-032, Vila Mariana, São Paulo, Brazil.
| | - Alexandre Budu
- Departamento de Biofísica, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Rua Pedro de Toledo, 669, 7 andar, 04039-032, Vila Mariana, São Paulo, Brazil.
| | - Juliana C Ferreira
- Departamento de Biofísica, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Rua Pedro de Toledo, 669, 7 andar, 04039-032, Vila Mariana, São Paulo, Brazil.
| | - Ernesto Moreno
- Centro de Inmunología Molecular, Calle 15 esq. 216, Siboney, Playa, La Habana, Cuba; Universidad de Medellín, Carrera 87 #30-65, Medellín, Colombia.
| | - Adriana K Carmona
- Departamento de Biofísica, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Rua Pedro de Toledo, 669, 7 andar, 04039-032, Vila Mariana, São Paulo, Brazil.
| | - Daniel G Rivera
- Centro de Estudio de Productos Naturales, Facultad de Química, Universidad de La Habana, Zapata y G, 10400 La Habana, Cuba.
| | - Maday Alonso Del Rivero
- Centro de Estudio de Proteínas, Facultad de Biología, Universidad de La Habana, Calle 25 #455 entre I y J, 10400, Vedado, La Habana, Cuba.
| | - Marcos L Gazarini
- Departamento de Biociências, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, R. Silva Jardim, 136, 11015-020, Vila Mathias, Santos, São Paulo, Brazil.
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24
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Roy KK. Targeting the active sites of malarial proteases for antimalarial drug discovery: approaches, progress and challenges. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2017; 50:287-302. [PMID: 28668681 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2017.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2016] [Revised: 04/12/2017] [Accepted: 04/27/2017] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Malaria is an infectious disease causing vast mortality and morbidity worldwide. Although antimalarial drugs are effective in several parts of the world, there is a serious threat to malaria control as malaria parasites are continuously developing widespread resistance against currently available antimalarial drugs, including artemisinin. Such widespread antimalarial drug resistance confirms the need to improve the efficacy of existing or new drugs as well as to develop alternative treatments through the identification of novel drug targets and the development of candidate drugs. Similar to proteases in other parasitic diseases such as leishmaniasis, schistosomiasis, Chagas disease and African sleeping sickness, malarial proteases constitute the major virulence factors in malaria. Malarial proteases belong to several classes and many of them have been targeted for the design and discovery of antimalarial agents. This review summarises the approaches, progress and challenges in the design of small-molecule inhibitors as antimalarial drugs targeting the inhibition of various malarial proteases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kuldeep K Roy
- National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), 4 Raja S.C. Mullick Road, Jadavpur, Kolkata 700032, West Bengal, India.
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25
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Drinkwater N, Lee J, Yang W, Malcolm TR, McGowan S. M1 aminopeptidases as drug targets: broad applications or therapeutic niche? FEBS J 2017; 284:1473-1488. [PMID: 28075056 PMCID: PMC7164018 DOI: 10.1111/febs.14009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2016] [Revised: 12/12/2016] [Accepted: 01/09/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
M1 aminopeptidase enzymes are a diverse family of metalloenzymes characterized by conserved structure and reaction specificity. Excluding viruses, M1 aminopeptidases are distributed throughout all phyla, and have been implicated in a wide range of functions including cell maintenance, growth and development, and defense. The structure and catalytic mechanism of M1 aminopeptidases are well understood, and make them ideal candidates for the design of small‐molecule inhibitors. As a result, many research groups have assessed their utility as therapeutic targets for both infectious and chronic diseases of humans, and many inhibitors with a range of target specificities and potential therapeutic applications have been developed. Herein, we have aimed to address these studies, to determine whether the family of M1 aminopeptidases does in fact present a universal target for the treatment of a diverse range of human diseases. Our analysis indicates that early validation of M1 aminopeptidases as therapeutic targets is often overlooked, which prevents the enzymes from being confirmed as drug targets. This validation cannot be neglected, and needs to include a thorough characterization of enzymes’ specific roles within complex physiological pathways. Furthermore, any chemical probes used in target validation must be carefully designed to ensure that specificity over the closely related enzymes has been achieved. While many drug discovery programs that target M1 aminopeptidases remain in their infancy, certain inhibitors have shown promise for the treatment of a range of conditions including malaria, hypertension, and cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nyssa Drinkwater
- Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Melbourne, Vic., Australia
| | - Jisook Lee
- Medicinal Chemistry, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, Vic., Australia
| | - Wei Yang
- Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Melbourne, Vic., Australia
| | - Tess R Malcolm
- Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Melbourne, Vic., Australia
| | - Sheena McGowan
- Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Melbourne, Vic., Australia
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26
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Deng H, Kooijman S, van den Nieuwendijk AMCH, Ogasawara D, van der Wel T, van Dalen F, Baggelaar MP, Janssen FJ, van den Berg RJBHN, den Dulk H, Cravatt BF, Overkleeft HS, Rensen PCN, van der Stelt M. Triazole Ureas Act as Diacylglycerol Lipase Inhibitors and Prevent Fasting-Induced Refeeding. J Med Chem 2016; 60:428-440. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.6b01482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hui Deng
- Department
of Molecular Physiology, Leiden Institute of Chemistry, Leiden University, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Sander Kooijman
- Department
of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, and Einthoven Laboratory for
Experimental Vascular Medicine, Leiden University Medical Center, 2333 ZA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | | | - Daisuke Ogasawara
- Department
of Chemical Physiology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
| | - Tom van der Wel
- Department
of Molecular Physiology, Leiden Institute of Chemistry, Leiden University, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Floris van Dalen
- Department
of Molecular Physiology, Leiden Institute of Chemistry, Leiden University, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Marc P. Baggelaar
- Department
of Molecular Physiology, Leiden Institute of Chemistry, Leiden University, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Freek J. Janssen
- Department
of Molecular Physiology, Leiden Institute of Chemistry, Leiden University, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands
| | | | - Hans den Dulk
- Department
of Molecular Physiology, Leiden Institute of Chemistry, Leiden University, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Benjamin F. Cravatt
- Department
of Chemical Physiology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
| | - Herman S. Overkleeft
- Department
of Bioorganic Synthesis, Leiden Institute of Chemistry, Leiden University, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Patrick C. N. Rensen
- Department
of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, and Einthoven Laboratory for
Experimental Vascular Medicine, Leiden University Medical Center, 2333 ZA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Mario van der Stelt
- Department
of Molecular Physiology, Leiden Institute of Chemistry, Leiden University, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands
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27
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Miranda WE, Ngo VA, Valiente PA, Noskov SY. Improved QM/MM Linear-Interaction Energy Model for Substrate Recognition in Zinc-Containing Metalloenzymes. J Phys Chem B 2016; 120:7824-35. [PMID: 27448039 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.6b05628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
One of the essential challenges in the description of receptor-drug interactions in the presence of various polyvalent cations (such as zinc, magnesium, or iron) is the accurate assessment of the electronic effects due to cofactor binding. The effects can range from partial electronic polarization of the proximal atoms in a receptor and bound substrate to long-range effects related to partial charge transfer and electronic delocalization effects between the cofactor and the drug. Here, we examine the role of the explicit account for electronic effects for a panel of small-molecule inhibitors binding to the zinc-aminopeptidase PfA-M1, an essential target for antimalarial drug development. Our study on PfA-M1:inhibitor interactions at the QM level reveals that the partial charge and proton transfer due to bound zinc ion are important mechanisms in the inhibitors' recognition and catalysis. The combination of classical MD simulations with a posteriori QM/MM corrections with novel DFTB parameters for the zinc cation and the linear-interaction energy (LIE) approach offers by far the most accurate estimates for the PfA-M1:inhibitor binding affinities, opening the door for future inhibitor design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Williams E Miranda
- Computational Biology and Biomolecular Dynamics Laboratory, Center for Protein Studies, Faculty of Biology, University of Havana , Havana, Cuba.,Centre for Molecular Simulations and Department of Biological Sciences, University of Calgary , 2500 University Drive, BI-449, Calgary, Alberta T2N 1N4, Canada
| | - Van A Ngo
- Centre for Molecular Simulations and Department of Biological Sciences, University of Calgary , 2500 University Drive, BI-449, Calgary, Alberta T2N 1N4, Canada
| | - Pedro A Valiente
- Computational Biology and Biomolecular Dynamics Laboratory, Center for Protein Studies, Faculty of Biology, University of Havana , Havana, Cuba
| | - Sergei Yu Noskov
- Centre for Molecular Simulations and Department of Biological Sciences, University of Calgary , 2500 University Drive, BI-449, Calgary, Alberta T2N 1N4, Canada
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28
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Drinkwater N, Vinh NB, Mistry SN, Bamert RS, Ruggeri C, Holleran JP, Loganathan S, Paiardini A, Charman SA, Powell AK, Avery VM, McGowan S, Scammells PJ. Potent dual inhibitors of Plasmodium falciparum M1 and M17 aminopeptidases through optimization of S1 pocket interactions. Eur J Med Chem 2016; 110:43-64. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2016.01.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2015] [Revised: 01/11/2016] [Accepted: 01/11/2016] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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29
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Aneja B, Kumar B, Jairajpuri MA, Abid M. A structure guided drug-discovery approach towards identification of Plasmodium inhibitors. RSC Adv 2016. [DOI: 10.1039/c5ra19673f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
This article provides a comprehensive review of inhibitors from natural, semisynthetic or synthetic sources against key targets ofPlasmodium falciparum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Babita Aneja
- Medicinal Chemistry Lab
- Department of Biosciences
- Jamia Millia Islamia (A Central University)
- New Delhi 110025
- India
| | - Bhumika Kumar
- Medicinal Chemistry Lab
- Department of Biosciences
- Jamia Millia Islamia (A Central University)
- New Delhi 110025
- India
| | - Mohamad Aman Jairajpuri
- Protein Conformation and Enzymology Lab
- Department of Biosciences
- Jamia Millia Islamia (A Central University)
- New Delhi 110025
- India
| | - Mohammad Abid
- Medicinal Chemistry Lab
- Department of Biosciences
- Jamia Millia Islamia (A Central University)
- New Delhi 110025
- India
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30
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Design and synthesis of fused tetrahydroisoquinoline-iminoimidazolines. Eur J Med Chem 2015; 106:15-25. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2015.10.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2015] [Revised: 10/14/2015] [Accepted: 10/15/2015] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
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31
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Drinkwater N, Bamert RS, Sivaraman KK, Paiardini A, McGowan S. X-ray crystal structures of an orally available aminopeptidase inhibitor, Tosedostat, bound to anti-malarial drug targets P
f
A-M1 and P
f
A-M17. Proteins 2015; 83:789-95. [DOI: 10.1002/prot.24771] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2014] [Revised: 01/16/2015] [Accepted: 01/20/2015] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Nyssa Drinkwater
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology; Monash University; Melbourne Victoria 3800 Australia
| | - Rebecca S. Bamert
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology; Monash University; Melbourne Victoria 3800 Australia
| | - Komagal Kannan Sivaraman
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology; Monash University; Melbourne Victoria 3800 Australia
| | - Alessandro Paiardini
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biochimiche “A. Rossi Fanelli”; Sapienza University of Rome; Rome Italy
| | - Sheena McGowan
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology; Monash University; Melbourne Victoria 3800 Australia
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32
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Paiardini A, Bamert RS, Kannan-Sivaraman K, Drinkwater N, Mistry SN, Scammells PJ, McGowan S. Screening the Medicines for Malaria Venture "Malaria Box" against the Plasmodium falciparum aminopeptidases, M1, M17 and M18. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0115859. [PMID: 25700165 PMCID: PMC4336144 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0115859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2014] [Accepted: 12/02/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Malaria is a parasitic disease that remains a global health burden. The ability of the parasite to rapidly develop resistance to therapeutics drives an urgent need for the delivery of new drugs. The Medicines for Malaria Venture have compounds known for their antimalarial activity, but not necessarily the molecular targets. In this study, we assess the ability of the “MMV 400” compounds to inhibit the activity of three metalloaminopeptidases from Plasmodium falciparum, PfA-M1, PfA-M17 and PfM18 AAP. We have developed a multiplex assay system to allow rapid primary screening of compounds against all three metalloaminopeptidases, followed by detailed analysis of promising compounds. Our results show that there were no PfM18AAP inhibitors, whereas two moderate inhibitors of the neutral aminopeptidases PfA-M1 and PfA-M17 were identified. Further investigation through structure-activity relationship studies and molecular docking suggest that these compounds are competitive inhibitors with novel binding mechanisms, acting through either non-classical zinc coordination or independently of zinc binding altogether. Although it is unlikely that inhibition of PfA-M1 and/or PfA-M17 is the primary mechanism responsible for the antiplasmodial activity reported for these compounds, their detailed characterization, as presented in this work, pave the way for their further optimization as a novel class of dual PfA-M1/PfA-M17 inhibitors utilising non-classical zinc binding groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandro Paiardini
- Dipartmento di Scienze biochimiche "A. Rossi Fanelli", Sapienza Università di Roma, Roma, Italy
| | - Rebecca S. Bamert
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton Campus, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Komagal Kannan-Sivaraman
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton Campus, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Nyssa Drinkwater
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton Campus, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Shailesh N. Mistry
- Medicinal Chemistry, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville Campus, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Peter J. Scammells
- Medicinal Chemistry, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville Campus, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Sheena McGowan
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton Campus, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- * E-mail:
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33
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Gurubrahamam R, Cheng YS, Chen K. Control of Five Contiguous Stereogenic Centers in an Organocatalytic Kinetic Resolution via Michael/Acetalization Sequence: Synthesis of Fully Substituted Tetrahydropyranols. Org Lett 2015; 17:430-3. [DOI: 10.1021/ol5033656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Ramani Gurubrahamam
- Department of Chemistry, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei 11677, Taiwan
| | - You-Song Cheng
- Department of Chemistry, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei 11677, Taiwan
| | - Kwunmin Chen
- Department of Chemistry, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei 11677, Taiwan
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34
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High-level expression in Escherichia coli, purification and kinetic characterization of Plasmodium falciparum M1-aminopeptidase. Protein Expr Purif 2014; 104:103-14. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pep.2014.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2014] [Revised: 08/03/2014] [Accepted: 08/05/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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35
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Deshmukh SC, Talukdar P. Stereoselective Synthesis of (2S,3R)-α-Hydroxy-β-Amino Acids (AHBAs): Valinoctin A, (2S,3R)-3-Amino-2-Hydroxydecanoic Acid, and a Fluorescent-Labeled (2S,3R)-AHBA. J Org Chem 2014; 79:11215-25. [DOI: 10.1021/jo501751u] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Pinaki Talukdar
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Pune, Pune, 411008 India
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36
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Mistry SN, Drinkwater N, Ruggeri C, Sivaraman KK, Loganathan S, Fletcher S, Drag M, Paiardini A, Avery VM, Scammells PJ, McGowan S. Two-Pronged Attack: Dual Inhibition of Plasmodium falciparum M1 and M17 Metalloaminopeptidases by a Novel Series of Hydroxamic Acid-Based Inhibitors. J Med Chem 2014; 57:9168-83. [DOI: 10.1021/jm501323a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Shailesh N. Mistry
- Medicinal
Chemistry, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
| | - Nyssa Drinkwater
- Department
of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Chiara Ruggeri
- Department
of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
- Dipartmento
di Scienze Biochimiche “A. Rossi Fanelli”, Sapienza Universita di Roma, 00185 Roma, Italy
| | - Komagal Kannan Sivaraman
- Department
of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Sasdekumar Loganathan
- Discovery
Biology, Eskitis Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Nathan, Queensland 4111, Australia
| | - Sabine Fletcher
- Discovery
Biology, Eskitis Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Nathan, Queensland 4111, Australia
| | - Marcin Drag
- Division
of Bioorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Wroclaw University of Technology, Wyb. Wyspianskiego 27, 50-370 Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Alessandro Paiardini
- Dipartmento
di Scienze Biochimiche “A. Rossi Fanelli”, Sapienza Universita di Roma, 00185 Roma, Italy
| | - Vicky M. Avery
- Discovery
Biology, Eskitis Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Nathan, Queensland 4111, Australia
| | - Peter J. Scammells
- Medicinal
Chemistry, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
| | - Sheena McGowan
- Department
of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
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37
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Abstract
Despite a century of control and eradication campaigns, malaria remains one of the world's most devastating diseases. Our once-powerful therapeutic weapons are losing the war against the Plasmodium parasite, whose ability to rapidly develop and spread drug resistance hamper past and present malaria-control efforts. Finding new and effective treatments for malaria is now a top global health priority, fuelling an increase in funding and promoting open-source collaborations between researchers and pharmaceutical consortia around the world. The result of this is rapid advances in drug discovery approaches and technologies, with three major methods for antimalarial drug development emerging: (i) chemistry-based, (ii) target-based, and (iii) cell-based. Common to all three of these approaches is the unique ability of structural biology to inform and accelerate drug development. Where possible, SBDD (structure-based drug discovery) is a foundation for antimalarial drug development programmes, and has been invaluable to the development of a number of current pre-clinical and clinical candidates. However, as we expand our understanding of the malarial life cycle and mechanisms of resistance development, SBDD as a field must continue to evolve in order to develop compounds that adhere to the ideal characteristics for novel antimalarial therapeutics and to avoid high attrition rates pre- and post-clinic. In the present review, we aim to examine the contribution that SBDD has made to current antimalarial drug development efforts, covering hit discovery to lead optimization and prevention of parasite resistance. Finally, the potential for structural biology, particularly high-throughput structural genomics programmes, to identify future targets for drug discovery are discussed.
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38
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Méndez Y, Pérez-Labrada K, González-Bacerio J, Valdés G, de los Chávez MÁ, Osuna J, Charli JL, Pascual I, Rivera DG. Combinatorial multicomponent access to natural-products-inspired peptidomimetics: discovery of selective inhibitors of microbial metallo-aminopeptidases. ChemMedChem 2014; 9:2351-9. [PMID: 24989844 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.201402140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2014] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The development of selective inhibitors of microbial metallo-aminopeptidases is an important goal in the pursuit of antimicrobials for therapeutic applications. Herein, we disclose a combinatorial approach relying on two Ugi reactions for the generation of peptidomimetics inspired by natural metallo-aminopeptidase inhibitors. The library was screened for inhibitory activity against the neutral metallo-aminopeptidase of Escherichia coli (ePepN) and the porcine kidney cortex metallo-aminopeptidase (pAPN), which was used as a model of the M1-aminopeptidases of mammals. Six compounds showed typical dose-response inhibition profiles toward recombinant ePepN, with two of them being very potent and highly selective for ePepN over pAPN. Another compound showed moderate ePepN inhibition but total selectivity for this bacterial enzyme over its mammalian orthologue at concentrations of physiological relevance. This strategy proved to be useful for the identification of lead compounds for further optimization and development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanira Méndez
- Center for Natural Products Research, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Havana, Zapata y G, 10400, La Habana (Cuba)
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39
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Aminopeptidase N1 (EtAPN1), an M1 metalloprotease of the apicomplexan parasite Eimeria tenella, participates in parasite development. EUKARYOTIC CELL 2014; 13:884-95. [PMID: 24839124 DOI: 10.1128/ec.00062-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Aminopeptidases N are metalloproteases of the M1 family that have been reported in numerous apicomplexan parasites, including Plasmodium, Toxoplasma, Cryptosporidium, and Eimeria. While investigating the potency of aminopeptidases as therapeutic targets against coccidiosis, one of the most important avian diseases caused by the genus Eimeria, we identified and characterized Eimeria tenella aminopeptidase N1 (EtAPN1). Its inhibition by bestatin and amastatin, as well as its reactivation by divalent ions, is typical of zinc-dependent metalloproteases. EtAPN1 shared a similar sequence, three-dimensional structure, and substrate specificity and similar kinetic parameters with A-M1 from Plasmodium falciparum (PfA-M1), a validated target in the treatment of malaria. EtAPN1 is synthesized as a 120-kDa precursor and cleaved into 96-, 68-, and 38-kDa forms during sporulation. Further, immunolocalization assays revealed that, similar to PfA-M1, EtAPN1 is present during the intracellular life cycle stages in both the parasite cytoplasm and the parasite nucleus. The present results support the hypothesis of a conserved role between the two aminopeptidases, and we suggest that EtAPN1 might be a valuable target for anticoccidiosis drugs.
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40
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Kumar B, Aga MA, Rouf A, Shah BA, Taneja SC. Common precursor strategy for the synthesis of bestatin, amprenavir intermediate and syn-4-hydroxy-5-phenyl-γ-lactam. RSC Adv 2014. [DOI: 10.1039/c4ra00205a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
A synthetic strategy using α,β-unsaturated ester as a common precursor for the preparation of bestatin hydrochloride, an anticancer agent; 1,3-diaminoalcohol, an amprenavir intermediate andsyn-4-hydroxy-5-phenyl-γ-lactam, an intermediate of bioactive molecules with good yields and excellent stereoselectivity is described.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brijesh Kumar
- Bio-organic Chemistry Division
- Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine (CSIR)
- Jammu, India-180001
| | - Mushtaq A. Aga
- Bio-organic Chemistry Division
- Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine (CSIR)
- Jammu, India-180001
| | - Abdul Rouf
- Bio-organic Chemistry Division
- Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine (CSIR)
- Jammu, India-180001
| | - Bhahwal A. Shah
- Natural Product Microbe
- Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine (CSIR)
- Jammu, India-180001
| | - Subhash C. Taneja
- Bio-organic Chemistry Division
- Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine (CSIR)
- Jammu, India-180001
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41
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McGowan S. Working in concert: the metalloaminopeptidases from Plasmodium falciparum. Curr Opin Struct Biol 2013; 23:828-35. [PMID: 23948130 DOI: 10.1016/j.sbi.2013.07.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2013] [Revised: 07/24/2013] [Accepted: 07/24/2013] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Malaria remains the world's most prevalent human parasitic disease. Because of the rapid spread of drug resistance in parasites, there is an urgent need to identify diverse new drug targets. One group of proteases that are emerging as targets for novel antimalarials are the metalloaminopeptidases. These enzymes catalyze the removal of the N-terminal amino acids from proteins and peptides. Given the restricted specificities of each of these enzymes for different N-terminal amino acids, it is thought that they act in concert to facilitate protein turnover. Here we review recent structure and functional data relating to the development of the Plasmodium falciparum metalloaminopeptidases as drug targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheena McGowan
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton Campus, Melbourne, Victoria 3800, Australia.
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42
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McGowan S. Sitagliptin does not inhibit the M1 alanyl aminopeptidase from Plasmodium falciparum. Bioinformation 2013; 9:661-2. [PMID: 23930016 PMCID: PMC3732437 DOI: 10.6026/97320630009661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2013] [Accepted: 06/01/2013] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Sheena McGowan
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton Campus, Australia
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43
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Kannan Sivaraman K, Paiardini A, Sieńczyk M, Ruggeri C, Oellig CA, Dalton JP, Scammells PJ, Drag M, McGowan S. Synthesis and structure-activity relationships of phosphonic arginine mimetics as inhibitors of the M1 and M17 aminopeptidases from Plasmodium falciparum. J Med Chem 2013; 56:5213-7. [PMID: 23713488 DOI: 10.1021/jm4005972] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum employs two metallo-aminopeptidases, PfA-M1 and PfA-M17, which are essential for parasite survival. Compounds that inhibit the activity of either enzyme represent leads for the development of new antimalarial drugs. Here we report the synthesis and structure-activity relationships of a small library of phosphonic acid arginine mimetics that probe the S1 pocket of both enzymes and map the necessary interactions that would be important for a dual inhibitor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Komagal Kannan Sivaraman
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton Campus, Melbourne, VIC 3800, Australia
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44
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Fernández-Bachiller MI, Horatscheck A, Lisurek M, Rademann J. Alzheimer's disease: identification and development of β-secretase (BACE-1) binding fragments and inhibitors by dynamic ligation screening (DLS). ChemMedChem 2013; 8:1041-56. [PMID: 23757181 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.201300078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2013] [Revised: 04/25/2013] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
The application of dynamic ligation screening (DLS), a methodology for fragment-based drug discovery (FBDD), to the aspartic protease β-secretase (BACE-1) is reported. For this purpose, three new fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) substrates were designed and synthesized. Their kinetic parameters (Vmax , KM , and kcat ) were determined and compared with a commercial substrate. Secondly, a peptide aldehyde was designed as a chemically reactive inhibitor (CRI) based on the Swedish mutation substrate sequence. Incubation of this CRI with the protease, a FRET substrate, and one amine per well taken from an amine library, which was assembled by a maximum common substructure (MCS) approach, revealed the fragment 3-(3-aminophenyl)-2H-chromen-2-one (1) to be a competitive BACE-1 inhibitor that enhanced the activity of the CRI. Irreversibly formed fragment combination products of 1 with the initial peptide sequence were active and confirmed the targeting of the active site through the ethane-1,2-diamine isostere. Finally, structure-assisted combination of fragment 1 with secondary fragments that target the S1 site in hit optimization yielded novel, entirely fragment-based BACE-1 inhibitors with up to 30-fold improved binding affinity. Interactions with the protein were explained by molecular modeling studies, which indicate that the new fragment combinations interact with the catalytic aspartic acid dyad, as well as with the adjacent binding sites required for potency.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Isabel Fernández-Bachiller
- Medicinal Chemistry Department, Leibniz Institut für Molekulare Pharmakologie (FMP) Campus Berlin-Buch, Robert-Rössle Str. 10, 13125 Berlin, Germany
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45
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Deprez-Poulain R, Flipo M, Piveteau C, Leroux F, Dassonneville S, Florent I, Maes L, Cos P, Deprez B. Structure-activity relationships and blood distribution of antiplasmodial aminopeptidase-1 inhibitors. J Med Chem 2012; 55:10909-17. [PMID: 23176597 DOI: 10.1021/jm301506h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Malaria is a severe infectious disease that causes between 655,000 and 1.2 million deaths annually. To overcome the resistance to current drugs, new biological targets are needed for drug development. Aminopeptidase M1 (PfAM1), a zinc metalloprotease, has been proposed as a new drug target to fight malaria. Herein, we disclosed the structure-activity relationships of a selective family of hydroxamate PfAM1 inhibitors based on the malonic template. In particular, we performed a "fluoro-scanning" around hit 1 that enlightened the key positions of the halogen for activity. The docking of the best inhibitor 2 is consistent with in vitro results. The stability of 2 was evaluated in microsomes, in plasma, and toward glutathione. The in vivo distribution study performed with the nanomolar hydroxamate inhibitor 2 (BDM14471) revealed that it reaches its site of action. However, it fails to kill the parasite at concentrations relevant to the enzymatic inhibitory potency, suggesting that killing the parasite remains a challenge for potent and druglike catalytic-site binding PfAM1 inhibitors. In all, this study provides important insights for the design of inhibitors of PfAM1 and the validity of this target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca Deprez-Poulain
- INSERM U761, Biostructures and Drug Discovery and Faculté de Pharmacie, Université Lille Nord de France, 3 rue du Pr Laguesse, Lille F-59000, France.
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Ghosh AK, Venkateswara Rao K, Yadav ND, Anderson DD, Gavande N, Huang X, Terzyan S, Tang J. Structure-based design of highly selective β-secretase inhibitors: synthesis, biological evaluation, and protein-ligand X-ray crystal structure. J Med Chem 2012; 55:9195-207. [PMID: 22954357 DOI: 10.1021/jm3008823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The structure-based design, synthesis, and X-ray structure of protein-ligand complexes of exceptionally potent and selective β-secretase inhibitors are described. The inhibitors are designed specifically to interact with S(1)' active site residues to provide selectivity over memapsin 1 and cathepsin D. Inhibitor 5 has exhibited exceedingly potent inhibitory activity (K(i) = 17 pM) and high selectivity over BACE 2 (>7000-fold) and cathepsin D (>250000-fold). A protein-ligand crystal structure revealed important molecular insight into these selectivities. These interactions may serve as an important guide to design selectivity over the physiologically important aspartic acid proteases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arun K Ghosh
- Department of Chemistry, Purdue University, 560 Oval Drive, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States.
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Poreba M, McGowan S, Skinner-Adams TS, Trenholme KR, Gardiner DL, Whisstock JC, To J, Salvesen GS, Dalton JP, Drag M. Fingerprinting the substrate specificity of M1 and M17 aminopeptidases of human malaria, Plasmodium falciparum. PLoS One 2012; 7:e31938. [PMID: 22359643 PMCID: PMC3281095 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0031938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2011] [Accepted: 01/18/2012] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Plasmodium falciparum, the causative agent of human malaria, expresses two aminopeptidases, PfM1AAP and PfM17LAP, critical to generating a free amino acid pool used by the intraerythrocytic stage of the parasite for proteins synthesis, growth and development. These exopeptidases are potential targets for the development of a new class of anti-malaria drugs. Methodology/Principal Findings To define the substrate specificity of recombinant forms of these two malaria aminopeptidases we used a new library consisting of 61 fluorogenic substrates derived both from natural and unnatural amino acids. We obtained a detailed substrate fingerprint for recombinant forms of the enzymes revealing that PfM1AAP exhibits a very broad substrate tolerance, capable of efficiently hydrolyzing neutral and basic amino acids, while PfM17LAP has narrower substrate specificity and preferentially cleaves bulky, hydrophobic amino acids. The substrate library was also exploited to profile the activity of the native aminopeptidases in soluble cell lysates of P. falciparum malaria. Conclusions/Significance This data showed that PfM1AAP and PfM17LAP are responsible for majority of the aminopeptidase activity in these extracts. These studies provide specific substrate and mechanistic information important for understanding the function of these aminopeptidases and could be exploited in the design of new inhibitors to specifically target these for anti-malaria treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcin Poreba
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry and Microbiology, Faculty of Chemistry, Wroclaw University of Technology, Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Sheena McGowan
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Structural and Functional Microbial Genomics, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Tina S. Skinner-Adams
- Malaria Biology Laboratory, Queensland Institute of Medical Research, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- Griffith Medical Research College, Joint Program of Griffith University and the Queensland Institute of Medical Research, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- School of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Royal Brisbane Hospital, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Katharine R. Trenholme
- Malaria Biology Laboratory, Queensland Institute of Medical Research, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- Griffith Medical Research College, Joint Program of Griffith University and the Queensland Institute of Medical Research, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- School of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Royal Brisbane Hospital, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Donald L. Gardiner
- Malaria Biology Laboratory, Queensland Institute of Medical Research, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- Griffith Medical Research College, Joint Program of Griffith University and the Queensland Institute of Medical Research, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- School of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Royal Brisbane Hospital, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - James C. Whisstock
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Structural and Functional Microbial Genomics, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Joyce To
- Institute of Parasitology, McGill University, Sainte Anne de Bellevue, Quebec, Canada
| | - Guy S. Salvesen
- Program in Apoptosis and Cell Death Research, Sanford Burnham Medical Research Institute, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - John P. Dalton
- Institute of Parasitology, McGill University, Sainte Anne de Bellevue, Quebec, Canada
- * E-mail: (JD); (MD)
| | - Marcin Drag
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry and Microbiology, Faculty of Chemistry, Wroclaw University of Technology, Wroclaw, Poland
- Program in Apoptosis and Cell Death Research, Sanford Burnham Medical Research Institute, La Jolla, California, United States of America
- * E-mail: (JD); (MD)
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Jones PM, Robinson MW, Dalton JP, George AM. The Plasmodium falciparum malaria M1 alanyl aminopeptidase (PfA-M1): insights of catalytic mechanism and function from MD simulations. PLoS One 2011; 6:e28589. [PMID: 22205955 PMCID: PMC3244404 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0028589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2011] [Accepted: 11/11/2011] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Malaria caused by several species of Plasmodium is major parasitic disease of humans, causing 1–3 million deaths worldwide annually. The widespread resistance of the human parasite to current drug therapies is of major concern making the identification of new drug targets urgent. While the parasite grows and multiplies inside the host erythrocyte it degrades the host cell hemoglobin and utilizes the released amino acids to synthesize its own proteins. The P. falciparum malarial M1 alanyl-aminopeptidase (PfA-M1) is an enzyme involved in the terminal stages of hemoglobin digestion and the generation of an amino acid pool within the parasite. The enzyme has been validated as a potential drug target since inhibitors of the enzyme block parasite growth in vitro and in vivo. In order to gain further understanding of this enzyme, molecular dynamics simulations using data from a recent crystal structure of PfA-M1 were performed. The results elucidate the pentahedral coordination of the catalytic Zn in these metallo-proteases and provide new insights into the roles of this cation and important active site residues in ligand binding and in the hydrolysis of the peptide bond. Based on the data, we propose a two-step catalytic mechanism, in which the conformation of the active site is altered between the Michaelis complex and the transition state. In addition, the simulations identify global changes in the protein in which conformational transitions in the catalytic domain are transmitted at the opening of the N-terminal 8 Å-long channel and at the opening of the 30 Å-long C-terminal internal chamber that facilitates entry of peptides to the active site and exit of released amino acids. The possible implications of these global changes with regard to enzyme function are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter M. Jones
- School of Medical and Molecular Biosciences, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- i3 Institute, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Mark W. Robinson
- i3 Institute, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - John P. Dalton
- Institute of Parasitology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Anthony M. George
- School of Medical and Molecular Biosciences, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- i3 Institute, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- * E-mail:
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Gumpena R, Kishor C, Ganji RJ, Addlagatta A. Discovery of α,β- and α,γ-diamino acid scaffolds for the inhibition of M1 family aminopeptidases. ChemMedChem 2011; 6:1971-6. [PMID: 22025387 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.201100298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2011] [Revised: 07/11/2011] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rajesh Gumpena
- Center for Chemical Biology, Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Tarnaka, Hyderabad, AP-500 607, India
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