Discovery, identification, and characterization of candidate pharmacodynamic markers of methionine aminopeptidase-2 inhibition

Pharmacological Characterization of SDX-7320/Evexomostat: A Novel Methionine Aminopeptidase Type 2 Inhibitor with Anti-tumor and Anti-metastatic Activity

Methionine aminopeptidase type 2 (METAP2) is a ubiquitous, evolutionarily conserved metalloprotease fundamental to protein biosynthesis which catalyzes removal of the N-terminal methionine residue from nascent polypeptides. METAP2 is an attractive target for cancer therapeutics based upon its over-expression in multiple human cancers, the importance of METAP2-specific substrates whose biological activity may be altered following METAP2 inhibition, and additionally, that METAP2 was identified as the target for the anti-angiogenic natural product, fumagillin. Irreversible inhibition of METAP2 using fumagillin analogues has established the anti-angiogenic and anti-tumor characteristics of these derivatives; however, their full clinical potential has not been realized due to a combination of poor drug-like properties and dose-limiting central nervous system (CNS) toxicity. This report describes the physicochemical and pharmacological characterization of SDX-7320 (evexomostat), a polymer-drug conjugate of the novel METAP2 inhibitor (METAP2i) SDX-7539. In vitro binding, enzyme, and cell-based assays demonstrated that SDX-7539 is a potent and selective METAP2 inhibitor. In utilizing a high molecular weight, water-soluble polymer to conjugate the novel fumagillol-derived, cathepsin-released, METAP2i SDX-7539, limitations observed with prior generation, small molecule fumagillol derivatives were ameliorated including reduced CNS exposure of the METAP2i, and prolonged half-life enabling convenient administration. Multiple xenograft and syngeneic cancer models were utilized to demonstrate the anti-tumor and anti-metastatic profile of SDX-7320. Unlike polymer-drug conjugates in general, reductions in small molecule-equivalent efficacious doses following polymer conjugation were observed. SDX-7320 has completed a phase I clinical safety study in patients with late-stage cancer and is currently being evaluated in multiple phase Ib/II clinical studies in patients with advanced solid tumors.

Novel Methionine Aminopeptidase 2 Inhibitor M8891 Synergizes with VEGF Receptor Inhibitors to Inhibit Tumor Growth of Renal Cell Carcinoma Models

N-terminal processing by methionine aminopeptidases (MetAP) is a crucial step in the maturation of proteins during protein biosynthesis. Small-molecule inhibitors of MetAP2 have antiangiogenic and antitumoral activity. Herein, we characterize the structurally novel MetAP2 inhibitor M8891. M8891 is a potent, selective, reversible small-molecule inhibitor blocking the growth of human endothelial cells and differentially inhibiting cancer cell growth. A CRISPR genome-wide screen identified the tumor suppressor p53 and MetAP1/MetAP2 as determinants of resistance and sensitivity to pharmacologic MetAP2 inhibition. A newly identified substrate of MetAP2, translation elongation factor 1-alpha-1 (EF1a-1), served as a pharmacodynamic biomarker to follow target inhibition in cell and mouse studies. Robust angiogenesis and tumor growth inhibition was observed with M8891 monotherapy. In combination with VEGF receptor inhibitors, tumor stasis and regression occurred in patient-derived xenograft renal cell carcinoma models, particularly those that were p53 wild-type, had Von Hippel-Landau gene (VHL) loss-of-function mutations, and a mid/high MetAP1/2 expression score.

Epoxide containing molecules: A good or a bad drug design approach

Functional group modification is one of the main strategies used in drug discovery and development. Despite the controversy of being identified for many years as a biologically hazardous functional group, the introduction of an epoxide function in a structural backbone is still one of the possible modifications being implemented in drug design. In this manner, it is our intention to prove with this work that epoxides can have significant interest in medicinal chemistry, not only as anticancer agents, but also as important drugs for other pathologies. Thus, this revision paper aims to highlight the biological activity and the proposed mechanisms of action of several epoxide-containing molecules either in preclinical studies or in clinical development or even in clinical use. An overview of the chemistry of epoxides is also reported. Some of the conclusions are that effectively most of the epoxide-containing molecules referred in this work were being studied or are in the market as anticancer drugs. However, some of them in preclinical studies, were also associated with other different activities such as anti-malarial, anti-arthritic, insecticidal, antithrombotic, and selective inhibitory activity of FXIII-A (a transglutaminase). As for the epoxide-containing molecules in clinical trials, some of them are being tested for obesity and schizophrenia. Finally, drugs containing epoxide groups already in the market are mostly used for the treatment of different types of cancer, such as breast cancer and multiple myeloma. Other diseases for which the referred drugs are being used include heart failure, infections and gastrointestinal disturbs. In summary, epoxides can be a suitable option in drug design, particularly in the design of anticancer agents, and deserve to be better explored. However, and despite the promising results, it is imperative to explore the mechanisms of action of these compounds in order to have a better picture of their efficiency and safety.

MetAP2 inhibitor treatment of high-fat and -fructose-fed dogs: impact on the response to oral glucose ingestion and a hyperinsulinemic hyperglycemic clamp

We examined the methionine aminopeptidase 2 inhibitor fumagillin in dogs consuming a high-fat and -fructose diet (HFFD). In pilot studies (3 dogs that had consumed HFFD for 3 yr), 8 wk of daily treatment with fumagillin reduced food intake 29%, weight 6%, and the glycemic excursion during an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) 44%. A second group of dogs consumed the HFFD for 17 wk: pretreatment (weeks 0-4), treatment with fumagillin (FUM; n = 6), or no drug (Control, n = 8) (weeks 4-12), washout period (weeks 12-16), and fumagillin or no drug for 1 wk (week 17). OGTTs were performed at 0, 4, 11, and 16 wk. A hyperinsulinemic hyperglycemic clamp was performed in week 12; 4 chow-fed dogs underwent identical clamps. Kilocalories per day intake during the treatment period was 2,067 ± 50 (Control) versus 1,824 ± 202 (FUM). Body weights (kg) increased 1.9 ± 0.3 vs. 2.7 ± 0.8 (0-4 wk) and 1.2 ± 0.2 vs. -0.02 ± 0.9 (4-12 wk) in Control versus fumagillin. The OGTT glycemic response was 30% greater in Control versus fumagillin at 11 wk. Net hepatic glucose uptake (NHGU; mg·kg^-1·min^-1) in the Chow, Control, and fumagillin dogs was ~1.5 ± 0.6, -0.1 ± 0.1, and 0.3 ± 0.4 (with no portal glucose infusion) and 3.1 ± 0.6, 0.5 ± 0.3, and 1.5 ± 0.5 (portal glucose infusion at 4 mg·kg^-1·min^-1), respectively. Fumagillin improved glucose tolerance and NHGU in HFFD dogs, suggesting methionine aminopeptidase 2 (MetAP2) inhibitors have the potential for improving glycemic control in prediabetes and diabetes.

Fumagillin, a Mycotoxin of Aspergillus fumigatus: Biosynthesis, Biological Activities, Detection, and Applications

Fumagillin is a mycotoxin produced, above all, by the saprophytic filamentous fungus Aspergillus fumigatus. This mold is an opportunistic pathogen that can cause invasive aspergillosis, a disease that has high mortality rates linked to it. Its ability to adapt to environmental stresses through the production of secondary metabolites, including several mycotoxins (gliotoxin, fumagillin, pseurotin A, etc.) also seem to play an important role in causing these infections. Since the discovery of the A. fumigatus fumagillin in 1949, many studies have focused on this toxin and in this review we gather all the information currently available. First of all, the structural characteristics of this mycotoxin and the different methods developed for its determination are given in detail. Then, the biosynthetic gene cluster and the metabolic pathway involved in its production and regulation are explained. The activity of fumagillin on its target, the methionine aminopeptidase type 2 (MetAP2) enzyme, and the effects of blocking this enzyme in the host are also described. Finally, the applications that this toxin and its derivatives have in different fields, such as the treatment of cancer and its microsporicidal activity in the treatment of honeybee hive infections with Nosema spp., are reviewed. Therefore, this work offers a complete review of all the information currently related to the fumagillin mycotoxin secreted by A. fumigatus, important because of its role in the fungal infection process but also because it has many other applications, notably in beekeeping, the treatment of infectious diseases, and in oncology.

Obesity medications in development

Introduction: Obesity is compounded by a neurobiology that is resistant to weight loss. Therefore, the development of pharmacotherapies to address the pathology underlying the dysregulation of energy homeostasis is critical.Areas covered: This review examines selected clinical trial evidence for the pharmacologic treatment of obesity and provides an expert opinion on anti-obesity drug development. The article includes the outcomes of anti-obesity medications that have been evaluated in clinical trials but have not yet received approval from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. The mechanisms of action of glucagon-like peptide-1 agonists and co-agonists, diabetes medications being investigated for weight loss, and medications acting on the central nervous system as well as peripherally are reviewed. A search was conducted on PubMed using the terms 'Obesity AND Medications' restricted to clinical trials reported in English. Using similar terms, a search was also conducted on ClinicalTrials.gov.Expert opinion: The goal of anti-obesity therapy is finding compounds that are effective and have minimal side effects. Combining medications targeting more than one of the redundant mechanisms driving obesity increases efficacy. However, targeting peripheral mechanisms to overcome the trickle-down effects of centrally acting drugs may be the key to success in treating obesity.

Methionine metabolism in health and cancer: a nexus of diet and precision medicine

Methionine uptake and metabolism is involved in a host of cellular functions including methylation reactions, redox maintenance, polyamine synthesis and coupling to folate metabolism, thus coordinating nucleotide and redox status. Each of these functions has been shown in many contexts to be relevant for cancer pathogenesis. Intriguingly, the levels of methionine obtained from the diet can have a large effect on cellular methionine metabolism. This establishes a link between nutrition and tumour cell metabolism that may allow for tumour-specific metabolic vulnerabilities that can be influenced by diet. Recently, a number of studies have begun to investigate the molecular and cellular mechanisms that underlie the interaction between nutrition, methionine metabolism and effects on health and cancer.

MetAP1 and MetAP2 drive cell selectivity for a potent anti-cancer agent in synergy, by controlling glutathione redox state

Fumagillin and its derivatives are therapeutically useful because they can decrease cancer progression. The specific molecular target of fumagillin is methionine aminopeptidase 2 (MetAP2), one of the two MetAPs present in the cytosol. MetAPs catalyze N-terminal methionine excision (NME), an essential pathway of cotranslational protein maturation. To date, it remains unclear the respective contribution of MetAP1 and MetAP2 to the NME process in vivo and why MetAP2 inhibition causes cell cycle arrest only in a subset of cells. Here, we performed a global characterization of the N-terminal methionine excision pathway and the inhibition of MetAP2 by fumagillin in a number of lines, including cancer cell lines. Large-scale N-terminus profiling in cells responsive and unresponsive to fumagillin treatment revealed that both MetAPs were required in vivo for M[VT]X-targets and, possibly, for lower-level M[G]X-targets. Interestingly, we found that the responsiveness of the cell lines to fumagillin was correlated with the ability of the cells to modulate their glutathione homeostasis. Indeed, alterations to glutathione status were observed in fumagillin-sensitive cells but not in cells unresponsive to this agent. Proteo-transcriptomic analyses revealed that both MetAP1 and MetAP2 accumulated in a cell-specific manner and that cell sensitivity to fumagillin was related to the levels of these MetAPs, particularly MetAP1. We suggest that MetAP1 levels could be routinely checked in several types of tumor and used as a prognostic marker for predicting the response to treatments inhibiting MetAP2.

Preclinical Efficacy and Safety of the Novel Antidiabetic, Antiobesity MetAP2 Inhibitor ZGN-1061

Methionine aminopeptidase 2 (MetAP2) inhibition is a promising approach to treating diabetes, obesity, and associated metabolic disorders. Beloranib, a MetAP2 inhibitor previously investigated for treatment of Prader-Willi syndrome, was associated with venous thrombotic adverse events likely resulting from drug effects on vascular endothelial cells (ECs). Here, we report the pharmacological characterization of ZGN-1061, a novel MetAP2 inhibitor being investigated for treatment of diabetes and obesity. Four weeks of subcutaneous administration of ZGN-1061 to diet-induced obese (DIO) insulin-resistant mice produced a 25% reduction in body weight, primarily due to reduced fat mass, that was comparable to beloranib. ZGN-1061 also produced improvements in metabolic parameters, including plasma glucose and insulin, and, in HepG2 cells, initiated gene changes similar to beloranib that support observed in vivo pharmacodynamics. In vitro studies in ECs demonstrated that ZGN-1061 effects on EC proliferation and coagulation proteins were greatly attenuated, or absent, relative to beloranib, due to lower intracellular drug concentrations, shorter half-life of inhibitor-bound MetAP2 complex, and reduced cellular enzyme inhibition. In dogs, ZGN-1061 was more rapidly absorbed and cleared, with a shorter half-life than beloranib. Unlike beloranib, ZGN-1061 did not increase coagulation markers in dogs, and ZGN-1061 had a greatly improved safety profile in rats relative to beloranib. In conclusion, ZGN-1061 and beloranib demonstrated similar efficacy in a mouse model of obesity, while ZGN-1061 had a markedly improved safety profile in multiple in vitro and in vivo models. The lower duration of exposure characteristic of ZGN-1061 is expected to provide a meaningfully enhanced clinical safety profile.

Aminopeptidase P Mediated Targeting for Breast Tissue Specific Conjugate Delivery

Cytotoxic chemotherapies are used to treat breast cancer, but are limited by systemic toxicity. The key to addressing this important issue is the development of a nontoxic, tissue selective, and molecular specific delivery system. In order to potentially increase the therapeutic index of clinical reagents, we designed an Aminopeptidase P (APaseP) targeting tissue-specific construct conjugated to a homing peptide for selective binding to human breast-derived cancer cells. Homing peptides are short amino acid sequences derived from phage display libraries that have the unique property of localizing to specific organs. Our molecular construct allows for tissue-specific drug delivery, by binding to APaseP in the vascular endothelium. The breast homing peptide evaluated in our studies is a cyclic nine-amino-acid peptide with the sequence CPGPEGAGC, referred to as PEGA. We show by confocal microscopy that the PEGA peptide and similar peptide conjugates distribute to human breast tissue xenograft specifically and evaluate the interaction with the membrane-bound proline-specific APaseP (KD = 723 ± 3 nM) by binding studies. To achieve intracellular breast cancer cell delivery, the incorporation of the Tat sequence, a cell-penetrating motif derived from HIV, was conjugated with the fluorescently labeled PEGA peptide sequence. Ultimately, tissue specific peptides and their conjugates can enhance drug delivery and treatment by their ability to discriminate between tissue types. Tissue specific conjugates as we have designed may be valuable tools for drug delivery and visualization, including the potential to treat breast cancer, while simultaneously minimizing systemic toxicity.

Redox regulation of methionine aminopeptidase 2 activity

Protein translation is initiated with methionine in eukaryotes, and the majority of proteins have their N-terminal methionine removed by methionine aminopeptidases (MetAP1 and MetAP2) prior to action. Methionine removal can be important for protein function, localization, or stability. No mechanism of regulation of MetAP activity has been identified. MetAP2, but not MetAP1, contains a single Cys(228)-Cys(448) disulfide bond that has an -RHStaple configuration and links two β-loop structures, which are hallmarks of allosteric disulfide bonds. From analysis of crystal structures and using mass spectrometry and activity assays, we found that the disulfide bond exists in oxidized and reduced states in the recombinant enzyme. The disulfide has a standard redox potential of -261 mV and is efficiently reduced by the protein reductant, thioredoxin, with a rate constant of 16,180 m(-1) s(-1). The MetAP2 disulfide bond also exists in oxidized and reduced states in glioblastoma tumor cells, and stressing the cells by oxygen or glucose deprivation results in more oxidized enzyme. The Cys(228)-Cys(448) disulfide is at the rim of the active site and is only three residues distant from the catalytic His(231), which suggested that cleavage of the bond would influence substrate hydrolysis. Indeed, oxidized and reduced isoforms have different catalytic efficiencies for hydrolysis of MetAP2 peptide substrates. These findings indicate that MetAP2 is post-translationally regulated by an allosteric disulfide bond, which controls substrate specificity and catalytic efficiency.

Early treatment with fumagillin, an inhibitor of methionine aminopeptidase-2, prevents Pulmonary Hypertension in monocrotaline-injured rats

Pulmonary Hypertension (PH) is a pathophysiologic condition characterized by hypoxemia and right ventricular strain. Proliferation of fibroblasts, smooth muscle cells, and endothelial cells is central to the pathology of PH in animal models and in humans. Methionine aminopeptidase-2 (MetAP2) regulates proliferation in a variety of cell types including endothelial cells, smooth muscle cells, and fibroblasts. MetAP2 is inhibited irreversibly by the angiogenesis inhibitor fumagillin. We have previously found that inhibition of MetAP2 with fumagillin in bleomycin-injured mice decreased pulmonary fibrosis by selectively decreasing the proliferation of lung myofibroblasts. In this study, we investigated the role of fumagillin as a potential therapy in experimental PH. In vivo, treatment of rats with fumagillin early after monocrotaline injury prevented PH and right ventricular remodeling by decreasing the thickness of the medial layer of the pulmonary arteries. Treatment with fumagillin beginning two weeks after monocrotaline injury did not prevent PH but was associated with decreased right ventricular mass and decreased cardiomyocyte hypertrophy, suggesting a direct effect of fumagillin on right ventricular remodeling. Incubation of rat pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells (RPASMC) with fumagillin and MetAP2-targeting siRNA inhibited proliferation of RPASMC in vitro. Platelet-derived growth factor, a growth factor that is important in the pathogenesis of PH and stimulates proliferation of fibroblasts and smooth muscle cells, strongly increased expression of MetP2. By immunohistochemistry, we found that MetAP2 was expressed in the lesions of human pulmonary arterial hypertension. We propose that fumagillin may be an effective adjunctive therapy for treating PH in patients.

Disruption of Wnt planar cell polarity signaling by aberrant accumulation of the MetAP-2 substrate Rab37

Identification of methionine aminopeptidase-2 (MetAP-2) as the molecular target of the antiangiogenic compound TNP-470 has sparked interest in N-terminal Met excision's (NME) role in endothelial cell biology. In this regard, we recently demonstrated that MetAP-2 inhibition suppresses Wnt planar cell polarity (PCP) signaling and that endothelial cells depend on this pathway for normal function. Despite this advance, the substrate(s) whose activity is altered upon MetAP-2 inhibition, resulting in loss of Wnt PCP signaling, is not known. Here we identify the small G protein Rab37 as a MetAP-2-specific substrate that accumulates in the presence of TNP-470. A functional role for aberrant Rab37 accumulation in TNP-470's mode of action is demonstrated using a Rab37 point mutant that is resistant to NME, because expression of this mutant phenocopies the effects of MetAP-2 inhibition on Wnt PCP signaling-dependent processes.

Substituted oxines inhibit endothelial cell proliferation and angiogenesis

Two substituted oxines, nitroxoline (5) and 5-chloroquinolin-8-yl phenylcarbamate (22), were identified as hits in a high-throughput screen aimed at finding new anti-angiogenic agents. In a previous study, we have elucidated the molecular mechanism of antiproliferative activity of nitroxoline in endothelial cells, which comprises of a dual inhibition of type 2 human methionine aminopeptidase (MetAP2) and sirtuin 1 (SIRT1). Structure-activity relationship study (SAR) of nitroxoline offered many surprises where minor modifications yielded oxine derivatives with increased potency against human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC), but with entirely different as yet unknown mechanisms. For example, 5-nitrosoquinolin-8-ol (33) inhibited HUVEC growth with sub-micromolar IC(50), but did not affect MetAP2 or MetAP1, and it only showed weak inhibition against SIRT1. Other sub-micromolar inhibitors were derivatives of 5-aminoquinolin-8-ol (34) and 8-sulfonamidoquinoline (32). A sulfamate derivative of nitroxoline (48) was found to be more potent than nitroxoline with the retention of activities against MetAP2 and SIRT1. The bioactivity of the second hit, micromolar HUVEC and MetAP2 inhibitor carbamate 22 was improved further with an SAR study culminating in carbamate 24 which is a nanomolar inhibitor of HUVEC and MetAP2.

Protein N-terminal processing: substrate specificity of Escherichia coli and human methionine aminopeptidases

Methionine aminopeptidase (MetAP) catalyzes the hydrolytic cleavage of the N-terminal methionine from newly synthesized polypeptides. The extent of removal of methionyl from a protein is dictated by its N-terminal peptide sequence. Earlier studies revealed that MetAPs require amino acids containing small side chains (e.g., Gly, Ala, Ser, Cys, Pro, Thr, and Val) as the P1' residue, but their specificity at positions P2' and beyond remains incompletely defined. In this work, the substrate specificities of Escherichia coli MetAP1, human MetAP1, and human MetAP2 were systematically profiled by screening against a combinatorial peptide library and kinetic analysis of individually synthesized peptide substrates. Our results show that although all three enzymes require small residues at the P1' position, they have differential tolerance for Val and Thr at this position. The catalytic activity of human MetAP2 toward Met-Val peptides is consistently 2 orders of magnitude higher than that of MetAP1, suggesting that MetAP2 is responsible for processing proteins containing N-terminal Met-Val and Met-Thr sequences in vivo. At positions P2'-P5', all three MetAPs have broad specificity but are poorly active toward peptides containing a proline at the P2' position. In addition, the human MetAPs disfavor acidic residues at the P2'-P5' positions. The specificity data have allowed us to formulate a simple set of rules that can reliably predict the N-terminal processing of E. coli and human proteins.