Discovery of Highly Potent, Selective, and Brain-Penetrant Aminopyrazole Leucine-Rich Repeat Kinase 2 (LRRK2) Small Molecule Inhibitors

Identification of Potent Leucine-Rich Repeat Kinase 2 Inhibitors by Virtual Screening and Biological Evaluation

Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disease but has limited medications. Targeting leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) has been identified as a potential strategy for the treatment of PD. The development of LRRK2 inhibitors has attracted much interest, and various compounds have been reported with significant improvement in preclinical and clinical models. Currently, no LRRK2 inhibitor has been approved for PD intervention. Herein, we reported a virtual screening (VS) workflow combining molecular docking and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations to achieve eight compounds for further enzymatic assay. The results indicated a potent LRRK2 inhibitor 2 with IC50 values of 2.396 and 5.996 μM against LRRK2 and LRRK2 G2019S, respectively, implying the reliability of this VS approach. Combined with predicted favorable drug-like properties, this hit can be used as a starting point for further structural optimization, probably offering insight into targeting LRRK2 for PD treatment in the future.

Discovery and Optimization of Pyrazine Carboxamide AZ3246, a Selective HPK1 Inhibitor

Hematopoietic progenitor kinase 1 (HPK1) is a negative regulator of the T cell receptor signaling pathway and is therefore a target of interest for immunooncology. Nonselective HPK1 inhibitors may affect other kinase components of T cell activation, blunting the beneficial impact of enhanced T cell activity that results from HPK1 inhibition itself. Here, we report the discovery of pyrazine carboxamide HPK1 inhibitors and their optimization through structure-based drug design to afford a highly selective HPK1 inhibitor, compound 24 (AZ3246). This compound induces IL-2 secretion in T cells with an EC50 of 90 nM without inhibiting antagonistic kinases, exhibits pharmacokinetic properties consistent with oral dosing, and demonstrates antitumor activity in the EMT6 syngeneic mouse model.

The design and development of LRRK2 inhibitors as novel therapeutics for Parkinson's disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a common neurodegenerative disease affecting nearly 10 million people worldwide and placing a heavy medical burden on both society and families. However, due to the complexity of its pathological mechanisms, current treatments for PD can only alleviate patients' symptoms. Therefore, novel therapeutic strategies are urgently sought in clinical practice. Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) has emerged as a highly promising target for PD therapy. Missense mutations within the structural domain of LRRK2, the most common genetic risk factor for PD, lead to abnormally elevated kinase activity and increase the risk of developing PD. In this article, we provide a comprehensive overview of the structure, biological function, and pathogenic mutations of LRRK2, and examine recent advances in the development of LRRK2 inhibitors. We hope that this article will provide a reference for the design of novel LRRK2 inhibitors based on summarizing the facts and elucidating the viewpoints.

Small Molecules in Parkinson's Disease Therapy: From Dopamine Pathways to New Emerging Targets

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a chronic, progressive neurological disorder affecting approximately 10 million people worldwide, with prevalence expected to rise as the global population ages. It is characterized by the degeneration of dopamine-producing neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta, leading to motor symptoms such as tremor, rigidity, bradykinesia, postural instability, and gait disturbances, as well as non-motor symptoms including olfactory disturbances, sleep disorders, and depression. Currently, no cure exists for PD, and most available therapies focus on symptom alleviation. This dopamine deficiency impairs motor control, and since dopamine itself cannot cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB), the precursor L-Dopa is commonly used in treatment. L-Dopa is administered with enzyme inhibitors to prevent premature conversion outside the brain, allowing it to cross the BBB and convert to dopamine within the central nervous system. Although these therapies have improved symptom management, recent research has revealed additional molecular factors in PD pathology, such as α-synuclein aggregation, mitochondrial dysfunction, and lysosomal abnormalities, contributing to its complexity. These discoveries open up possibilities for neuroprotective therapies that could slow disease progression. In this review, we categorize PD therapeutic targets into two main groups: currently used therapies and targets under active research. We also introduce promising small-molecule compounds studied between 2019 and 2023, which may represent future treatment options. By examining both established and emerging targets, we aim to highlight effective strategies and potential directions for future drug development in Parkinson's disease therapy.

LRRK2 in Parkinson's disease: upstream regulation and therapeutic targeting

Mutations in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) are the most common causes of Parkinson's disease (PD) to date. Dysfunction in LRRK2 enzymatic activities and elevated protein levels are associated with the disease. How is LRRK2 activated, and what downstream molecular and cellular processes does LRRK2 regulate? Addressing these questions is crucial to decipher the disease mechanisms. In this review we focus on the upstream regulations and briefly discuss downstream substrates of LRRK2 as well as the cellular consequences caused by these regulations. Building on these basic findings, we discuss therapeutic strategies targeting LRRK2 and highlight the challenges in clinical trials. We further highlight the important questions that remains to be answered in the LRRK2 field.

Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) inhibitors for Parkinson's disease: a patent review of the literature to date

INTRODUCTION

Nearly two decades after leucine rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) was discovered as a genetic determinant of Parkinson's disease (PD), LRRK2 has emerged a priority therapeutic target in PD and inhibition of its activity is hypothesized to be beneficial.

AREAS COVERED

LRRK2 targeting agents, in particular kinase inhibitors and agents reducing LRRK2 expression show promise in model systems and have progressed to phase I and phase II clinical testing for PD. Several additional targeting strategies for LRRK2 are emerging, based on promoting specific 'healthy' LRRK2 quaternary structures, heteromeric complexes and conformations.

EXPERT OPINION

It can be expected that LRRK2 targeting strategies may proceed to phase III clinical testing for PD in the next five years, allowing the field to discover the real clinical value of LRRK2 targeting strategies.

A designed ankyrin-repeat protein that targets Parkinson's disease-associated LRRK2

Leucine rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) is a large multidomain protein containing two catalytic domains, a kinase and a GTPase, as well as protein interactions domains, including a WD40 domain. The association of increased LRRK2 kinase activity with both the familial and sporadic forms of Parkinson's disease has led to an intense interest in determining its cellular function. However, small molecule probes that can bind to LRRK2 and report on or affect its cellular activity are needed. Here, we report the identification and characterization of the first high-affinity LRRK2-binding designed ankyrin-repeat protein (DARPin), named E11. Using cryo-EM, we show that DARPin E11 binds to the LRRK2 WD40 domain. LRRK2 bound to DARPin E11 showed improved behavior on cryo-EM grids, resulting in higher resolution LRRK2 structures. DARPin E11 did not affect the catalytic activity of a truncated form of LRRK2 in vitro but decreased the phosphorylation of Rab8A, a LRRK2 substrate, in cells. We also found that DARPin E11 disrupts the formation of microtubule-associated LRRK2 filaments in cells, which are known to require WD40-based dimerization. Thus, DARPin E11 is a new tool to explore the function and dysfunction of LRRK2 and guide the development of LRRK2 kinase inhibitors that target the WD40 domain instead of the kinase.

Concurrent Optimizations of Efficacy and Blood-Brain Barrier Permeability in New Macrocyclic LRRK2 Inhibitors for Potential Parkinson's Disease Therapeutics

The elevated activity of leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) is implicated in the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease (PD). The quest for effective LRRK2 inhibitors has been impeded by the formidable challenge of crossing the blood-brain barrier (BBB). We leveraged structure-based de novo design and developed robust three-dimensional quantitative structure-activity relationship (3D-QSAR) models to predict BBB permeability, enhancing the likelihood of the inhibitor's brain accessibility. Our strategy involved the synthesis of macrocyclic molecules by linking the two terminal nitrogen atoms of HG-10-102-01 with an alkyl chain ranging from 2 to 4 units, laying the groundwork for innovative LRRK2 inhibitor designs. Through meticulous computational and synthetic optimization of both biochemical efficacy and BBB permeability, 9 out of 14 synthesized candidates demonstrated potent low-nanomolar inhibition and significant BBB penetration. Further assessments of in vitro and in vivo effectiveness, coupled with pharmacological profiling, highlighted 8 as the promising new lead compound for PD therapeutics.

Catalyzing a Cure: Discovery and development of LRRK2 inhibitors for the treatment of Parkinson's disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) is an age-related second most common progressive neurodegenerative disorder that affects millions of people worldwide. Despite decades of research, no effective disease modifying therapeutics have reached clinics for treatment/management of PD. Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) which controls membrane trafficking and lysosomal function and its variant LRRK2-G2019S are involved in the development of both familial and sporadic PD. LRRK2, is therefore considered as a legitimate target for the development of therapeutics against PD. During the last decade, efforts have been made to develop effective, safe and selective LRRK2 inhibitors and also our understanding about LRRK2 has progressed. However, there is an urge to learn from the previously designed and reported LRRK2 inhibitors in order to effectively approach designing of new LRRK2 inhibitors. In this review, we have aimed to cover the pre-clinical studies undertaken to develop small molecule LRRK2 inhibitors by screening the patents and other available literature in the last decade. We have highlighted LRRK2 as targets in the progress of PD and subsequently covered detailed design, synthesis and development of diverse scaffolds as LRRK2 inhibitors. Moreover, LRRK2 inhibitors under clinical development has also been discussed. LRRK2 inhibitors seem to be potential targets for future therapeutic interventions in the treatment and management of PD and this review can act as a cynosure for guiding discovery, design, and development of selective and non-toxic LRRK2 inhibitors. Although, there might be challenges in developing effective LRRK2 inhibitors, the opportunity to successfully develop novel therapeutics targeting LRRK2 against PD has never been greater.

Applications of oxetanes in drug discovery and medicinal chemistry

The compact and versatile oxetane motifs have gained significant attention in drug discovery and medicinal chemistry campaigns. This review presents an overview of the diverse applications of oxetanes in clinical and preclinical drug candidates targeting various human diseases, including cancer, viral infections, autoimmune disorders, neurodegenerative conditions, metabolic disorders, and others. Special attention is given to biologically active oxetane-containing compounds and their disease-related targets, such as kinases, epigenetic and non-epigenetic enzymes, and receptors. The review also details the effect of the oxetane motif on important properties, including aqueous solubility, lipophilicity, pKa, P-glycoprotein (P-gp) efflux, metabolic stability, conformational preferences, toxicity profiles (e.g., cytochrome P450 (CYP) suppression and human ether-a-go-go related gene (hERG) inhibition), pharmacokinetic (PK) properties, potency, and target selectivity. We anticipate that this work will provide valuable insights that can drive future discoveries of novel bioactive oxetane-containing small molecules, enabling their effective application in combating a wide range of human diseases.

Inhibition of Parkinson's disease-related LRRK2 by type I and type II kinase inhibitors: Activity and structures

Mutations in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) are a common cause of familial Parkinson's disease (PD) and a risk factor for the sporadic form. Increased kinase activity was shown in patients with both familial and sporadic PD, making LRRK2 kinase inhibitors a major focus of drug development efforts. Although much progress has been made in understanding the structural biology of LRRK2, there are no available structures of LRRK2 inhibitor complexes. To this end, we solved cryo-electron microscopy structures of LRRK2, wild-type and PD-linked mutants, bound to the LRRK2-specific type I inhibitor MLi-2 and the broad-spectrum type II inhibitor GZD-824. Our structures revealed an active-like LRRK2 kinase in the type I inhibitor complex, and an inactive DYG-out in the type II inhibitor complex. Our structural analysis also showed how inhibitor-induced conformational changes in LRRK2 are affected by its autoinhibitory N-terminal repeats. The structures provide a template for the rational development of LRRK2 kinase inhibitors covering both canonical inhibitor binding modes.

Recent advances in targeting leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 as a potential strategy for the treatment of Parkinson's disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disease. Several single gene mutations involved in PD have been identified such as leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2), the most common cause of sporadic and familial PD. Its mutations have attracted much attention to therapeutically targeting this kinase. To date, many compounds including small chemical molecules with diverse scaffolds and RNA agents have been developed with significant amelioration in preclinical PD models. Currently, five candidates, DNL201, DNL151, WXWH0226, NEU-723 and BIIB094, have advanced to clinical trials for PD treatment. In this review, we describe the structure, pathogenic mutations and the mechanism of LRRK2, and summarize the development of LRRK2 inhibitors in preclinical and clinical studies, trying to provide an insight into targeting LRRK2 for PD intervention in future.

Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 at a glance

Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) is a multidomain scaffolding protein with dual guanosine triphosphatase (GTPase) and kinase enzymatic activities, providing this protein with the capacity to regulate a multitude of signalling pathways and act as a key mediator of diverse cellular processes. Much of the interest in LRRK2 derives from mutations in the LRRK2 gene being the most common genetic cause of Parkinson's disease, and from the association of the LRRK2 locus with a number of other human diseases, including inflammatory bowel disease. Therefore, the LRRK2 research field has focused on the link between LRRK2 and pathology, with the aim of uncovering the underlying mechanisms and, ultimately, finding novel therapies and treatments to combat them. From the biochemical and cellular functions of LRRK2, to its relevance to distinct disease mechanisms, this Cell Science at a Glance article and the accompanying poster deliver a snapshot of our current understanding of LRRK2 function, dysfunction and links to disease.

Perspective on the current state of the LRRK2 field

Almost 2 decades after linking LRRK2 to Parkinson's disease, a vibrant research field has developed around the study of this gene and its protein product. Recent studies have begun to elucidate molecular structures of LRRK2 and its complexes, and our understanding of LRRK2 has continued to grow, affirming decisions made years ago to therapeutically target this enzyme for PD. Markers of LRRK2 activity, with potential to monitor disease progression or treatment efficacy, are also under development. Interestingly, there is a growing understanding of the role of LRRK2 outside of the central nervous system in peripheral tissues such as gut and immune cells that may also contribute to LRRK2 mediated pathology. In this perspective, our goal is to take stock of LRRK2 research by discussing the current state of knowledge and critical open questions in the field.

Effects of LRRK2 Inhibitors in Nonhuman Primates

Toxicology studies in nonhuman primates were conducted to evaluate selective, brain penetrant inhibitors of LRRK2. GNE 7915 was limited to 7-day administration in cynomolgus monkeys at 65 mg/kg/day or limited to 14 days in rhesus at 22.5 mg/kg b.i.d. due to physical signs. Compound 25 demonstrated acceptable tolerability at 50 and 225 mg/kg b.i.d. for 7 days in rhesus monkeys. MK-1468 was tolerated during 7-day administration at 100, 200 or 800 mg/kg/day or for 30-day administration at 30, 100, or 500 mg/kg b.i.d. in rhesus monkeys. The lungs revealed hypertrophy of type 2 pneumocytes, with accumulation of intra-alveolar macrophages. Transmission electron microscopy confirmed increased lamellar structures within hypertrophic type 2 pneumocytes. Hypertrophy and hyperplasia of type 2 pneumocytes with accumulation of intra-alveolar macrophages admixed with neutrophils were prominent at peripheral lungs of animals receiving compound 25 or MK-1468. Affected type 2 pneumocytes were immuno-positive for pro-surfactant C, but negative for CD11c, a marker for intra-alveolar macrophages. Accumulation of collagen within alveolar walls, confirmed by histochemical trichrome stain, accompanied changes described for compound 25 and MK-1468. Following a 12-week treatment-free interval, animals previously receiving MK-1468 for 30 days exhibited remodeling of alveolar structure and interstitial components that did not demonstrate reversibility.

Small-molecule LRRK2 inhibitors for PD therapy: Current achievements and future perspectives

Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) is a multifunctional protein that orchestrates a diverse array of cellular processes, including vesicle transport, autophagy, lysosome degradation, neurotransmission, and mitochondrial activity. Hyperactivation of LRRK2 triggers vesicle transport dysfunction, neuroinflammation, accumulation of α-synuclein, mitochondrial dysfunction, and the loss of cilia, ultimately leading to Parkinson's disease (PD). Therefore, targeting LRRK2 protein is a promising therapeutic strategy for PD. The clinical translation of LRRK2 inhibitors was historically impeded by issues surrounding tissue specificity. Recent studies have identified LRRK2 inhibitors that have no effect on peripheral tissues. Currently, there are four small-molecule LRRK2 inhibitors undergoing clinical trials. This review provides a summary of the structure and biological functions of LRRK2, along with an overview of the binding modes and structure-activity relationships (SARs) of small-molecule inhibitors targeting LRRK2. It offers valuable references for developing novel drugs targeting LRRK2.

Pyrazole scaffold-based derivatives: A glimpse of α-glucosidase inhibitory activity, SAR, and route of synthesis

The α-glucosidase is a validated target to develop drugs for treating type 2 diabetes mellitus. The existing α-glucosidase inhibitors have certain shortcomings related to side effects and route of synthesis. Accordingly, it is inevitable to develop new chemical templates as α-glucosidase inhibitors. Pyrazole derivatives have a special place in medicinal chemistry because of various biological activities. Recently, pyrazole-based heterocyclic compounds have emerged as a promising scaffold to develop α-glucosidase inhibitors. This study focuses on the recently reported pyrazole-based α-glucosidase inhibitors, including their biological activity (in vivo, in vitro, and in silico), structure-activity relationship, and ways of synthesis. The literature revealed the development of several promising pyrazole-based α-glucosidase inhibitors and new synthetic routes for their preparation. The encouraging α-glucosidase inhibitory results of the pyrazole-based heterocyclic compounds make them an attractive target for further research. The authors also foresee the arrival of the pyrazole-based α-glucosidase inhibitors in clinical practice.

Targeting LRRK2 in Parkinson's disease

Jennings et al.¹ reported that LRRK2 inhibitors can reduce kinase activity and improve lysosomal function with minor adverse effects in both animal models and human subjects. The findings provide proof of principle for LRRK2 inhibitor as a Parkinson's disease therapeutic option.

Emerging targets signaling for inflammation in Parkinson's disease drug discovery

Parkinson's disease (PD) patients not only show motor features such as bradykinesia, tremor, and rigidity but also non-motor features such as anxiety, depression, psychosis, memory loss, attention deficits, fatigue, sexual dysfunction, gastrointestinal issues, and pain. Many pharmacological treatments are available for PD patients; however, these treatments are partially or transiently effective since they only decrease the symptoms. As these therapies are unable to restore dopaminergic neurons and stop the development of Parkinson's disease, therefore, the need for an effective therapeutic approach is required. The current review summarizes novel targets for PD, that can be utilized to identify disease-modifying treatments.

Brain-restricted mTOR inhibition with binary pharmacology

On-target-off-tissue drug engagement is an important source of adverse effects that constrains the therapeutic window of drug candidates1,2. In diseases of the central nervous system, drugs with brain-restricted pharmacology are highly desirable. Here we report a strategy to achieve inhibition of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) while sparing mTOR activity elsewhere through the use of the brain-permeable mTOR inhibitor RapaLink-1 and the brain-impermeable FKBP12 ligand RapaBlock. We show that this drug combination mitigates the systemic effects of mTOR inhibitors but retains the efficacy of RapaLink-1 in glioblastoma xenografts. We further present a general method to design cell-permeable, FKBP12-dependent kinase inhibitors from known drug scaffolds. These inhibitors are sensitive to deactivation by RapaBlock, enabling the brain-restricted inhibition of their respective kinase targets.

Structural Insights and Development of LRRK2 Inhibitors for Parkinson's Disease in the Last Decade

Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most prevalent neurodegenerative disease, characterized by the specific loss of dopaminergic neurons in the midbrain. The pathophysiology of PD is likely caused by a variety of environmental and hereditary factors. Many single-gene mutations have been linked to this disease, but a significant number of studies indicate that mutations in the gene encoding leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) are a potential therapeutic target for both sporadic and familial forms of PD. Consequently, the identification of potential LRRK2 inhibitors has been the focus of drug discovery. Various investigations have been conducted in academic and industrial organizations to investigate the mechanism of LRRK2 in PD and further develop its inhibitors. This review summarizes the role of LRRK2 in PD and its structural details, especially the kinase domain. Furthermore, we reviewed in vitro and in vivo findings of selected inhibitors reported to date against wild-type and mutant versions of the LRRK2 kinase domain as well as the current trends researchers are employing in the development of LRRK2 inhibitors.

Preclinical and clinical evaluation of the LRRK2 inhibitor DNL201 for Parkinson's disease

Mutations in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) are the most common genetic risk factors for Parkinson's disease (PD). Increased LRRK2 kinase activity is thought to impair lysosomal function and may contribute to the pathogenesis of PD. Thus, inhibition of LRRK2 is a potential disease-modifying therapeutic strategy for PD. DNL201 is an investigational, first-in-class, CNS-penetrant, selective, ATP-competitive, small-molecule LRRK2 kinase inhibitor. In preclinical models, DNL201 inhibited LRRK2 kinase activity as evidenced by reduced phosphorylation of both LRRK2 at serine-935 (pS935) and Rab10 at threonine-73 (pT73), a direct substrate of LRRK2. Inhibition of LRRK2 by DNL201 demonstrated improved lysosomal function in cellular models of disease, including primary mouse astrocytes and fibroblasts from patients with Gaucher disease. Chronic administration of DNL201 to cynomolgus macaques at pharmacologically relevant doses was not associated with adverse findings. In phase 1 and phase 1b clinical trials in 122 healthy volunteers and in 28 patients with PD, respectively, DNL201 at single and multiple doses inhibited LRRK2 and was well tolerated at doses demonstrating LRRK2 pathway engagement and alteration of downstream lysosomal biomarkers. Robust cerebrospinal fluid penetration of DNL201 was observed in both healthy volunteers and patients with PD. These data support the hypothesis that LRRK2 inhibition has the potential to correct lysosomal dysfunction in patients with PD at doses that are generally safe and well tolerated, warranting further clinical development of LRRK2 inhibitors as a therapeutic modality for PD.

Preparation, DFT calculations, docking studies, antioxidant, and anticancer properties of new pyrazole and pyridine derivatives

Seven novel pyrazole derivatives (4a-g) and four novel starting compounds incorporating substituted pyridine moieties were synthesized successfully. Cell viability assay for the tested compounds was performed, and the inhibitory concentrationlogarithmic 50 (LogIC₅₀ ) values of the compounds were calculated after a 24-h treatment. Four of the examined compounds (3d, 3g, 4f, and 4g) showed comparable cytotoxic activity against CaCo-2 compared to the standard drug docetaxel at 0.1 and 1 μM concentrations. Although the LogIC₅₀  of docetaxel was -0.678 μM for CaCo-2 cells at 24 h, the LogIC₅₀ values of compounds were -0.794, -0.567, -0.657, and -0.498 μM, respectively. Five of the compounds (2d, 2g, 3d, 3g, and 4e) showed comparable cytotoxic activity against MCF-7 at 0.1 μM concentration compared to docetaxel (p < 0.05). Docking studies revealed the compounds have a good affinity to the active site of the human topoisomerase II β enzyme. The antioxidant capacities of all compounds were determined using both 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl and metal chelation methods. Although the compounds did not show significant antioxidant activity, relatively effective are compounds 3c, 3d, and 3g, which are hydrazine derivatives with approximately 50% antioxidant activity of standard antioxidants at concentrations of 62.5 and 125 μg/ml.

Recent Update on the Development of Leucine- Rich Repeat Kinase 2 (LRRK2) Inhibitors: A Promising Target for the Treatment of Parkinson's Disease

Parkinson's disease is a relatively common neurological disorder with incidence increasing with age. Since current medications only relieve the symptoms and do not change the course of the disease, therefore, finding disease-modifying therapies is a critical unmet medical need. However, significant progress in understanding how genetics underpins Parkinson's disease (PD) has opened up new opportunities for understanding disease pathogenesis and identifying possible therapeutic targets. One such target is leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2), an elusive enzyme implicated in both familial and idiopathic PD risk. As a result, both academia and industry have promoted the development of potent and selective inhibitors of LRRK2. In this review, we have summarized recent progress on the discovery and development of LRKK2 inhibitors as well as the bioactivity of several small-molecule LRRK2 inhibitors that have been used to inhibit LRRK2 kinase activity in vitro or in vivo.

Evaluation of Substituted Pyrazole-Based Kinase Inhibitors in One Decade (2011-2020): Current Status and Future Prospects

Pyrazole has been recognized as a pharmacologically important privileged scaffold whose derivatives produce almost all types of pharmacological activities and have attracted much attention in the last decades. Of the various pyrazole derivatives reported as potential therapeutic agents, this article focuses on pyrazole-based kinase inhibitors. Pyrazole-possessing kinase inhibitors play a crucial role in various disease areas, especially in many cancer types such as lymphoma, breast cancer, melanoma, cervical cancer, and others in addition to inflammation and neurodegenerative disorders. In this article, we reviewed the structural and biological characteristics of the pyrazole derivatives recently reported as kinase inhibitors and classified them according to their target kinases in a chronological order. We reviewed the reports including pyrazole derivatives as kinase inhibitors published during the past decade (2011-2020).

Structure-Guided Discovery of Aminoquinazolines as Brain-Penetrant and Selective LRRK2 Inhibitors

The leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) protein has been genetically and functionally linked to Parkinson's disease (PD), a disabling and progressive neurodegenerative disorder whose current therapies are limited in scope and efficacy. In this report, we describe a rigorous hit-to-lead optimization campaign supported by structural enablement, which culminated in the discovery of brain-penetrant, candidate-quality molecules as represented by compounds 22 and 24. These compounds exhibit remarkable selectivity against the kinome and offer good oral bioavailability and low projected human doses. Furthermore, they showcase the implementation of stereochemical design elements that serve to enable a potency- and selectivity-enhancing increase in polarity and hydrogen bond donor (HBD) count while maintaining a central nervous system-friendly profile typified by low levels of transporter-mediated efflux and encouraging brain penetration in preclinical models.

Synthesis of Spirooxindole Analogs Tethered Pyrazole Scaffold as Acetylcholinesterase Inhibitors

A new series of spirooxindole analogs tethered pyrazole scaffold constructed via [3+2] cycloaddition (32CA) reaction starting from the new chalcone named (E)‐3‐(5‐chloro‐3‐methyl‐1‐phenyl‐1H‐pyrazol‐4‐yl)‐1‐(5‐methyl‐1‐phenyl‐1H‐pyrazol‐4‐yl)prop‐2‐en‐1‐one which confirmed by single crystal X‐ray diffraction analysis. Synthesized spirooxindole analogs were evaluated for their neuroprotection through the inhibition of acetylcholine esterase enzyme using Ellman's method. Compounds 9 w, 9 e and 9 x showed the strongest acetylcholine esterase inhibition (AChEI) with IC50 values of 5.7, 7.8 and 8.3 μM, respectively. Obviously, the incorporation of NO2 group into isatin 5th position and N‐methylglycine (sarcosine) play a crucial role for the activity which lead to compound 9 w had the most potent inhibitory activity with IC50 value of 5.7 μM. Molecular docking was used to study their interaction with the active site of hAChE. These 32CA reactions takes place via a one‐step mechanism with a high polar character as a consequence of the supernucleophilic character of azomethine yildes and the strong electrophilic character of ethylenes.

Construction of Spirooxindole Analogues Engrafted with Indole and Pyrazole Scaffolds as Acetylcholinesterase Inhibitors

Twenty-five new hits of spirooxindole analogs 8a-y engrafted with indole and pyrazole scaffolds were designed and constructed via a [3+2]cycloaddition (32CA) reaction starting from three components: new chalcone-based indole and pyrazole scaffolds 5a-d, substituted isatins 6a-c, and secondary amines 7a-d. The potency of the compounds were assessed in modulating cholinesterase (AChE) activity using Ellman's method. Compounds 8i and 8y showed the strongest acetylcholine esterase inhibition (AChEI) with IC50 values of 24.1 and 27.8 μM, respectively. Molecular docking was used to study their interaction with the active site of hAChE.

Glucocerebrosidase 1 and leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 in Parkinson disease and interplay between the two genes

The glucocerebrosidase 1 gene (GBA1), bi-allelic variants of which cause Gaucher disease (GD), encodes the lysosomal enzyme glucocerebrosidase (GCase) and is a risk factor for Parkinson Disease (PD). GBA1 variants are linked to a reduction in GCase activity in the brain. Variants in Leucine-Rich Repeat Kinase 2 (LRRK2), such as the gain-of-kinase-function variant G2019S, cause the most common familial form of PD. In patients without GBA1 and LRRK2 mutations, GCase and LRRK2 activity are also altered, suggesting that these two genes are implicated in all forms of PD and that they may play a broader role in PD pathogenesis. In this review, we review the proposed roles of GBA1 and LRRK2 in PD, focussing on the endolysosomal pathway. In particular, we highlight the discovery of Ras-related in brain (Rab) guanosine triphosphatases (GTPases) as LRRK2 kinase substrates and explore the links between increased LRRK2 activity and Rab protein function, lysosomal dysfunction, alpha-synuclein accumulation and GCase activity. We also discuss the discovery of RAB10 as a potential mediator of LRRK2 and GBA1 interaction in PD. Finally, we discuss the therapeutic implications of these findings, including current approaches and future perspectives related to novel drugs targeting LRRK2 and GBA1.

Targeting autophagy using small-molecule compounds to improve potential therapy of Parkinson's disease

Parkinson's disease (PD), known as one of the most universal neurodegenerative diseases, is a serious threat to the health of the elderly. The current treatment has been demonstrated to relieve symptoms, and the discovery of new small-molecule compounds has been regarded as a promising strategy. Of note, the homeostasis of the autolysosome pathway (ALP) is closely associated with PD, and impaired autophagy may cause the death of neurons and thereby accelerating the progress of PD. Thus, pharmacological targeting autophagy with small-molecule compounds has been drawn a rising attention so far. In this review, we focus on summarizing several autophagy-associated targets, such as AMPK, mTORC1, ULK1, IMPase, LRRK2, beclin-1, TFEB, GCase, ERRα, C-Abelson, and as well as their relevant small-molecule compounds in PD models, which will shed light on a clue on exploiting more potential targeted small-molecule drugs tracking PD treatment in the near future.

Structural Biology of LRRK2 and its Interaction with Microtubules

Mutations in leucine rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) are a major cause of familial Parkinson's disease (PD) and a risk factor for its sporadic form. LRRK2 hyperactivity has also been reported in sporadic PD, making LRRK2 an appealing target for PD small‐molecule therapeutics. At a cellular level, increasing evidence suggests that LRRK2 regulates membrane trafficking. Under some conditions LRRK2 also associates with microtubules, the cellular tracks used by dynein and kinesin motors to move membranes. At a structural level, however, relatively little was known about LRRK2. An important step toward bridging this gap took place last year with the publication of structures of LRRK2's cytosolic and microtubule‐bound forms. Here, we review the main findings from these studies and discuss what we see as the major challenges going forward with a focus on areas that will require structural information. We also introduce the structural techniques—cryo‐electron microscopy and cryo‐electron tomography—that were instrumental to solving the structures of LRRK2. © 2021 The Authors. Movement Disorders published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society

Preparation of New Spiropyrazole, Pyrazole and Hydantoin Derivatives and Investigation of Their Antioxidant and Antibacterial Activities

In this study, the synthesis of new spiropyrazoles, pyrazole and hydantoin heterocycles is reported by three component reactions of parabanic acids, hydrazine derivatives, and phenacyl bromides in the presence of triphenylphosphine as a nucleophile and triethylamine as a base in good to high yields (69-91 %). Evaluation of the synthesized compounds revealed a good to excellent antioxidant activities (37.6-96.2 %) using DPPH inhibitory potency. Among these compounds, hydantoin derivatives displayed higher antioxidant activities (93.7-96.2 %) comparing with spiropyrazoles and pyrazoles. The obtained results showed that Cl and Br substituents on the phenyl ring increased antioxidant activities of the related heterocycles. The antibacterial activities of the synthesized compounds were examined against two Gram-negative (Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa) and two Gram-positive (Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus subtilis) bacteria. Among the synthesized heterocycles, 2-[1,3-dimethyl-2,5-dioxo-4-(2-oxo-2-phenylethyl)imidazolidin-4-yl]hydrazine-1-carbothioamide exhibited the excellent antibacterial activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria.

LRRK2 Targeting Strategies as Potential Treatment of Parkinson's Disease

Parkinson's Disease (PD) affects millions of people worldwide with no cure to halt the progress of the disease. Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) is the most common genetic cause of PD and, as such, LRRK2 inhibitors are promising therapeutic agents. In the last decade, great progress in the LRRK2 field has been made. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the current state of the art, presenting recent developments and challenges in developing LRRK2 inhibitors, and discussing extensively the potential targeting strategies from the protein perspective. As currently there are three LRRK2-targeting agents in clinical trials, more developments are predicted in the upcoming years.

Design and Synthesis of Pyrrolo[2,3-d]pyrimidine-Derived Leucine-Rich Repeat Kinase 2 (LRRK2) Inhibitors Using a Checkpoint Kinase 1 (CHK1)-Derived Crystallographic Surrogate

Inhibitors of leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) and mutants, such as G2019S, have potential utility in Parkinson's disease treatment. Fragment hit-derived pyrrolo[2,3-d]pyrimidines underwent optimization using X-ray structures of LRRK2 kinase domain surrogates, based on checkpoint kinase 1 (CHK1) and a CHK1 10-point mutant. (2R)-2-Methylpyrrolidin-1-yl derivative 18 (LRRK2 G2019S cK_i 0.7 nM, LE 0.66) was identified, with increased potency consistent with an X-ray structure of 18/CHK1 10-pt. mutant showing the 2-methyl substituent proximal to Ala147 (Ala2016 in LRRK2). Further structure-guided elaboration of 18 gave the 2-[(1,3-dimethyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)amino] derivative 32. Optimization of 32 afforded diastereomeric oxolan-3-yl derivatives 44 and 45, which demonstrated a favorable in vitro PK profile, although they displayed species disconnects in the in vivo PK profile, and a propensity for P-gp- and/or BCRP-mediated efflux in a mouse model. Compounds 44 and 45 demonstrated high potency and exquisite selectivity for LRRK2 and utility as chemical probes for the study of LRRK2 inhibition.

LRRK2 inhibitors induce reversible changes in nonhuman primate lungs without measurable pulmonary deficits

The kinase-activating mutation G2019S in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) is one of the most common genetic causes of Parkinson's disease (PD) and has spurred development of LRRK2 inhibitors. Preclinical studies have raised concerns about the safety of LRRK2 inhibitors due to histopathological changes in the lungs of nonhuman primates treated with two of these compounds. Here, we investigated whether these lung effects represented on-target pharmacology and whether they were reversible after drug withdrawal in macaques. We also examined whether treatment was associated with pulmonary function deficits. We conducted a 2-week repeat-dose toxicology study in macaques comparing three different LRRK2 inhibitors: GNE-7915 (30 mg/kg, twice daily as a positive control), MLi-2 (15 and 50 mg/kg, once daily), and PFE-360 (3 and 6 mg/kg, once daily). Subsets of animals dosed with GNE-7915 or MLi-2 were evaluated 2 weeks after drug withdrawal for lung function. All compounds induced mild cytoplasmic vacuolation of type II lung pneumocytes without signs of lung degeneration, implicating on-target pharmacology. At low doses of PFE-360 or MLi-2, there was ~50 or 100% LRRK2 inhibition in brain tissue, respectively, but histopathological lung changes were either absent or minimal. The lung effect was reversible after dosing ceased. Lung function tests demonstrated that the histological changes in lung tissue induced by MLi-2 and GNE-7915 did not result in pulmonary deficits. Our results suggest that the observed lung effects in nonhuman primates in response to LRRK2 inhibitors should not preclude clinical testing of these compounds for PD.

Structural binding site comparisons reveal Crizotinib as a novel LRRK2 inhibitor

Mutations in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) are a frequent cause of autosomal dominant Parkinson’s disease (PD) and have been associated with familial and sporadic PD. Reducing the kinase activity of LRRK2 is a promising therapeutic strategy since pathogenic mutations increase the kinase activity. Several small-molecule LRRK2 inhibitors are currently under investigation for the treatment of PD. However, drug discovery and development are always accompanied by high costs and a risk of late failure. The use of already approved drugs for a new indication, which is known as drug repositioning, can reduce the cost and risk.

In this study, we applied a structure-based drug repositioning approach to identify new LRRK2 inhibitors that are already approved for a different indication. In a large-scale structure-based screening, we compared the protein–ligand interaction patterns of known LRRK2 inhibitors with protein–ligand complexes in the PDB. The screening yielded 6 drug repositioning candidates. Two of these candidates, Sunitinib and Crizotinib, demonstrated an inhibition potency (IC50) and binding affinity (K_d) in the nanomolar to micromolar range. While Sunitinib has already been known to inhibit LRRK2, Crizotinib is a novel LRRK2 binder.

Our results underscore the potential of structure-based methods for drug discovery and development. In light of the recent breakthroughs in cryo-electron microscopy and structure prediction, we believe that structure-based approaches like ours will grow in importance.

The development of inhibitors of leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) as a therapeutic strategy for Parkinson's disease: the current state of play

Current therapeutic approaches for Parkinson's disease (PD) are based around treatments that alleviate symptoms but do not slow or prevent disease progression. As such, alternative strategies are needed. A promising approach is the use of molecules that reduce the function of leucine-rich repeat kinase (LRRK2). Gain-of-function mutations in LRRK2 account for a notable proportion of familial Parkinson's disease cases, and significantly, elevated LRRK2 kinase activity is reported in idiopathic Parkinson's disease. Here, we describe progress in finding therapeutically effective LRRK2 inhibitors, summarising studies that range from in vitro experiments to clinical trials. LRRK2 is a complex protein with two enzymatic activities and a myriad of functions. This creates opportunities for a rich variety of strategies and also increases the risk of unintended consequences. We comment on the strength and limitations of the different approaches and conclude that with two molecules under clinical trial and a diversity of alternative options in the pipeline, there is cause for optimism.

Design and synthesis of novel pyrazole-phenyl semicarbazone derivatives as potential α-glucosidase inhibitor: Kinetics and molecular dynamics simulation study

A series of novel pyrazole-phenyl semicarbazone derivatives were designed, synthesized, and screened for in vitro α-glucosidase inhibitory activity. Given the importance of hydrogen bonding in promoting the α-glucosidase inhibitory activity, pharmacophore modification was established. The docking results rationalized the idea of the design. All newly synthesized compounds exhibited excellent in vitro yeast α-glucosidase inhibition (IC₅₀ values in the range of 65.1-695.0 μM) even much more potent than standard drug acarbose (IC₅₀ = 750.0 μM). Among them, compounds 8o displayed the most potent α-glucosidase inhibitory activity (IC₅₀ = 65.1 ± 0.3 μM). Kinetic study of compound 8o revealed that it inhibited α-glucosidase in a competitive mode (Ki = 87.0 μM). Limited SAR suggested that electronic properties of substitutions have little effect on inhibitory potential of compounds. Cytotoxic studies demonstrated that the active compounds (8o, 8k, 8p, 8l, 8i, and 8a) compounds are also non-cytotoxic. The binding modes of the most potent compounds 8o, 8k, 8p, 8l and 8i was studied through in silico docking studies. Molecular dynamic simulations have been performed in order to explain the dynamic behavior and structural changes of the systems by the calculation of the root mean square deviation (RMSD) and root mean square fluctuation (RMSF).

Clinically Precedented Protein Kinases: Rationale for Their Use in Neurodegenerative Disease

Kinases are an intensively studied drug target class in current pharmacological research as evidenced by the large number of kinase inhibitors being assessed in clinical trials. Kinase-targeted therapies have potential for treatment of a broad array of indications including central nervous system (CNS) disorders. In addition to the many variables which contribute to identification of a successful therapeutic molecule, drug discovery for CNS-related disorders also requires significant consideration of access to the target organ and specifically crossing the blood-brain barrier (BBB). To date, only a small number of kinase inhibitors have been reported that are specifically designed to be BBB permeable, which nonetheless demonstrates the potential for success. This review considers the potential for kinase inhibitors in the context of unmet medical need for neurodegenerative disease. A subset of kinases that have been the focus of clinical investigations over a 10-year period have been identified and discussed individually. For each kinase target, the data underpinning the validity of each in the context of neurodegenerative disease is critically evaluated. Selected molecules for each kinase are identified with information on modality, binding site and CNS penetrance, if known. Current clinical development in neurodegenerative disease are summarized. Collectively, the review indicates that kinase targets with sufficient rationale warrant careful design approaches with an emphasis on improving brain penetrance and selectivity.

Genetic causes of PD: A pathway to disease modification

The underline neuropathology of Parkinson disease is pleiomorphic and its genetic background diverse. Possibly because of this heterogeneity, no effective disease modifying therapy is available. In this paper we give an overview of the genetics of Parkinson disease and explain how this is relevant for the development of new therapies. This article is part of the special issue entitled 'The Quest for Disease-Modifying Therapies for Neurodegenerative Disorders'.

Preparation and Uses of Chlorinated Glycerol Derivatives

Crude glycerol (C3H8O3) is a major by-product of biodiesel production from vegetable oils and animal fats. The increased biodiesel production in the last two decades has forced glycerol production up and prices down. However, crude glycerol from biodiesel production is not of adequate purity for industrial uses, including food, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals. The purification process of crude glycerol to reach the quality standards required by industry is expensive and dificult. Novel uses for crude glycerol can reduce the price of biodiesel and make it an economical alternative to diesel. Moreover, novel uses may improve environmental impact, since crude glycerol disposal is expensive and dificult. Glycerol is a versatile molecule with many potential applications in fermentation processes and synthetic chemistry. It serves as a glucose substitute in microbial growth media and as a precursor in the synthesis of a number of commercial intermediates or fine chemicals. Chlorinated derivatives of glycerol are an important class of such chemicals. The main focus of this review is the conversion of glycerol to chlorinated derivatives, such as epichlorohydrin and chlorohydrins, and their further use in the synthesis of additional downstream products. Downstream products include non-cyclic compounds with allyl, nitrile, azide and other functional groups, as well as oxazolidinones and triazoles, which are cyclic compounds derived from ephichlorohydrin and chlorohydrins. The polymers and ionic liquids, which use glycerol as an initial building block, are highlighted, as well.

Ciliary Genes in Renal Cystic Diseases

Cilia are microtubule-based organelles, protruding from the apical cell surface and anchoring to the cytoskeleton. Primary (nonmotile) cilia of the kidney act as mechanosensors of nephron cells, responding to fluid movements by triggering signal transduction. The impaired functioning of primary cilia leads to formation of cysts which in turn contribute to development of diverse renal diseases, including kidney ciliopathies and renal cancer. Here, we review current knowledge on the role of ciliary genes in kidney ciliopathies and renal cell carcinoma (RCC). Special focus is given on the impact of mutations and altered expression of ciliary genes (e.g., encoding polycystins, nephrocystins, Bardet-Biedl syndrome (BBS) proteins, ALS1, Oral-facial-digital syndrome 1 (OFD1) and others) in polycystic kidney disease and nephronophthisis, as well as rare genetic disorders, including syndromes of Joubert, Meckel-Gruber, Bardet-Biedl, Senior-Loken, Alström, Orofaciodigital syndrome type I and cranioectodermal dysplasia. We also show that RCC and classic kidney ciliopathies share commonly disturbed genes affecting cilia function, including VHL (von Hippel-Lindau tumor suppressor), PKD1 (polycystin 1, transient receptor potential channel interacting) and PKD2 (polycystin 2, transient receptor potential cation channel). Finally, we discuss the significance of ciliary genes as diagnostic and prognostic markers, as well as therapeutic targets in ciliopathies and cancer.

Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 inhibitors: a patent review (2014-present)

Introduction: Disease-modifying treatment for Parkinson's disease (PD) to halt or revert the disease progression remains an unmet medical need. LRRK2 kinase activity is abnormally elevated in PD patients carrying LRRK2 mutations, with G2019S as the most frequent one. Small molecules to inhibit LRRK2 kinase activity might provide a potential disease-modifying strategy for PD.Areas covered: This review provides an update of small molecule LRRK2 inhibitors in patents published from January 2014 to October 2019. The molecules are classified by their structural scaffolds.Expert opinion: Despite the tremendous efforts to push small molecule LRRK2 inhibitors toward clinical trials, the overall progress is somewhat disappointing due to the challenges in compound optimization and the putative concern of target-related adverse effects. It is challenging to optimize multiple parameters including kinase selectivity, CNS penetration, and unbound fraction in brain simultaneously. In addition, the on-target effect of morphologic changes observed in lung/kidney in pre-clinical studies for several frontrunner ATP-competitive inhibitors prevented their further development. With this regard, non-ATP-competitive inhibitors may provide a different safety profile for development. DNL201 and DNL151 have entered early clinical trials to evaluate tolerability and target engagement biomarkers. This will pave the way for the development for future LRRK2 inhibitors.

Recent Developments in LRRK2-Targeted Therapy for Parkinson's Disease

Kinase activating missense mutations in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) are pathogenically linked to neurodegenerative Parkinson's disease (PD). Over the past decade, substantial effort has been devoted to the development of potent and selective small molecule inhibitors of LRRK2, as well as their preclinical testing across different Parkinson's disease models. This review outlines the genetic and biochemical evidence that pathogenic missense mutations increase LRRK2 kinase activity, which in turn provides the rationale for the development of small molecule inhibitors as potential PD therapeutics. An overview of progress in the development of LRRK2 inhibitors is provided, which in particular indicates that highly selective and potent compounds capable of clinical utility have been developed. We outline evidence from rodent- and human-induced pluripotent stem cell models that support a pathogenic role for LRRK2 kinase activity, and review the substantial experiments aimed at evaluating the safety of LRRK2 inhibitors. We address challenges still to overcome in the translational therapeutic pipeline, including biomarker development and clinical trial strategies, and finally outline the potential utility of LRRK2 inhibitors for other genetic forms of PD and ultimately sporadic PD. Collective evidence supports the ongoing clinical translation of LRRK2 inhibitors as a therapeutic intervention for PD is greatly needed.

Synthesis and Preliminary Evaluation of [11 C]GNE-1023 as a Potent PET Probe for Imaging Leucine-Rich Repeat Kinase 2 (LRRK2) in Parkinson's Disease

Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) is a large protein involved in the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease (PD). It has been demonstrated that PD is mainly conferred by LRRK2 mutations that bring about increased kinase activity. As a consequence, selective inhibition of LRRK2 may help to recover the normal functions of LRRK2, thereby serving as a promising alternative therapeutic target for PD treatment. The mapping of LRRK2 by positron emission tomography (PET) studies allows a thorough understanding of PD and other LRRK2-related disorders; it also helps to validate and translate novel LRRK2 inhibitors. However, no LRRK2 PET probes have yet been reported in the primary literature. Herein we present a facile synthesis and preliminary evaluation of [¹¹ C]GNE-1023 as a novel potent PET probe for LRRK2 imaging in PD. [¹¹ C]GNE-1023 was synthesized in good radiochemical yield (10 % non-decay-corrected RCY), excellent radiochemical purity (>99 %), and high molar activity (>37 GBq μmol^-1 ). Excellent in vitro binding specificity of [¹¹ C]GNE-1023 toward LRRK2 was demonstrated in cross-species studies, including rat and nonhuman primate brain tissues by autoradiography experiments. Subsequent whole-body biodistribution studies indicated limited brain uptake and urinary and hepatobiliary elimination of this radioligand. This study may pave the way for further development of a new generation of LRRK2 PET probes.