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Dillenburg M, Smith J, Wagner CR. The Many Faces of Histidine Triad Nucleotide Binding Protein 1 (HINT1). ACS Pharmacol Transl Sci 2023; 6:1310-1322. [PMID: 37854629 PMCID: PMC10580397 DOI: 10.1021/acsptsci.3c00079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2023] [Indexed: 10/20/2023]
Abstract
The histidine triad nucleotide binding protein 1 (HINT1) is a nucleoside phosphoramidase that has garnered interest due to its widespread expression and participation in a broad range of biological processes. Herein, we discuss the role of HINT1 as a regulator of several CNS functions, tumor suppressor, and mast cell activator via its interactions with multiple G-protein-coupled receptors and transcription factors. Importantly, altered HINT1 expression and mutation are connected to the progression of multiple disease states, including several neuropsychiatric disorders, peripheral neuropathy, and tumorigenesis. Additionally, due to its involvement in the activation of several clinically used phosphoramidate prodrugs, tremendous efforts have been made to better understand the interactions behind nucleoside binding and phosphoramidate hydrolysis by HINT1. We detail the substrate specificity and catalytic mechanism of HINT1 hydrolysis, while highlighting the structural biology behind these efforts. The aim of this review is to summarize the multitude of biological and pharmacological functions in which HINT1 participates while addressing the areas of need for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maxwell Dillenburg
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Jacob Smith
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Carston R. Wagner
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
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2
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Strom A, Shah R, Dolot R, Rogers MS, Tong CL, Wang D, Xia Y, Lipscomb JD, Wagner CR. Dynamic Long-Range Interactions Influence Substrate Binding and Catalysis by Human Histidine Triad Nucleotide-Binding Proteins (HINTs), Key Regulators of Multiple Cellular Processes and Activators of Antiviral ProTides. Biochemistry 2022; 61:2648-2661. [PMID: 36398895 PMCID: PMC9854251 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.2c00506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Human histidine triad nucleotide-binding (hHINT) proteins catalyze nucleotide phosphoramidase and acyl-phosphatase reactions that are essential for the activation of antiviral proTides, such as Sofosbuvir and Remdesivir. hHINT1 and hHINT2 are highly homologous but exhibit disparate roles as regulators of opioid tolerance (hHINT1) and mitochondrial activity (hHINT2). NMR studies of hHINT1 reveal a pair of dynamic surface residues (Q62, E100), which gate a conserved water channel leading to the active site 13 Å away. hHINT2 crystal structures identify analogous residues (R99, D137) and water channel. hHINT1 Q62 variants significantly alter the steady-state kcat and Km for turnover of the fluorescent substrate (TpAd), while stopped-flow kinetics indicate that KD also changes. hHINT2, like hHINT1, exhibits a burst phase of adenylation, monitored by fluorescent tryptamine release, prior to rate-limiting hydrolysis and nucleotide release. hHINT2 exhibits a much smaller burst-phase amplitude than hHINT1, which is further diminished in hHINT2 R99Q. Kinetic simulations suggest that amplitude variations can be accounted for by a variable fluorescent yield of the E·S complex from changes in the environment of bound TpAd. Isothermal titration calorimetry measurements of inhibitor binding show that these hHINT variants also alter the thermodynamic binding profile. We propose that these altered surface residues engender long-range dynamic changes that affect the orientation of bound ligands, altering the thermodynamic and kinetic characteristics of hHINT active site function. Thus, studies of the cellular roles and proTide activation potential by hHINTs should consider the importance of long-range interactions and possible protein binding surfaces far from the active site.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Strom
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Rachit Shah
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Rafal Dolot
- Centre of Molecular and Macromolecular Studies, Polish Academy of Sciences, Sienkiewicza 112, 90-363 Lodz, Poland
| | - Melanie S. Rogers
- Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Biophysics, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States,Center for Metals in Biocatalysis, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455,United States
| | - Cher-Ling Tong
- Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Biophysics, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - David Wang
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Youlin Xia
- Department of Structural Biology, St. Jude’s Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee 38105, United States
| | - John D. Lipscomb
- Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Biophysics, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States,Center for Metals in Biocatalysis, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455,United States
| | - Carston R. Wagner
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States,Address correspondence to: Carston R. Wagner, University of Minnesota, Department of Medicinal Chemistry, 2231 6th Street S.E., Cancer & Cardiovascular Research Building, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, USA,
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3
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Khan K, Gogonea V, Fox PL. Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases of the multi-tRNA synthetase complex and their role in tumorigenesis. Transl Oncol 2022; 19:101392. [PMID: 35278792 PMCID: PMC8914993 DOI: 10.1016/j.tranon.2022.101392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2021] [Revised: 02/27/2022] [Accepted: 02/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In mammalian cells, 20 aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases (AARS) catalyze the ligation of amino acids to their cognate tRNAs to generate aminoacylated-tRNAs. In higher eukaryotes, 9 of the 20 AARSs, along with 3 auxiliary proteins, join to form the cytoplasmic multi-tRNA synthetase complex (MSC). The complex is absent in prokaryotes, but evolutionary expansion of MSC constituents, primarily by addition of novel interacting domains, facilitates formation of subcomplexes that join to establish the holo-MSC. In some cases, environmental cues direct the release of constituents from the MSC which enables the execution of non-canonical, i.e., "moonlighting", functions distinct from their essential activities in protein translation. These activities are generally beneficial, but can also be deleterious to the cell. Elucidation of the non-canonical activities of several AARSs residing in the MSC suggest they are potential therapeutic targets for cancer, as well as metabolic and neurologic diseases. Here, we describe the role of MSC-resident AARSs in cancer progression, and the factors that regulate their release from the MSC. Also, we highlight recent developments in therapeutic modalities that target MSC AARSs for cancer prevention and treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krishnendu Khan
- Department of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Sciences, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH 44195, United States of America.
| | - Valentin Gogonea
- Department of Chemistry, Cleveland State University, Cleveland, OH 44115, United States of America
| | - Paul L Fox
- Department of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Sciences, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH 44195, United States of America.
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4
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Dolot R, Krakowiak A, Kaczmarek R, Włodarczyk A, Pichlak M, Nawrot B. Biochemical, crystallographic and biophysical characterization of histidine triad nucleotide-binding protein 2 with different ligands including a non-hydrolyzable analog of Ap4A. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2021; 1865:129968. [PMID: 34329705 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2021.129968] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2021] [Revised: 07/02/2021] [Accepted: 07/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Human HINT2 is an important mitochondrial enzyme involved in many processes such as apoptosis and bioenergetics, but its endogenous substrates and the three-dimensional structure of the full-length protein have not been identified yet. METHODS An HPLC assay was used to test the hydrolytic activity of HINT2 against various adenosine, guanosine, and 2'-deoxyguanosine derivatives containing phosphate bonds of different types and different leaving groups. Data on binding affinity were obtained by microscale thermophoresis (MST). Crystal structures of HINT2, in its apo form and with a dGMP ligand, were resolved to atomic resolution. RESULTS HINT2 substrate specificity was similar to that of HINT1, but with the major exception of remarkable discrimination against substrates lacking the 2'-hydroxyl group. The biochemical results were consistent with binding affinity measurements. They showed a similar binding strength of AMP and GMP to HINT2, and much weaker binding of dGMP, in contrast to HINT1. A non-hydrolyzable analog of Ap4A (JB419) interacted with both proteins with similar Kd and Ap4A is the signaling molecule that can interact with hHINT1 and regulate the activity of some transcription factors. CONCLUSIONS Several forms of homo- and heterodimers of different lengths of N-terminally truncated polypeptides resulting from degradation of the full-length protein were described. Ser144 in HINT2 appeared to be functionally equivalent to Ser107 in HINT1 by supporting the protonation of the leaving group in the hydrolytic mechanism of HINT2. SIGNIFICANCE Our results should be considered in future studies on the natural function of HINT2 and its role in nucleotide prodrug processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafał Dolot
- Centre of Molecular and Macromolecular Studies, Polish Academy of Sciences, Sienkiewicza 112, 90-363 Lodz, Poland.
| | - Agnieszka Krakowiak
- Centre of Molecular and Macromolecular Studies, Polish Academy of Sciences, Sienkiewicza 112, 90-363 Lodz, Poland.
| | - Renata Kaczmarek
- Centre of Molecular and Macromolecular Studies, Polish Academy of Sciences, Sienkiewicza 112, 90-363 Lodz, Poland
| | - Artur Włodarczyk
- Centre of Molecular and Macromolecular Studies, Polish Academy of Sciences, Sienkiewicza 112, 90-363 Lodz, Poland
| | - Marta Pichlak
- Centre of Molecular and Macromolecular Studies, Polish Academy of Sciences, Sienkiewicza 112, 90-363 Lodz, Poland
| | - Barbara Nawrot
- Centre of Molecular and Macromolecular Studies, Polish Academy of Sciences, Sienkiewicza 112, 90-363 Lodz, Poland
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5
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Beijer D, Baets J. The expanding genetic landscape of hereditary motor neuropathies. Brain 2021; 143:3540-3563. [PMID: 33210134 DOI: 10.1093/brain/awaa311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2020] [Revised: 07/15/2020] [Accepted: 07/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Hereditary motor neuropathies are clinically and genetically diverse disorders characterized by length-dependent axonal degeneration of lower motor neurons. Although currently as many as 26 causal genes are known, there is considerable missing heritability compared to other inherited neuropathies such as Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease. Intriguingly, this genetic landscape spans a discrete number of key biological processes within the peripheral nerve. Also, in terms of underlying pathophysiology, hereditary motor neuropathies show striking overlap with several other neuromuscular and neurological disorders. In this review, we provide a current overview of the genetic spectrum of hereditary motor neuropathies highlighting recent reports of novel genes and mutations or recent discoveries in the underlying disease mechanisms. In addition, we link hereditary motor neuropathies with various related disorders by addressing the main affected pathways of disease divided into five major processes: axonal transport, tRNA aminoacylation, RNA metabolism and DNA integrity, ion channels and transporters and endoplasmic reticulum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danique Beijer
- Translational Neurosciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Antwerp, Belgium.,Laboratory of Neuromuscular Pathology, Institute Born-Bunge, University of Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Jonathan Baets
- Translational Neurosciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Antwerp, Belgium.,Laboratory of Neuromuscular Pathology, Institute Born-Bunge, University of Antwerp, Belgium.,Neuromuscular Reference Centre, Department of Neurology, Antwerp University Hospital, Belgium
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Abstract
The Escherichia coli microcin C (McC) and related compounds are potent Trojan horse peptide-nucleotide antibiotics. The peptide part facilitates transport into sensitive cells. Inside the cell, the peptide part is degraded by nonspecific peptidases releasing an aspartamide-adenylate containing a phosphoramide bond. This nonhydrolyzable compound inhibits aspartyl-tRNA synthetase. In addition to the efficient export of McC outside the producing cells, special mechanisms have evolved to avoid self-toxicity caused by the degradation of the peptide part inside the producers. Here, we report that histidine-triad (HIT) hydrolases encoded in biosynthetic clusters of some McC homologs or by standalone genes confer resistance to McC-like compounds by hydrolyzing the phosphoramide bond in toxic aspartamide-adenosine, rendering them inactive.IMPORTANCE Uncovering the mechanisms of resistance is a required step for countering the looming antibiotic resistance crisis. In this communication, we show how universally conserved histidine-triad hydrolases provide resistance to microcin C, a potent inhibitor of bacterial protein synthesis.
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Itoh M, Dai H, Horike SI, Gonzalez J, Kitami Y, Meguro-Horike M, Kuki I, Shimakawa S, Yoshinaga H, Ota Y, Okazaki T, Maegaki Y, Nabatame S, Okazaki S, Kawawaki H, Ueno N, Goto YI, Kato Y. Biallelic KARS pathogenic variants cause an early-onset progressive leukodystrophy. Brain 2020; 142:560-573. [PMID: 30715177 DOI: 10.1093/brain/awz001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2018] [Revised: 11/09/2018] [Accepted: 11/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The leukodystrophies cause severe neurodevelopmental defects from birth and follow an incurable and progressive course that often leads to premature death. It has recently been reported that abnormalities in aminoacyl t-RNA synthetase (ARS) genes are linked to various unique leukodystrophies and leukoencephalopathies. Aminoacyl t-RNA synthetase proteins are fundamentally known as the first enzymes of translation, catalysing the conjugation of amino acids to cognate tRNAs for protein synthesis. It is known that certain aminoacyl t-RNA synthetase have multiple non-canonical roles in both transcription and translation, and their disruption results in varied and complicated phenotypes. We clinically and genetically studied seven patients (six male and one female; aged 2 to 12 years) from five unrelated families who all showed the same phenotypes of severe developmental delay or arrest (7/7), hypotonia (6/7), deafness (7/7) and inability to speak (6/7). The subjects further developed intractable epilepsy (7/7) and nystagmus (6/6) with increasing age. They demonstrated characteristic laboratory data, including increased lactate and/or pyruvate levels (7/7), and imaging findings (7/7), including calcification and abnormal signals in the white matter and pathological involvement (2/2) of the corticospinal tracts. Through whole-exome sequencing, we discovered genetic abnormalities in lysyl-tRNA synthetase (KARS). All patients harboured the variant [c.1786C>T, p.Leu596Phe] KARS isoform 1 ([c.1702C>T, p.Leu568Phe] of KARS isoform 2) either in the homozygous state or compound heterozygous state with the following KARS variants, [c.879+1G>A; c.1786C>T, p.Glu252_Glu293del; p.Leu596Phe] ([c.795+1G>A; c.1702C>T, p.Glu224_Glu255del; p.Leu568Phe]) and [c.650G>A; c.1786C>T, p.Gly217Asp; p.Leu596Phe] ([c.566G>A; c.1702C>T, p.Gly189Asp; p.Leu568Phe]). Moreover, similarly disrupted lysyl-tRNA synthetase (LysRS) proteins showed reduced enzymatic activities and abnormal CNSs in Xenopus embryos. Additionally, LysRS acts as a non-canonical inducer of the immune response and has transcriptional activity. We speculated that the complex functions of the abnormal LysRS proteins led to the severe phenotypes in our patients. These KARS pathological variants are novel, including the variant [c.1786C>T; p.Leu596Phe] (c.1702C>T; p.Leu568Phe) shared by all patients in the homozygous or compound-heterozygous state. This common position may play an important role in the development of severe progressive leukodystrophy. Further research is warranted to further elucidate this relationship and to investigate how specific mutated LysRS proteins function to understand the broad spectrum of KARS-related diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masayuki Itoh
- Department of Mental Retardation and Birth Defect Research, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, Kodaira, Japan
| | - Hongmei Dai
- Department of Mental Retardation and Birth Defect Research, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, Kodaira, Japan
| | - Shin-Ichi Horike
- Advanced Science Research Center, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan
| | - John Gonzalez
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA
| | - Yoshikazu Kitami
- Department of Mental Retardation and Birth Defect Research, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, Kodaira, Japan
| | | | - Ichiro Kuki
- Department of Pediatric Neurology, Osaka City General Hospital, Osaka, Japan
| | | | - Harumi Yoshinaga
- Department of Child Neurology, Okayama University, Okayama, Japan
| | - Yoko Ota
- Department of Pathology and Experimental Medicine, Okayama University, Okayama, Japan
| | - Tetsuya Okazaki
- Department of Child Neurology, University of Tottori, Yonago, Japan
| | | | - Shin Nabatame
- Department of Pediatrics, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Shin Okazaki
- Department of Pediatric Neurology, Osaka City General Hospital, Osaka, Japan
| | - Hisashi Kawawaki
- Department of Pediatric Neurology, Osaka City General Hospital, Osaka, Japan
| | - Naoto Ueno
- Department of Developmental Biology, National Institute for Basic Biology, Natural Institutes of Natural Sciences, Okazaki, Japan.,Department of Basic Biology, School of Life Science, the Graduate University of Advanced Studies (SOKENDAI), Hayama, Japan
| | - Yu-Ichi Goto
- Department of Mental Retardation and Birth Defect Research, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, Kodaira, Japan
| | - Yoichi Kato
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA.,Department of Cell Biology, Nagoya City University Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Nagoya, Japan
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8
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Yu J, Liu Z, Liang Y, Luo F, Zhang J, Tian C, Motzik A, Zheng M, Kang J, Zhong G, Liu C, Fang P, Guo M, Razin E, Wang J. Second messenger Ap 4A polymerizes target protein HINT1 to transduce signals in FcεRI-activated mast cells. Nat Commun 2019; 10:4664. [PMID: 31604935 PMCID: PMC6789022 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-019-12710-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2019] [Accepted: 09/25/2019] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Signal transduction systems enable organisms to monitor their external environments and accordingly adjust the cellular processes. In mast cells, the second messenger Ap4A binds to the histidine triad nucleotide-binding protein 1 (HINT1), disrupts its interaction with the microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (MITF), and eventually activates the transcription of genes downstream of MITF in response to immunostimulation. How the HINT1 protein recognizes and is regulated by Ap4A remain unclear. Here, using eight crystal structures, biochemical experiments, negative stain electron microscopy, and cellular experiments, we report that Ap4A specifically polymerizes HINT1 in solution and in activated rat basophilic leukemia cells. The polymerization interface overlaps with the area on HINT1 for MITF interaction, suggesting a possible competitive mechanism to release MITF for transcriptional activation. The mechanism depends precisely on the length of the phosphodiester linkage of Ap4A. These results highlight a direct polymerization signaling mechanism by the second messenger.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Bioorganic and Natural Products Chemistry, Center for Excellence in Molecular Synthesis, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 345 Lingling Road, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Zaizhou Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Bioorganic and Natural Products Chemistry, Center for Excellence in Molecular Synthesis, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 345 Lingling Road, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Yuanyuan Liang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioorganic and Natural Products Chemistry, Center for Excellence in Molecular Synthesis, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 345 Lingling Road, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Feng Luo
- Interdisciplinary Research Center on Biology and Chemistry, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201210, China
| | - Jie Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioorganic and Natural Products Chemistry, Center for Excellence in Molecular Synthesis, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 345 Lingling Road, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Cuiping Tian
- iHuman Institute, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, 201210, China
| | - Alex Motzik
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Institute for Medical Research Israel-Canada, Hebrew University Medical School, Jerusalem, 91120, Israel
| | - Mengmeng Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of Bioorganic and Natural Products Chemistry, Center for Excellence in Molecular Synthesis, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 345 Lingling Road, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Jingwu Kang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioorganic and Natural Products Chemistry, Center for Excellence in Molecular Synthesis, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 345 Lingling Road, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Guisheng Zhong
- iHuman Institute, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, 201210, China
| | - Cong Liu
- Interdisciplinary Research Center on Biology and Chemistry, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201210, China
| | - Pengfei Fang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioorganic and Natural Products Chemistry, Center for Excellence in Molecular Synthesis, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 345 Lingling Road, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Min Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Bioorganic and Natural Products Chemistry, Center for Excellence in Molecular Synthesis, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 345 Lingling Road, Shanghai, 200032, China
- Kangma BioTech, Co., Ltd, 1131 Cailun Road, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Ehud Razin
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Institute for Medical Research Israel-Canada, Hebrew University Medical School, Jerusalem, 91120, Israel.
- NUS-HUJ-CREATE Cellular and Molecular Mechanisms of Inflammation Program, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117597, Singapore.
| | - Jing Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioorganic and Natural Products Chemistry, Center for Excellence in Molecular Synthesis, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 345 Lingling Road, Shanghai, 200032, China.
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9
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Krakowiak A, Piotrzkowska D, Kocoń-Rębowska B, Kaczmarek R, Maciaszek A. The role of the Hint1 protein in the metabolism of phosphorothioate oligonucleotides drugs and prodrugs, and the release of H 2S under cellular conditions. Biochem Pharmacol 2019; 163:250-259. [PMID: 30772266 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2019.02.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2018] [Accepted: 02/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Phosphorothioate oligonucleotides (PS-oligos) containing sulfur atom attached in a nonbridging position to the phosphorus atom at one or more internucleotide bond(s) are often used in medicinal applications. Their hydrolysis in cellular media proceeds mainly from the 3'-end, resulting in the appearance of nucleoside 5'-O-phosphorothioates ((d)NMPS), whose further metabolism is poorly understood. We hypothesize that the enzyme responsible for (d)NMPS catabolism could be Hint1, an enzyme that belongs to the histidine triad (HIT) superfamily and is present in all organisms. We previously found that (d)NMPS were desulfurated in vitro to yield (d)NMP and H2S in a Hint1-assisted reaction. Here, we demonstrate that AMPS/GMPS/dGMPS introduced into HeLa/A549 cells are intracellularly converted into AMP/GMP/dGMP and H2S. The level of the released H2S was relative to the concentration of the compounds used and the reaction time. Using RNAi technology, we have shown decreased levels of AMPS/GMPS desulfuration in HeLa/A549 cells with reduced Hint1 levels. Finally, after transfection of a short Rp-d(APSAPSA) oligomer into HeLa cells, the release of H2S was observed. These results suggest that the metabolic pathway of PS-oligos includes hydrolysis into (d)NMPS (by cellular nucleases) followed by Hint1-promoted conversion of the resulting (d)NMPS into (d)NMP accompanied by H2S elimination. Our observations may be also important for possible medicinal applications of (d)NMPS because H2S is a gasotransmitter involved in many physiological and pathological processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnieszka Krakowiak
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Centre of Molecular and Macromolecular Studies, Polish Academy of Sciences, Lodz 91-063, Poland.
| | - Danuta Piotrzkowska
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Centre of Molecular and Macromolecular Studies, Polish Academy of Sciences, Lodz 91-063, Poland
| | - Beata Kocoń-Rębowska
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Centre of Molecular and Macromolecular Studies, Polish Academy of Sciences, Lodz 91-063, Poland
| | - Renata Kaczmarek
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Centre of Molecular and Macromolecular Studies, Polish Academy of Sciences, Lodz 91-063, Poland
| | - Anna Maciaszek
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Centre of Molecular and Macromolecular Studies, Polish Academy of Sciences, Lodz 91-063, Poland
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10
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Shah R, Maize KM, Zhou X, Finzel BC, Wagner CR. Caught before Released: Structural Mapping of the Reaction Trajectory for the Sofosbuvir Activating Enzyme, Human Histidine Triad Nucleotide Binding Protein 1 (hHint1). Biochemistry 2017; 56:3559-3570. [PMID: 28691797 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.7b00148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Human histidine triad nucleotide binding protein 1 (hHint1) is classified as an efficient nucleoside phosphoramidase and acyl-adenosine monophosphate hydrolase. Human Hint1 has been shown to be essential for the metabolic activation of nucleotide antiviral pronucleotides (i.e., proTides), such as the FDA approved hepatitis C drug, sofosbuvir. The active site of hHint1 comprises an ensemble of strictly conserved histidines, including nucleophilic His112. To structurally investigate the mechanism of hHint1 catalysis, we have designed and prepared nucleoside thiophosphoramidate substrates that are able to capture the transiently formed nucleotidylated-His112 intermediate (E*) using time-dependent crystallography. Utilizing a catalytically inactive hHint1 His112Asn enzyme variant and wild-type enzyme, the enzyme-substrate (ES1) and product (EP2) complexes were also cocrystallized, respectively, thus providing a structural map of the reaction trajectory. On the basis of these observations and the mechanistic necessity of proton transfers, proton inventory studies were carried out. Although we cannot completely exclude the possibility of more than one proton in flight, the results of these studies were consistent with the transfer of a single proton during the formation of the intermediate. Interestingly, structural analysis revealed that the critical proton transfers required for intermediate formation and hydrolysis may be mediated by a conserved active site water channel. Taken together, our results provide mechanistic insights underpinning histidine nucleophilic catalysis in general and hHint1 catalysis, in particular, thus aiding the design of future proTides and the elucidation of the natural function of the Hint family of enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachit Shah
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry University of Minnesota , Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Kimberly M Maize
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry University of Minnesota , Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Xin Zhou
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry University of Minnesota , Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Barry C Finzel
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry University of Minnesota , Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Carston R Wagner
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry University of Minnesota , Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
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11
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Peeters K, Chamova T, Tournev I, Jordanova A. Axonal neuropathy with neuromyotonia: there is a HINT. Brain 2017; 140:868-877. [PMID: 28007994 PMCID: PMC5382946 DOI: 10.1093/brain/aww301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2016] [Accepted: 10/08/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Recessive mutations in the gene encoding the histidine triad nucleotide binding protein 1 (HINT1) were recently shown to cause a motor-predominant Charcot–Marie–Tooth neuropathy. About 80% of the patients exhibit neuromyotonia, a striking clinical and electrophysiological hallmark that can help to distinguish this disease and to guide diagnostic screening. HINT1 neuropathy has worldwide distribution and is particularly prevalent in populations inhabiting central and south-eastern Europe. With 12 different mutations identified in more than 60 families, it ranks among the most common subtypes of axonal Charcot–Marie–Tooth neuropathy. This article provides an overview of the present knowledge on HINT1 neuropathy with the aim to increase awareness and spur interest among clinicians and researchers in the field. We propose diagnostic guidelines to recognize and differentiate this entity and suggest treatment strategies to manage common symptoms. As a recent player in the field of hereditary neuropathies, the role of HINT1 in peripheral nerves is unknown and the underlying disease mechanisms are unexplored. We provide a comprehensive overview of the structural and functional characteristics of the HINT1 protein that may guide further studies into the molecular aetiology and treatment strategies of this peculiar Charcot–Marie–Tooth subtype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristien Peeters
- Molecular Neurogenomics Group, Department of Molecular Genetics, VIB and University of Antwerp, Antwerpen 2610, Belgium
| | - Teodora Chamova
- Department of Neurology, Medical University-Sofia, Sofia 1431, Bulgaria
| | - Ivailo Tournev
- Department of Neurology, Medical University-Sofia, Sofia 1431, Bulgaria.,Department of Cognitive Science and Psychology, New Bulgarian University, Sofia 1618, Bulgaria
| | - Albena Jordanova
- Molecular Neurogenomics Group, Department of Molecular Genetics, VIB and University of Antwerp, Antwerpen 2610, Belgium.,Department of Medical Chemistry and Biochemistry, Molecular Medicine Center, Medical University-Sofia, Sofia 1431, Bulgaria
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12
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Liang G, Webster CE. Phosphoramidate hydrolysis catalyzed by human histidine triad nucleotide binding protein 1 (hHint1): a cluster-model DFT computational study. Org Biomol Chem 2017; 15:8661-8668. [DOI: 10.1039/c7ob02098h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The histidine triad of hHint1 serves as a proton shuttle in the DFT proposed mechanism of the hydrolysis of phosphoramidate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guangchao Liang
- Department of Chemistry and Center for Computational Sciences
- Mississippi State University
- Mississippi State
- USA
- Department of Chemistry
| | - Charles Edwin Webster
- Department of Chemistry and Center for Computational Sciences
- Mississippi State University
- Mississippi State
- USA
- Department of Chemistry
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13
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Shah R, Strom A, Zhou A, Maize KM, Finzel BC, Wagner CR. Design, Synthesis, and Characterization of Sulfamide and Sulfamate Nucleotidomimetic Inhibitors of hHint1. ACS Med Chem Lett 2016; 7:780-4. [PMID: 27563403 DOI: 10.1021/acsmedchemlett.6b00169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2016] [Accepted: 06/10/2016] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Hint1 has recently emerged to be an important target of interest due to its involvement in the regulation of a broad range of CNS functions including opioid signaling, tolerance, neuropathic pain, and nicotine dependence. A series of inhibitors were rationally designed, synthesized, and tested for their inhibitory activity against hHint1 using isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC). The studies resulted in the development of the first small-molecule inhibitors of hHint1 with submicromolar binding affinities. A combination of thermodynamic and high-resolution X-ray crystallographic studies provides an insight into the biomolecular recognition of ligands by hHint1. These novel inhibitors have potential utility as molecular probes to better understand the role and function of hHint1 in the CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachit Shah
- Departments
of Medicinal Chemistry and §Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Alexander Strom
- Departments
of Medicinal Chemistry and §Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Andrew Zhou
- Departments
of Medicinal Chemistry and §Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Kimberly M. Maize
- Departments
of Medicinal Chemistry and §Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Barry C. Finzel
- Departments
of Medicinal Chemistry and §Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Carston R. Wagner
- Departments
of Medicinal Chemistry and §Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
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14
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Maize KM. Errors in Crystal structure of HINT from Helicobacter pylori. Acta Crystallogr F Struct Biol Commun 2016; 72:336-7. [PMID: 27050269 PMCID: PMC4822992 DOI: 10.1107/s2053230x16004088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2016] [Accepted: 03/10/2016] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Inaccuracies in the article, Crystal structure of HINT from Helicobacter pylori by Tarique et al. [(2016) Acta Cryst. F72, 42-48] are presented, and a brief history of HINT nomenclature is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kimberly M. Maize
- Medicinal Chemistry, University of Minnesota, 308 Harvard St SE, 8-101 Weaver-Densford Hall, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, USA
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15
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Dolot R, Kaczmarek R, Sęda A, Krakowiak A, Baraniak J, Nawrot B. Crystallographic studies of the complex of human HINT1 protein with a non-hydrolyzable analog of Ap4A. Int J Biol Macromol 2016; 87:62-9. [PMID: 26905466 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2016.02.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2015] [Revised: 02/05/2016] [Accepted: 02/16/2016] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Histidine triad nucleotide-binding protein 1 (HINT1) represents the most ancient and widespread branch in the histidine triad proteins superfamily. HINT1 plays an important role in various biological processes, and it has been found in many species. Here, we report the first structure (at a 2.34Å resolution) of a complex of human HINT1 with a non-hydrolyzable analog of an Ap4A dinucleotide, containing bis-phosphorothioated glycerol mimicking a polyphosphate chain, obtained from a primitive monoclinic space group P21 crystal. In addition, the apo form of hHINT1 at the space group P21 refined to 1.92Å is reported for comparative studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafał Dolot
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Centre of Molecular and Macromolecular Studies, Polish Academy of Sciences, Sienkiewicza 112, 90-363 Łódź, Poland.
| | - Renata Kaczmarek
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Centre of Molecular and Macromolecular Studies, Polish Academy of Sciences, Sienkiewicza 112, 90-363 Łódź, Poland
| | - Aleksandra Sęda
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Centre of Molecular and Macromolecular Studies, Polish Academy of Sciences, Sienkiewicza 112, 90-363 Łódź, Poland
| | - Agnieszka Krakowiak
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Centre of Molecular and Macromolecular Studies, Polish Academy of Sciences, Sienkiewicza 112, 90-363 Łódź, Poland
| | - Janina Baraniak
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Centre of Molecular and Macromolecular Studies, Polish Academy of Sciences, Sienkiewicza 112, 90-363 Łódź, Poland
| | - Barbara Nawrot
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Centre of Molecular and Macromolecular Studies, Polish Academy of Sciences, Sienkiewicza 112, 90-363 Łódź, Poland
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16
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Fortowsky GB, Simard DJ, Aboelnga MM, Gauld JW. Substrate-Assisted and Enzymatic Pretransfer Editing of Nonstandard Amino Acids by Methionyl-tRNA Synthetase. Biochemistry 2015; 54:5757-65. [PMID: 26322377 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.5b00588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases (aaRSs) are central to a number of physiological processes, including protein biosynthesis. In particular, they activate and then transfer their corresponding amino acid to the cognate tRNA. This is achieved with a generally remarkably high fidelity by editing against incorrect standard and nonstandard amino acids. Using docking, molecular dynamics (MD), and hybrid quantum mechanical/molecular mechanics methods, we have investigated mechanisms by which methionyl-tRNA synthetase (MetRS) may edit against the highly toxic, noncognate, amino acids homocysteine (Hcy) and its oxygen analogue, homoserine (Hse). Substrate-assisted editing of Hcy-AMP in which its own phosphate acts as the mechanistic base occurs with a rate-limiting barrier of 98.2 kJ mol(-1). This step corresponds to nucleophilic attack of the Hcy side-chain sulfur at its own carbonyl carbon (CCarb). In contrast, a new possible editing mechanism is identified in which an active site aspartate (Asp259) acts as the base. The rate-limiting step is now rotation about the substrate's aminoacyl Cβ-Cγ bond with a barrier of 27.5 kJ mol(-1), while for Hse-AMP, the rate-limiting step is cleavage of the CCarb-OP bond with a barrier of 30.9 kJ mol(-1). A similarly positioned aspartate or glutamate also occurs in the homologous enzymes LeuRS, IleRS, and ValRS, which also discriminate against Hcy. Docking and MD studies suggest that at least in the case of LeuRS and ValRS, a similar editing mechanism may be possible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grant B Fortowsky
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Windsor , Windsor, Ontario N9B 3P4, Canada
| | - Daniel J Simard
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Windsor , Windsor, Ontario N9B 3P4, Canada
| | - Mohamed M Aboelnga
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Windsor , Windsor, Ontario N9B 3P4, Canada
| | - James W Gauld
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Windsor , Windsor, Ontario N9B 3P4, Canada
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17
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Seburn KL, Morelli KH, Jordanova A, Burgess RW. Lack of neuropathy-related phenotypes in hint1 knockout mice. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2014; 73:693-701. [PMID: 24918641 PMCID: PMC4098130 DOI: 10.1097/nen.0000000000000085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in HINT1, the gene encoding histidine triad nucleotide-binding protein 1 (HINT1), cause a recessively inherited peripheral neuropathy that primarily involves motor dysfunction and is usually associated with neuromyotonia (i.e. prolonged muscle contraction resulting from hyperexcitability of peripheral nerves). Because these mutations are hypothesized to cause loss of function, we analyzed Hint1 knockout mice for their relevance as a disease model. Mice lacking Hint1 appeared normal and yielded normal behavioral test results or motor performance, although they moved more slowly and for a smaller fraction of time in an open-field arena than wild-type mice. Muscles, neuromuscular junctions, and nodes of Ranvier were anatomically normal and did not show evidence of degeneration or regeneration. Axon numbers and myelination in peripheral nerves were normal at ages 4 and 13 months. Axons were slightly smaller than those in wild-type mice at age 4 months, but this did not cause a decrease in conduction velocity, and no differences in axon diameters were detected at 13 months. With electromyography, we were unable to detect neuromyotonia even after using supraphysiologic stimuli and stressors such as reduced temperature or 3,4-diaminopyridine to block potassium channels. Therefore, we conclude that Hint1 knockout mice may be useful for studying the biochemical activities of HINT1, but these mice do not provide a disease model or a means for investigating the basis of HINT1-associated neuropathy and neuromyotonia.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kathryn H. Morelli
- The Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, Maine
- Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences and Engineering, University of Maine, Orono, Maine
| | - Albena Jordanova
- VIB Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
- Neurogenetics Laboratory, Institute Born-Bunge, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Robert W. Burgess
- The Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, Maine
- Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences and Engineering, University of Maine, Orono, Maine
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18
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Zhou X, Chou TF, Aubol BE, Park CJ, Wolfenden R, Adams J, Wagner CR. Kinetic mechanism of human histidine triad nucleotide binding protein 1. Biochemistry 2013; 52:3588-600. [PMID: 23614568 DOI: 10.1021/bi301616c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Human histidine triad nucleotide binding protein 1 (hHint1) is a member of a ubiquitous and ancient branch of the histidine triad protein superfamily. hHint1 is a homodimeric protein that catalyzes the hydrolysis of model substrates, phosphoramidate and acyl adenylate, with a high efficiency. Recently, catalytically inactive hHint1 has been identified as the cause of inherited peripheral neuropathy [Zimon, M., et al. (2012) Nat. Genet. 44, 1080-1083]. We have conducted the first detailed kinetic mechanistic studies of hHint1 and have found that the reaction mechanism is consistent with a double-displacement mechanism, in which the active site nucleophile His112 is first adenylylated by the substrate, followed by hydrolysis of the AMP-enzyme intermediate. A transient burst phase followed by a linear phase from the stopped-flow fluorescence assay indicated that enzyme adenylylation was faster than the subsequent intermediate hydrolysis and product release. Solvent viscosity experiments suggested that both chemical transformation and diffusion-sensitive events (product release or protein conformational change) limit the overall turnover. The catalytic trapping experiments and data simulation indicated that the true koff rate of the final product AMP is unlikely to control the overall kcat. Therefore, a protein conformational change associated with product release is likely rate-limiting. In addition, the rate of Hint1 adenylylation was found to be dependent on two residues with pKa values of 6.5 and 8, with the former pKa agreeing well with the nuclear magnetic resonance titration results for the pKa of the active site nucleophile His112. In comparison to the uncatalyzed rates, hHint1 was shown to enhance acyl-AMP and AMP phosphoramidate hydrolysis by 10(6)-10(8)-fold. Taken together, our analysis indicates that hHint1 catalyzes the hydrolysis of phosphoramidate and acyl adenylate with high efficiency, through a mechanism that relies on rapid adenylylation of the active residue, His112, while being partially rate-limited by intermediate hydrolysis and product release associated with a conformational change. Given the high degree of sequence homology of Hint proteins across all kingdoms of life, it is likely that their kinetic and catalytic mechanisms will be similar to those elucidated for hHint1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Zhou
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and ‡Minnesota NMR Facility, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
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19
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Dolot R, Ozga M, Włodarczyk A, Krakowiak A, Nawrot B. A new crystal form of human histidine triad nucleotide-binding protein 1 (hHINT1) in complex with adenosine 5'-monophosphate at 1.38 Å resolution. Acta Crystallogr Sect F Struct Biol Cryst Commun 2012; 68:883-8. [PMID: 22869114 PMCID: PMC3412765 DOI: 10.1107/s1744309112029491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2012] [Accepted: 06/28/2012] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Histidine triad nucleotide-binding protein 1 (HINT1) represents the most ancient and widespread branch of the histidine triad protein superfamily. HINT1 plays an important role in various biological processes and has been found in many species. Here, the structure of the human HINT1-adenosine 5'-monophosphate (AMP) complex at 1.38 Å resolution obtained from a new monoclinic crystal form is reported. The final structure has R(cryst) = 0.1207 (R(free) = 0.1615) and the model exhibits good stereochemical quality. Detailed analysis of the high-resolution data allowed the details of the protein structure to be updated in comparison to the previously published data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafał Dolot
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Centre of Molecular and Macromolecular Studies, Sienkiewicza 112, 90-363 Łódź, Poland.
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