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Vega-López A, Lara-Vega I, Atonal-Brioso G, Nájera-Martínez M. Neurotoxicant effects of bisphenol A, nonylphenol, and tert‑butyl phenol in the Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2024; 268:106868. [PMID: 38387248 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2024.106868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2023] [Revised: 02/07/2024] [Accepted: 02/17/2024] [Indexed: 02/24/2024]
Abstract
Worldwide production of alkyl phenols and ethoxylated alkyl phenols is high due to their broad industrial uses. It has been widely documented that they are endocrine disruptors, and it has been suggested that they could exert neurotoxic effects. However, a lack of information about the neurotoxic effects of APs and APEs prevails. In this study, the bisphenol A (BPA), 4-nonylphenol (NP), and 3‑tert-butylphenol (tertBP) effects on brain and spinal cord of Nile tilapia exposed to environmental concentrations were evaluated by assessing acetylcholinesterase (AChE), butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE), and carboxylesterases (CES) activities, and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) levels and their effects were evaluated by molecular docking. BPA and NP, tertBP behave as agonists and antagonists of AChE, BuChE, CES, and GABA, with notable differences among organs. However, none of these compounds or their metabolites interact with the enzymes' catalytic triad, suggesting an indirect alteration of enzymatic activities. While inhibiting these enzymes stand out hydrophobic interactions with the peripheral anion site, contacts with the inner face of the active site and blocking the mouth of the gorge of the active site, and steric hindrance in the enzyme pocket of glutamate decarboxylase (GAD). In contrast, inductions probably are by homotropic pseudo-cooperative phenomenon, where APEs behave as anchors favoring the active site to remain open and interactions that confer a conservative stabilization of the regulatory domain. Although the results of this study are complex, with notable differences between organs and toxicants, they are some of the first evidence of the neurotoxicity of alkylphenols and their ethoxylated derivatives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Armando Vega-López
- Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Laboratorio de Toxicología Ambiental, Av. Wilfrido Massieu s/n, Unidad Profesional Zacatenco, México City CP 07738, Mexico.
| | - Israel Lara-Vega
- Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Laboratorio de Toxicología Ambiental, Av. Wilfrido Massieu s/n, Unidad Profesional Zacatenco, México City CP 07738, Mexico
| | - Genaro Atonal-Brioso
- Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Laboratorio de Toxicología Ambiental, Av. Wilfrido Massieu s/n, Unidad Profesional Zacatenco, México City CP 07738, Mexico
| | - Minerva Nájera-Martínez
- Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Laboratorio de Toxicología Ambiental, Av. Wilfrido Massieu s/n, Unidad Profesional Zacatenco, México City CP 07738, Mexico
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Gibadullina E, Neganova M, Aleksandrova Y, Nguyen HBT, Voloshina A, Khrizanforov M, Nguyen TT, Vinyukova E, Volcho K, Tsypyshev D, Lyubina A, Amerhanova S, Strelnik A, Voronina J, Islamov D, Zhapparbergenov R, Appazov N, Chabuka B, Christopher K, Burilov A, Salakhutdinov N, Sinyashin O, Alabugin I. Hybrids of Sterically Hindered Phenols and Diaryl Ureas: Synthesis, Switch from Antioxidant Activity to ROS Generation and Induction of Apoptosis. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:12637. [PMID: 37628818 PMCID: PMC10454409 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241612637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2023] [Revised: 08/03/2023] [Accepted: 08/07/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
The utility of sterically hindered phenols (SHPs) in drug design is based on their chameleonic ability to switch from an antioxidant that can protect healthy tissues to highly cytotoxic species that can target tumor cells. This work explores the biological activity of a family of 45 new hybrid molecules that combine SHPs equipped with an activating phosphonate moiety at the benzylic position with additional urea/thiourea fragments. The target compounds were synthesized by reaction of iso(thio)cyanates with C-arylphosphorylated phenols containing pendant 2,6-diaminopyridine and 1,3-diaminobenzene moieties. The SHP/urea hybrids display cytotoxic activity against a number of tumor lines. Mechanistic studies confirm the paradoxical nature of these substances which combine pronounced antioxidant properties in radical trapping assays with increased reactive oxygen species generation in tumor cells. Moreover, the most cytotoxic compounds inhibited the process of glycolysis in SH-SY5Y cells and caused pronounced dissipation of the mitochondrial membrane of isolated rat liver mitochondria. Molecular docking of the most active compounds identified the activator allosteric center of pyruvate kinase M2 as one of the possible targets. For the most promising compounds, 11b and 17b, this combination of properties results in the ability to induce apoptosis in HuTu 80 cells along the intrinsic mitochondrial pathway. Cyclic voltammetry studies reveal complex redox behavior which can be simplified by addition of a large excess of acid that can protect some of the oxidizable groups by protonations. Interestingly, the re-reduction behavior of the oxidized species shows considerable variations, indicating different degrees of reversibility. Such reversibility (or quasi-reversibility) suggests that the shift of the phenol-quinone equilibrium toward the original phenol at the lower pH may be associated with lower cytotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elmira Gibadullina
- Arbuzov Institute of Organic and Physical Chemistry, FRC Kazan Scientific Center, Russian Academy of Sciences, Akad. Arbuzov St. 8, Kazan 420088, Russia; (M.N.); (Y.A.); (A.V.); (M.K.); (A.L.); (S.A.); (A.S.); (A.B.); (O.S.); (I.A.)
| | - Margarita Neganova
- Arbuzov Institute of Organic and Physical Chemistry, FRC Kazan Scientific Center, Russian Academy of Sciences, Akad. Arbuzov St. 8, Kazan 420088, Russia; (M.N.); (Y.A.); (A.V.); (M.K.); (A.L.); (S.A.); (A.S.); (A.B.); (O.S.); (I.A.)
- Institute of Physiologically Active Compounds at Federal Research Center of Problems of Chemical Physics and Medicinal Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Severnij Pr. 1, Chernogolovka 142432, Russia;
| | - Yulia Aleksandrova
- Arbuzov Institute of Organic and Physical Chemistry, FRC Kazan Scientific Center, Russian Academy of Sciences, Akad. Arbuzov St. 8, Kazan 420088, Russia; (M.N.); (Y.A.); (A.V.); (M.K.); (A.L.); (S.A.); (A.S.); (A.B.); (O.S.); (I.A.)
- Institute of Physiologically Active Compounds at Federal Research Center of Problems of Chemical Physics and Medicinal Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Severnij Pr. 1, Chernogolovka 142432, Russia;
| | - Hoang Bao Tran Nguyen
- The Department of General Organic and Petrochemical Synthesis Technology, The Kazan National Research Technological University, Karl Marx St. 68, Kazan 420015, Russia; (H.B.T.N.); (T.T.N.)
| | - Alexandra Voloshina
- Arbuzov Institute of Organic and Physical Chemistry, FRC Kazan Scientific Center, Russian Academy of Sciences, Akad. Arbuzov St. 8, Kazan 420088, Russia; (M.N.); (Y.A.); (A.V.); (M.K.); (A.L.); (S.A.); (A.S.); (A.B.); (O.S.); (I.A.)
| | - Mikhail Khrizanforov
- Arbuzov Institute of Organic and Physical Chemistry, FRC Kazan Scientific Center, Russian Academy of Sciences, Akad. Arbuzov St. 8, Kazan 420088, Russia; (M.N.); (Y.A.); (A.V.); (M.K.); (A.L.); (S.A.); (A.S.); (A.B.); (O.S.); (I.A.)
| | - Thi Thu Nguyen
- The Department of General Organic and Petrochemical Synthesis Technology, The Kazan National Research Technological University, Karl Marx St. 68, Kazan 420015, Russia; (H.B.T.N.); (T.T.N.)
| | - Ekaterina Vinyukova
- Institute of Physiologically Active Compounds at Federal Research Center of Problems of Chemical Physics and Medicinal Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Severnij Pr. 1, Chernogolovka 142432, Russia;
| | - Konstantin Volcho
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Novosibirsk Institute of Organic Chemistry, Lavrentiev Av. 9, Novosibirsk 630090, Russia (D.T.); (N.S.)
| | - Dmitry Tsypyshev
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Novosibirsk Institute of Organic Chemistry, Lavrentiev Av. 9, Novosibirsk 630090, Russia (D.T.); (N.S.)
| | - Anna Lyubina
- Arbuzov Institute of Organic and Physical Chemistry, FRC Kazan Scientific Center, Russian Academy of Sciences, Akad. Arbuzov St. 8, Kazan 420088, Russia; (M.N.); (Y.A.); (A.V.); (M.K.); (A.L.); (S.A.); (A.S.); (A.B.); (O.S.); (I.A.)
| | - Syumbelya Amerhanova
- Arbuzov Institute of Organic and Physical Chemistry, FRC Kazan Scientific Center, Russian Academy of Sciences, Akad. Arbuzov St. 8, Kazan 420088, Russia; (M.N.); (Y.A.); (A.V.); (M.K.); (A.L.); (S.A.); (A.S.); (A.B.); (O.S.); (I.A.)
| | - Anna Strelnik
- Arbuzov Institute of Organic and Physical Chemistry, FRC Kazan Scientific Center, Russian Academy of Sciences, Akad. Arbuzov St. 8, Kazan 420088, Russia; (M.N.); (Y.A.); (A.V.); (M.K.); (A.L.); (S.A.); (A.S.); (A.B.); (O.S.); (I.A.)
| | - Julia Voronina
- Kurnakov Institute of General and Inorganic Chemistry of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Leninskii Prospekt, 31, Moscow 119071, Russia;
| | - Daut Islamov
- Laboratory for Structural Analysis of Biomacromolecules, Kazan Scientific Center of Russian Academy of Science, 31, Kremlevskaya, Kazan 420008, Russia;
| | - Rakhmetulla Zhapparbergenov
- Laboratory of Engineering Profile, Department of Engineering Technology, Korkyt Ata Kyzylorda University, 29A, Aiteke Bi Street, Kyzylorda 120014, Kazakhstan;
| | - Nurbol Appazov
- Laboratory of Engineering Profile, Department of Engineering Technology, Korkyt Ata Kyzylorda University, 29A, Aiteke Bi Street, Kyzylorda 120014, Kazakhstan;
| | - Beauty Chabuka
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Florida State University, 95 Chieftan Way, Tallahassee, FL 32306-3290, USA; (B.C.)
| | - Kimberley Christopher
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Florida State University, 95 Chieftan Way, Tallahassee, FL 32306-3290, USA; (B.C.)
| | - Alexander Burilov
- Arbuzov Institute of Organic and Physical Chemistry, FRC Kazan Scientific Center, Russian Academy of Sciences, Akad. Arbuzov St. 8, Kazan 420088, Russia; (M.N.); (Y.A.); (A.V.); (M.K.); (A.L.); (S.A.); (A.S.); (A.B.); (O.S.); (I.A.)
| | - Nariman Salakhutdinov
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Novosibirsk Institute of Organic Chemistry, Lavrentiev Av. 9, Novosibirsk 630090, Russia (D.T.); (N.S.)
| | - Oleg Sinyashin
- Arbuzov Institute of Organic and Physical Chemistry, FRC Kazan Scientific Center, Russian Academy of Sciences, Akad. Arbuzov St. 8, Kazan 420088, Russia; (M.N.); (Y.A.); (A.V.); (M.K.); (A.L.); (S.A.); (A.S.); (A.B.); (O.S.); (I.A.)
| | - Igor Alabugin
- Arbuzov Institute of Organic and Physical Chemistry, FRC Kazan Scientific Center, Russian Academy of Sciences, Akad. Arbuzov St. 8, Kazan 420088, Russia; (M.N.); (Y.A.); (A.V.); (M.K.); (A.L.); (S.A.); (A.S.); (A.B.); (O.S.); (I.A.)
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Florida State University, 95 Chieftan Way, Tallahassee, FL 32306-3290, USA; (B.C.)
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Kirchkeszner C, Petrovics N, Nyiri Z, Sámuel Szabó B, Eke Z. Role of gas chromatography–single quadrupole mass spectrometry in the identification of compounds migrating from polypropylene-based food contact plastics. Microchem J 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.microc.2022.107772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Cytoprotective Effects of Fish Protein Hydrolysates against H 2O 2-Induced Oxidative Stress and Mycotoxins in Caco-2/TC7 Cells. Antioxidants (Basel) 2021; 10:antiox10060975. [PMID: 34207334 PMCID: PMC8234493 DOI: 10.3390/antiox10060975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2021] [Revised: 06/11/2021] [Accepted: 06/16/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Many studies report the potent antioxidant capacity for fish protein hydrolysates, including radical scavenging activity and inhibition ability on lipid peroxidation (LPO). In this study, the in vitro cytotoxicity of protein hydrolysates from different salmon, mackerel, and herring side streams fractions was evaluated in the concentration range from 1 to 1:32 dilution, using cloned human colon adenocarcinoma cells TC7 (Caco-2/TC7) by MTT and PT assays. The protein hydrolysates' antioxidant capacity and oxidative stress effects were evaluated by LPO and reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, respectively. The antioxidant capacity for pure and bioavailable hydrolysate fraction was also evaluated and compared. Additionally, mycotoxin levels were determined in the fish protein hydrolysates, and their cytoprotective effect against T-2 toxin was evaluated. Both hydrolysates and their bioavailable fraction induced similar cell viability rates. The highest cytoprotective effect was obtained for the salmon viscera protein hydrolysate (HSV), which increased the cell viability by 51.2%. ROS accumulation induced by H2O2 and LPO was suppressed by all pure hydrolysates. The cytoprotective effect of hydrolysates was observed against T-2. Moreover, the different fish fraction protein hydrolysates contain variable nutrients and unique bioactive peptide composition showing variable bioactivity, which could be a useful tool in developing dietary supplements with different target functional properties.
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Xu X, Liu A, Hu S, Ares I, Martínez-Larrañaga MR, Wang X, Martínez M, Anadón A, Martínez MA. Synthetic phenolic antioxidants: Metabolism, hazards and mechanism of action. Food Chem 2021; 353:129488. [PMID: 33714793 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.129488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 43.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2020] [Revised: 02/24/2021] [Accepted: 02/24/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Synthetic phenolic antioxidants can interact with peroxides produced by food. This paper reviews correlation between BHA, BHT and TBHQ metabolism and harms they cause and provides a theoretical basis for rational use of BHA, BHT and TBHQ in food, and also put some attention on the transformation and metabolic products of PG. We introduce BHA, BHT, TBHQ, PG and their possible metabolic pathways, and discuss possible harms and their specific mechanisms responsible. Excessive addition or incorrect use of synthetic phenolic antioxidants results in carcinogenicity, cytotoxicity, oxidative stress induction and endocrine disrupting effects, which warrant attention. BHA carcinogenicity is related to production of metabolites TBHQ and TQ, and cytotoxic effect of BHA is the main cause of apoptosis induction. BHT carcinogenicity depends on DNA damage degree, and tumour promotion is mainly related to production of quinone methylation metabolites. TBHQ carcinogenicity is related to induction of metabolite TQ and enzyme CYP1A1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoqing Xu
- National Reference Laboratory of Veterinary Drug Residues (HZAU) and MAO Key Laboratory for Detection of Veterinary Drug Residues, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China
| | - Aimei Liu
- National Reference Laboratory of Veterinary Drug Residues (HZAU) and MAO Key Laboratory for Detection of Veterinary Drug Residues, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China
| | - Siyi Hu
- National Reference Laboratory of Veterinary Drug Residues (HZAU) and MAO Key Laboratory for Detection of Veterinary Drug Residues, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China
| | - Irma Ares
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universidad Complutense de Madrid (UCM), and Research Institute Hospital 12 de Octubre (i+12), 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - María-Rosa Martínez-Larrañaga
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universidad Complutense de Madrid (UCM), and Research Institute Hospital 12 de Octubre (i+12), 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Xu Wang
- National Reference Laboratory of Veterinary Drug Residues (HZAU) and MAO Key Laboratory for Detection of Veterinary Drug Residues, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China; Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universidad Complutense de Madrid (UCM), and Research Institute Hospital 12 de Octubre (i+12), 28040 Madrid, Spain; MAO Laboratory for Risk Assessment of Quality and Safety of Livestock and Poultry Products, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China; Hubei Collaborative Innovation Center for Animal Nutrition and Feed Safety, Wuhan, Hubei, China.
| | - Marta Martínez
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universidad Complutense de Madrid (UCM), and Research Institute Hospital 12 de Octubre (i+12), 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Arturo Anadón
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universidad Complutense de Madrid (UCM), and Research Institute Hospital 12 de Octubre (i+12), 28040 Madrid, Spain.
| | - María-Aránzazu Martínez
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universidad Complutense de Madrid (UCM), and Research Institute Hospital 12 de Octubre (i+12), 28040 Madrid, Spain
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Ousji O, Sleno L. Identification of In Vitro Metabolites of Synthetic Phenolic Antioxidants BHT, BHA, and TBHQ by LC-HRMS/MS. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:E9525. [PMID: 33333739 PMCID: PMC7765162 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21249525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Revised: 12/11/2020] [Accepted: 12/11/2020] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) and its analogs, butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) and tert-butyl-hydroquinone (TBHQ), are widely used synthetic preservatives to inhibit lipid oxidation in the food, cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries. Despite their widespread use, little is known about their human exposure and related biotransformation products. The metabolism of these compounds was investigated using in vitro incubations with human and rat liver fractions. Liquid chromatography coupled to high-resolution tandem mass spectrometry was employed to detect and characterize stable and reactive species formed via oxidative metabolism, as well as phase II conjugates. Several oxidative metabolites have been detected, as well as glutathione, glucuronide, and sulfate conjugates, many of which were not previously reported. A combination of accurate mass measurements, MS/MS fragmentation behavior, and isotope-labeling studies were used to elucidate metabolite structures.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Lekha Sleno
- Chemistry Department, Université du Québec à Montréal, Downtown Station, P.O. Box 8888, Montréal, QC H3C 3P8, Canada;
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Zamzam NS, Rahman MHA, Ghany MFA. UPLC-MS/MS analysis of Sudan I, butylated-hydroxytoluene and its major metabolites from sampling sites along the Nile River-Egypt: Environmentally evaluated study. Microchem J 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.microc.2019.104432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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8
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Liu Z, Hao W, Gao W, Zhu G, Li X, Tong L, Tang B. Silver-catalyzed three-component reaction: synthesis of N2-substituted 1,2,3-triazoles via direct benzylic amination. Sci China Chem 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s11426-019-9455-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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Wang W, Asimakopoulos AG, Abualnaja KO, Covaci A, Gevao B, Johnson-Restrepo B, Kumosani TA, Malarvannan G, Minh TB, Moon HB, Nakata H, Sinha RK, Kannan K. Synthetic Phenolic Antioxidants and Their Metabolites in Indoor Dust from Homes and Microenvironments. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2016; 50:428-434. [PMID: 26629709 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.5b04826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Synthetic phenolic antioxidants (SPAs), including 2,6-di-tert-butyl-4-hydroxytoluene (BHT), are extensively used in food, cosmetic and plastic industries. Nevertheless, limited information is available on human exposures, other than the dietary sources, to SPAs. In this study, occurrence of 9 SPAs and their metabolites/degradation products was determined in 339 indoor dust collected from 12 countries. BHT was found in 99.5% of indoor dust samples from homes and microenvironments at concentrations that ranged from < LOQ to 118 μg/g and 0.10 to 3460 μg/g, respectively. This is the first study to measure BHT metabolites in house dust (0.01-35.1 μg/g) and their concentrations accounted for 9.2-58% of the sum concentrations (∑SPAs). 3,5-di-tert-butyl-4-hydroxybenzaldehyde (BHT-CHO), 2,6-di-tert-butyl-4-(hydroxymethyl)phenol (BHT-OH), 2,6-di-tert-butyl-1,4-benzoquinone (BHT-Q) were the major derivatives of BHT found in dust samples. The concentrations of gallic acid esters (gallates) in dust from homes and microenvironments ranged from < LOQ to 18.2 and < LOQ to 684 μg/g, respectively. The concentrations and profiles of SPAs varied among countries and microenvironments. Significantly elevated concentrations of SPAs were found in dust from an e-waste workshop (1530 μg/g). The estimated daily intake (EDI) of BHT via house dust ingestion ranged from 0.40 to 222 ng/kg/d (95th percentile).
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Wang
- Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, and Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, State University of New York at Albany , Empire State Plaza, P.O. Box 509, Albany, New York 12201-0509, United States
| | - Alexandros G Asimakopoulos
- Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, and Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, State University of New York at Albany , Empire State Plaza, P.O. Box 509, Albany, New York 12201-0509, United States
| | - Khalid O Abualnaja
- Biochemistry Department, Faculty of Science, Experimental Biochemistry Unit, King Fahd Medical Research Center and Bioactive Natural Products Research Group, King Abdulaziz University , Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Adrian Covaci
- Toxicological Center, University of Antwerp , Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Wilrijk-Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Bondi Gevao
- Environmental Management Program, Environment and Life Sciences Center, Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research , P.O. Box 24885, Safat 13109, Kuwait
| | - Boris Johnson-Restrepo
- Environmental and Chemistry Group, Sede San Pablo, University of Cartagena , Cartagena, Bolívar 130015, Colombia
| | - Taha A Kumosani
- Biochemistry Department, Faculty of Science, Experimental Biochemistry Unit, King Fahd Medical Research Center and Bioactive Natural Products Research Group, King Abdulaziz University , Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Govindan Malarvannan
- Toxicological Center, University of Antwerp , Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Wilrijk-Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Tu Binh Minh
- Faculty of Chemistry, Hanoi University of Science, Vietnam National University, Hanoi , 19 Le Thanh Tong, Hoan Kiem, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Hyo-Bang Moon
- Department of Marine Sciences and Convergent Technology, College of Science and Technology, Hanyang University , Ansan, South Korea
| | - Haruhiko Nakata
- Graduate School of Science and Technology, Kumamoto University , 2-39-1 Kurokami, Kumamoto 860-8555, Japan
| | | | - Kurunthachalam Kannan
- Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, and Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, State University of New York at Albany , Empire State Plaza, P.O. Box 509, Albany, New York 12201-0509, United States
- Biochemistry Department, Faculty of Science, Experimental Biochemistry Unit, King Fahd Medical Research Center and Bioactive Natural Products Research Group, King Abdulaziz University , Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
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Nieva-Echevarría B, Manzanos MJ, Goicoechea E, Guillén MD. 2,6-Di-Tert-Butyl-Hydroxytoluene and Its Metabolites in Foods. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2014; 14:67-80. [PMID: 33401811 DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2014] [Accepted: 10/02/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
2,6-Di-tert-butyl-hydroxytoluene (BHT, E-321) is a synthetic phenolic antioxidant which has been widely used as an additive in the food, cosmetic, and plastic industries for the last 70 y. Although it is considered safe for human health at authorized levels, its ubiquitous presence and the controversial toxicological data reported are of great concern for consumers. In recent years, special attention has been paid to these 14 metabolites or degradation products: BHT-CH2 OH, BHT-CHO, BHT-COOH, BHT-Q, BHT-QM, DBP, BHT-OH, BHT-OOH, TBP, BHQ, BHT-OH(t), BHT-OH(t)QM, 2-BHT, and 2-BHT-QM. These derived compounds could pose a human health risk from a food safety point of view, but they have been little studied. In this context, this review deals with the occurrence, origin, and fate of BHT in foodstuffs, its biotransformation into metabolites, their toxicological implications, their antioxidant and prooxidant properties, the analytical determination of metabolites in foods, and human dietary exposure. Moreover, noncontrolled additional sources of exposure to BHT and its metabolites are highlighted. These include their carryover from feed to fish, poultry and eggs, their presence in smoke flavorings, their migration from plastic pipelines and packaging to water and food, and their presence in natural environments, from which they can reach the food chain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bárbara Nieva-Echevarría
- Food Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Lascaray Research Center, Univ. of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Paseo de la Universidad nº 7, 01006, Vitoria, Spain
| | - María J Manzanos
- Food Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Lascaray Research Center, Univ. of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Paseo de la Universidad nº 7, 01006, Vitoria, Spain
| | - Encarnación Goicoechea
- Food Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Lascaray Research Center, Univ. of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Paseo de la Universidad nº 7, 01006, Vitoria, Spain
| | - María D Guillén
- Food Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Lascaray Research Center, Univ. of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Paseo de la Universidad nº 7, 01006, Vitoria, Spain
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Synthesis of new α-aminophosphonates containing sterically hindered phenol fragments based on the reaction of 3,5-di(tert-butyl)-4-oxo-2,5-cyclohexadienylidenemethylphosphonates with aliphatic amines. Russ Chem Bull 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/s11172-013-0233-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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12
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Steinmann D, Ji JA, Wang YJ, Schöneich C. Oxidation of human growth hormone by oxygen-centered radicals: formation of Leu-101 hydroperoxide and Tyr-103 oxidation products. Mol Pharm 2012; 9:803-14. [PMID: 22397317 DOI: 10.1021/mp3001028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Human growth hormone (hGH) was exposed to oxygen-centered radicals generated through the thermolysis of AAPH in the presence of dioxygen. Such conditions mimic oxidative processes which protein pharmaceuticals can encounter during formulation in the presence of polysorbates. We detected the oxidation of Met to Met sulfoxide, the formation of protein carbonyls, the oxidation of Tyr to dityrosine and several additional Tyr oxidation products, the conformation-dependent oxidation of Trp, and the site-specific formation of protein hydroperoxides. The sensitivity of Met oxidation correlates with their solvent accessible surface, i.e. the yields of MetSO decreased in the order Met-14 > Met-125 > Met-170. Trp oxidation in native hGH was negligible, but was enhanced through denaturation. Dityrosine formed predominantly intramolecularly but did not contribute significantly to protein cross-linking. Hydroperoxides formed selectively on Leu-101 and were generated specifically by alkoxyl radicals, generated through the decomposition of peroxyl radicals. Tyr-103 was converted into a series of oxidation products characterized by mass shifts of Tyr + 14 Da and Tyr + 16 Da.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Steinmann
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Kansas , Lawrence, Kansas 66047, USA
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13
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Scientific Opinion on the re‐evaluation of butylated hydroxytoluene BHT (E 321) as a food additive. EFSA J 2012. [DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2012.2588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
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14
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Shearn CT, Fritz KS, Thompson JA. Protein damage from electrophiles and oxidants in lungs of mice chronically exposed to the tumor promoter butylated hydroxytoluene. Chem Biol Interact 2011; 192:278-86. [PMID: 21536018 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2011.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2010] [Revised: 04/15/2011] [Accepted: 04/16/2011] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The food additive butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) promotes tumorigenesis in mouse lung. Chronic BHT exposure is accompanied by pulmonary inflammation and several studies indicate that elevated levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) are involved in its promoting activity. The link between BHT and elevated ROS involves formation of quinone methide (QM) metabolites; these electrophiles form adducts with a variety of lung proteins including several enzymes that protect cells from oxidative stress. Studies in vitro demonstrated that QM alkylation of cytoprotective enzymes is accompanied by inactivation, so an objective of the present investigation was to determine if inactivation also occurs in vivo. Two groups of mice were exposed to BHT by intraperitoneal injection, one for 10 days and the other for 24 days, and proteins from lung cytosols were examined for damage. Analysis by Western blotting demonstrated that BHT treatment caused substantial increases in protein carbonylation, nitration and adduction by 4-hydroxynonenal, confirming the occurrence of sustained oxidative and nitrosative stress over the treatment period required for tumor promotion. Effects of BHT on the activities and/or levels of a representative group of antioxidant/protective enzymes in mouse lung also were assessed; NAD(P)H:quinone reductase and glutathione reductase were unaffected, however carbonyl reductase activity decreased 50-60%. Superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase activities increased 2- and 1.5-fold, respectively, and glutamate-cysteine ligase catalytic subunit expression increased 32-39% relative to untreated mice. Glutathione S-transferase (GST) activity decreased 50-60% but concentrations of the predominant isoforms, GSTM1 and P1, were not affected. GSTP1 was substantially more susceptible than M1 to adduction and inhibition by treatment with BHT-QM in vitro, suggesting that lower GST activity in mice after BHT treatment is due to adduction of the P1 isoform. The results of this study provide additional insight into mechanisms of BHT-induced oxidative damage and further support a link between inflammation and tumor promotion in mouse lung.
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Affiliation(s)
- Colin T Shearn
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, 12850 E. Montview Blvd., Aurora, CO 80045, USA
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15
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Pham AN, Blower PE, Alvarado O, Ravula R, Gout PW, Huang Y. Pharmacogenomic approach reveals a role for the x(c)- cystine/glutamate antiporter in growth and celastrol resistance of glioma cell lines. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2009; 332:949-58. [PMID: 20007406 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.109.162248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
The x(c)(-) cystine/glutamate antiporter has been implicated in GSH-based chemoresistance because it mediates cellular uptake of cystine/cysteine for sustenance of intracellular GSH levels. Celastrol, isolated from a Chinese medicinal herb, is a novel heat shock protein 90 (Hsp90) inhibitor with potent anticancer activity against glioma in vitro and in vivo. In search of correlations between growth-inhibitory potency of celastrol in NCI-60 cell lines and microarray expression profiles of most known transporters, we found that expression of SLC7A11, the gene encoding the light chain subunit of x(c)(-), showed a strong negative correlation with celastrol activity. This novel gene-drug correlation was validated. In celastrol-resistant glioma cells that highly expressed SLC7A11, sensitivity to celastrol was consistently increased via treatment with x(c)(-) inhibitors, including glutamate, (S)-4-carboxyphenylglycine, sulfasalazine, and SLC7A11 small interfering RNA. The GSH synthesis inhibitor, buthionine sulfoximine, also increased celastrol sensitivity, whereas the GSH booster, N-acetylcysteine, suppressed its cytotoxicity. Furthermore, the glioma cell lines were dependent on x(c)(-)-mediated cystine uptake for viability, because cystine omission from the culture medium resulted in cell death and treatment with sulfasalazine depleted GSH levels and inhibited their growth. Combined treatment of glioma cells with sulfasalazine and celastrol led to chemosensitization, as suggested by increased celastrol-induced cell cycle arrest, apoptosis, and down-regulation of the Hsp90 client protein, epidermal growth factor receptor. These results indicate that the x(c)(-) transporter provides a useful target for glioma therapy. x(c)(-) inhibitors such as sulfasalazine, a Food and Drug Administration-approved drug, may be effective both as an anticancer drug and as an agent for sensitizing gliomas to celastrol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anh-Nhan Pham
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona, CA 91766, USA
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16
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Richter D, Hampel N, Singer T, Ofial AR, Mayr H. Synthesis and Characterization of Novel Quinone Methides: Reference Electrophiles for the Construction of Nucleophilicity Scales. European J Org Chem 2009. [DOI: 10.1002/ejoc.200900299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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17
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Holaas E, Bohne VB, Hamre K, Arukwe A. Hepatic retention and toxicological responses during feeding and depuration periods in Atlantic salmon ( Salmo salar ) fed graded levels of the synthetic antioxidant, butylated hydroxytoluene. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2008; 56:11540-9. [PMID: 19007167 DOI: 10.1021/jf8025524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
The human safety aspects of seafood production require the expansion of vital knowledge of both nutrients and possible contaminants along the entire production chain. Thus, production of safer seafood can be achieved by using feed materials that are low in contaminants, while maintaining balanced nutrition, in order to secure optimal fish and consumer health. Our understanding of primary responses of fish health and production related diseases, as well as biological processes that influence carry-over and lowering of contaminants in farmed fish, will contribute to a sustainable production of safer seafood products. Therefore, we have studied the liver deposition and toxicological effects in salmon fed graded levels of BHT during a 12-week feeding followed by a 2-week depuration period using chemical, molecular, and catalytic assays. In general, our data showed that BHT was significantly retained in the liver and selectively modulated toxicological responses in the xenobiotic biotransformation pathways during the feeding period. Specifically, BHT produced consistent dose- and time-specific gene expression patterns for AhR2alpha, AhR2beta, CYP1A1, CYP3A, UGT1, and GSTpi. The effect of BHT on the gene expression of biotransformation enzyme did not parallel enzyme activity levels, suggesting a possible inhibition by parent BHT or its metabolites. As a safety precaution, the production of farmed Atlantic salmon in Norway requires a mandatory 2-week depuration period prior to slaughtering and market delivery to ensure the elimination of veterinary medicaments, additives, and other undesirable components. Comparison of feeding and depuration periods showed that BHT was highly retained in fish liver, as only 8-13% of fed BHT was eliminated during the 2-week depuration period. This is just a part of the total concentration in the whole fish, since BHT may have been distributed and accumulated in other organs. Since BHT or its metabolites putatively inhibited biotransformation enzymes and affected metabolism of the compound, they may have potential for toxicological and adverse health effects for both fish and fish consumers through carry-over processes from the fish products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eivind Holaas
- Department of Biology, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
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18
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Brown CM, Reisfeld B, Mayeno AN. Cytochromes P450: A Structure-Based Summary of Biotransformations Using Representative Substrates. Drug Metab Rev 2008. [DOI: 10.1080/03602530701836662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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19
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Shearn CT, Fritz KS, Meier BW, Kirichenko OV, Thompson JA. Carbonyl Reductase Inactivation May Contribute to Mouse Lung Tumor Promotion by Electrophilic Metabolites of Butylated Hydroxytoluene: Protein Alkylation in Vivo and in Vitro. Chem Res Toxicol 2008; 21:1631-41. [DOI: 10.1021/tx800162p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Colin T. Shearn
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, C238-L15, Anschutz Medical Campus, University of Colorado Denver, Box 6511, Aurora, Colorado 80045
| | - Kristofer S. Fritz
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, C238-L15, Anschutz Medical Campus, University of Colorado Denver, Box 6511, Aurora, Colorado 80045
| | - Brent W. Meier
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, C238-L15, Anschutz Medical Campus, University of Colorado Denver, Box 6511, Aurora, Colorado 80045
| | - Oleg V. Kirichenko
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, C238-L15, Anschutz Medical Campus, University of Colorado Denver, Box 6511, Aurora, Colorado 80045
| | - John A. Thompson
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, C238-L15, Anschutz Medical Campus, University of Colorado Denver, Box 6511, Aurora, Colorado 80045
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20
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Gal S, Lichtenberg D, Bor A, Pinchuk I. Copper-induced peroxidation of phosphatidylserine-containing liposomes is inhibited by nanomolar concentrations of specific antioxidants. Chem Phys Lipids 2007; 150:186-203. [PMID: 17900550 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemphyslip.2007.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2006] [Revised: 07/31/2007] [Accepted: 08/14/2007] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Copper-induced peroxidation of liposomal palmitoyllinoleoyl-phosphatidylcholine (PLPC) is inhibited by alpha-tocopherol at micromolar concentrations. In our previous study we found that when the liposomes contain phosphatidylserine (PS), nanomolar concentrations of Toc were sufficient to inhibit peroxidation. In an attempt to gain understanding of the origin of this extreme antioxidative potency, we tested the antioxidative potency of 36 additional antioxidants and the dependence of their potency on the presence of PS in the liposomes. The results of these studies reveal that only 11 of the tested antioxidants possess similar antioxidative potency to that of Toc. These include trolox, butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), curcumin, nordihydroguaiaretic acid (NDGA), diethylstilbestrol (DES), 2 of the 13 tested flavonoids (luteolin and 7,3',4'-trihydroxyflavone; T-414), alpha-naphthol, 1,5-, 1,6- and 1,7-dihydroxynaphthalenes (DHNs). Propyl gallate (PG), methyl syringate, rosmarinic acid, resveratrol, other flavonoids, as well as beta-naphthol, 1,2-, 1,3-, 1,4-, 2,3-, 2,6-, and 2,7-DHNs were either moderately antioxidative or pro-oxidative. For liposomes made of PLPC (250 microM) and PS (25 microM) the "lag" preceding copper-induced peroxidation (5 microM copper) was doubled upon addition of 30-130nM of the "super-active" antioxidants. We propose that the mechanism responsible for the extreme antioxidative potency against copper-induced peroxidation in PS-containing liposomes involves replenishment of the antioxidant in a ternary PS-copper-antioxidant complex. Based on structure-activity relationship of the 37 tested antioxidants, the "super-antioxidative potency" is attributed to the recycling of relatively stable semiquinone or semiquinone-like radicals.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Gal
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
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21
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Meier BW, Gomez JD, Kirichenko OV, Thompson JA. Mechanistic basis for inflammation and tumor promotion in lungs of 2,6-di-tert-butyl-4-methylphenol-treated mice: electrophilic metabolites alkylate and inactivate antioxidant enzymes. Chem Res Toxicol 2007; 20:199-207. [PMID: 17305404 PMCID: PMC2570584 DOI: 10.1021/tx060214f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
An established model for mechanistic analysis of lung carcinogenesis involves administration of 3-methylcholanthrene to mice followed by several weekly injections of the tumor promoter 2,6-di-tert-butyl-4-methylphenol (BHT). BHT is metabolized to quinone methides (QMs) responsible for promoting tumor formation. QMs are strongly electrophilic and readily form adducts with proteins. The goal of the present study was to identify adducted proteins in the lungs of mice injected with BHT and to assess the potential impact of these modifications on tumorigenesis. Cytosolic proteins from treated mouse lungs were separated by two-dimensional electrophoresis, adducts detected by immunoblotting, and proteins identified by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Eight adducts were detected in the lungs of most, or all, of six experimental groups of BALB mice. Of these adducts, several were structural proteins, but others, namely, peroxiredoxin 6 (Prx6), Cu,Zn-superoxide dismutase (SOD1), carbonyl reductase, and selenium-binding protein 1, have direct or indirect antioxidant functions. When the 9000g supernatant fraction of mouse lung was treated with BHT-QM (2,6-di-tert-butyl-4-methylene-2,5-cyclohexadienone), substantial lipid peroxidation and increases in hydrogen peroxide and superoxide formation were observed. Studies with human Prx6 and bovine SOD1 demonstrated inhibition of enzyme activity concomitant with adduct formation. LC-MS/MS analysis of digests of adducted Prx6 demonstrated adduction of both Cys 91 and Cys 47; the latter residue is essential for peroxidatic activity. Analysis of QM-treated bovine SOD1 by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight MS demonstrated the predominance of a monoadduct at His 78. This study provides evidence that indicates Prx6, SOD1, and possibly other antioxidant enzymes in mouse lung are inhibited by BHT-derived QMs leading to enhanced levels of reactive oxygen species and inflammation and providing a mechanistic basis for the effects of BHT on lung tumorigenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - John A. Thompson
- To whom correspondence should be addressed. Tel. 303−315−6167. Fax: 303−315−0274. E-mail:
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22
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O'Brien P, Carrasco-Pozo C, Speisky H. Boldine and its antioxidant or health-promoting properties. Chem Biol Interact 2006; 159:1-17. [PMID: 16221469 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2005.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2005] [Revised: 09/08/2005] [Accepted: 09/09/2005] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The increasing recognition of the participation of free radical-mediated oxidative events in the initiation and/or progression of cardiovascular, tumoural, inflammatory and neurodegenerative disorders, has given rise to the search for new antioxidant molecules. An important source of such molecules has been plants for which there is an ethno-cultural base for health promotion. An important example of this is boldo (Peumus boldus Mol.), a chilean tree whose leaves have been traditionally employed in folk medicine and is now widely recognized as a herbal remedy by a number of pharmacopoeias. Boldo leaves are rich in several aporphine-like alkaloids, of which boldine is the most abundant one. Research conducted during the early 1990s led to the discovery that boldine is one of the most potent natural antioxidants. Prompted by the latter, a large and increasing number of studies emerged, which have focused on characterizing some of the pharmacological properties that may arise from the free radical-scavenging properties of boldine. The present review attempts to exhaustively cover and discuss such studies, placing particular attention on research conducted during the last decade. Mechanistic aspects and structure-activity data are discussed. The review encompasses pharmacological actions, which arise from its antioxidant properties (e.g., cyto-protective, anti-tumour promoting, anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic and anti-atherogenic actions), as well as those that do not seem to be associated with such activity (e.g., vasorelaxing, anti-trypanocidal, immuno- and neuro-modulator, cholagogic and/or choleretic actions). Based on the pharmacological and toxicological data now available, further research needs and recommendations are suggested to define the actual potential of boldine for its use in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter O'Brien
- Graduate Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ont., Canada
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23
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Douglas IS, Diaz del Valle F, Winn RA, Voelkel NF. Beta-catenin in the fibroproliferative response to acute lung injury. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2005; 34:274-85. [PMID: 16272459 PMCID: PMC2644193 DOI: 10.1165/rcmb.2005-0277oc] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Resolution of alveolar epithelial/capillary membrane damage after acute lung injury requires coordinated and effective tissue repair to reestablish a functional alveolar epithelial/capillary membrane barrier. We hypothesized that signaling pathways important in lung alveolar bud ontogeny are activated in the recovery and remodeling phases after profound oxidant stress lung injury in a murine model. To test this, we characterized the expression of noncanonical beta-catenin pathway proteins E-cadherin, integrin-linked kinase-1, and beta-catenin in mice undergoing normoxic recovery after exposure to butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT, ionol) and concomitant sublethal (75% O2) hyperoxia. Mice developed early acute lung injury with subsequent inflammation, collagen deposition, interstitial cellular proliferation, and lung architectural distortion. Reduced E-cadherin expression after 6 d of BHT and hyperoxia was accompanied by enhanced expression and nuclear localization of beta-catenin and increased integrin-linked kinase-1 expression during subsequent normoxic recovery. This resulted in increased expression of the cotranscriptional regulators TCF-1 and -3 and cyclin D1. Proliferation of murine lung epithelial-12 cells in vitro after 8 h of treatment with BHT quinone-methide and hyperoxia and 48 h of normoxic recovery was enhanced 2.7-fold compared with vehicle-treated control mice at the same time point. BHT/hyperoxia-exposed mice treated with the pan-caspase inhibitor z-ASP had increased acute lung injury and reduced survival despite the presence of TUNEL-positive cells, suggesting enhanced lung cell necrosis. Beta-catenin expression was reduced in z-ASP-co-treated lungs after BHT/hyperoxia. The noncanonical cadherin-beta-catenin axis is associated with fibroproliferative repair after BHT/hyperoxia exposure and may regulate epithelial proliferation and lung matrix remodeling and repair in response to lung injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivor S Douglas
- Department of Medicine, Pulmonary Sciences & Critical Care Medicine, Univ. of Colorado Health Sciences Center, Denver, CO 80262, USA.
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24
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Meier BW, Gomez JD, Zhou A, Thompson JA. Immunochemical and Proteomic Analysis of Covalent Adducts Formed by Quinone Methide Tumor Promoters in Mouse Lung Epithelial Cell Lines. Chem Res Toxicol 2005; 18:1575-85. [PMID: 16533022 DOI: 10.1021/tx050108y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Two quinone methide (QM) metabolites of the phenolic antioxidant butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), 2,6-di-tert-butyl-4-methylenecyclohexa-2,5-dienone (BHT-QM) and the tert-butyl-hydroxylated derivative (BHTOH-QM), are believed to be responsible for promoting lung tumor formation in mice treated with BHT. QMs are strongly electrophilic and undergo Michael type additions with nucleophiles at the exocyclic methylene to form benzylic thioether adducts. Our goal was to identify intracellular protein targets of these QMs in order to gain insight into their effects on tumorigenesis. Cell line E10 of mouse lung epithelial origin and its spontaneous transformant, the tumorigenic E9 cell line, were treated with BHT-QM or BHTOH-QM, and cellular proteins were analyzed by two-dimensional sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Adducted proteins were detected on western blots with polyclonal antibodies developed to a conjugate of BHTOH-QM that recognized adducts of both QMs bound to thiol groups of Cys and side chain amino groups of Lys and His residues. Tryptic digests of immunoreactive proteins were analyzed by HPLC mass spectrometry (LC/MS) and identified by searching protein databases using MS/MS data. In a few cases, adducted peptides in these digests were detected by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight MS. A total of 37 immunoreactive proteins were identified including proteins involved in carbohydrate metabolism, nucleic acid synthesis, and RNA and protein processing, in addition to several cytoskeletal and stress-related proteins. About half of the protein adducts were found in both cell lines. Adducts detected only in transformed E9 cells include glutathione S-transferase P1, peroxiredoxin 2, nucleoside diphosphate kinase, and vinculin, whereas several alkylated cytoskeletal proteins such as tubulins, vimentin, calvasculin, and calcyclin were detected exclusively in E10 cells. Several of the proteins modified by BHT-derived QMs have been implicated in various aspects of tumorigenesis and are excellent candidates for further study into the consequences of alkylation on cellular transformation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brent W Meier
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Box C238, University of Colorado Health Sciences Center, Denver, Colorado 80262, USA
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25
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Lemercier JN, Meier BW, Gomez JD, Thompson JA. Inhibition of glutathione S-transferase P1-1 in mouse lung epithelial cells by the tumor promoter 2,6-di-tert-butyl-4-methylene-2,5-cyclohexadienone (BHT-quinone methide): protein adducts investigated by electrospray mass spectrometry. Chem Res Toxicol 2005; 17:1675-83. [PMID: 15606144 DOI: 10.1021/tx049811x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Oxidation of the food preservative 2,6-di-tert-butyl-4-methylphenol (BHT) by mouse lung cytochrome P450 produces electrophilic quinone methides thought to promote lung tumors in mice by covalent binding to critical proteins. Specific pulmonary targets of 2,6-di-tert-butyl-4-methylenecyclohexa-2,5-dienone (BHT-QM) have not been identified, however. The present work was undertaken to determine if glutathione S-transferase P1-1 (GSTP1-1) is alkylated by BHT-QM, as this protein is overexpressed in tumors and has important roles in protecting cells from electrophiles and oxidants and in regulating stress kinases. This work was conducted with cell lines C10 and E10 derived from mouse lung epithelia and their spontaneous transformants, the tumorigenic cell lines A5 and E9. Cytosolic GSTs were isolated by affinity chromatography and analyzed by ESI-LC/MS. Ion current chromatograms indicated that GSTP1 predominates over the other isoforms, especially in tumorigenic cells. Treatment with BHT-QM inhibited cytosolic GST activity by 28-44%, and inhibition was exacerbated by depleting intracellular GSH. Alkylation of GSTP1 by BHT-QM was investigated by separating cytosolic proteins with two-dimensional SDS-PAGE and detecting adducts by Western blotting with polyclonal antibodies that recognize the BHT group. The identity of GSTP1 comigrating with immunoreactive material was confirmed by in-gel proteolysis and LC/MS/MS analysis. Human GSTP1 was utilized to investigate the specific residues involved in QM binding. The only peptide adduct detected in digests of monoadducted GSTP1 corresponded to Cys101, whereas adducts at Cys14, Cys47, and Cys101 were identified from the trialkylated protein. Losses of transferase activity were most influenced by alkylation at Cys47, but binding to Cys14 appeared to inhibit the activity further. These findings demonstrate that cytosolic GSTP1 may be a target for BHT-QM resulting in decreased cellular protection from electrophiles and oxidants. Alkylation also may interfere with GSTP1 regulation of stress kinases, thereby influencing phosphorylation and cell growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Noël Lemercier
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Health Sciences Center, Denver, Colorado 80262, USA
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Abstract
BACKGROUND Emamectin benzoate is the 4'-deoxy-4'-epi-methyl-amino benzoate salt of avermectin B1 (abamectin), which is similar structurally to natural fermentation products of Streptomyces avermitilis. Emamectin benzoate is being developed as a newer broad-spectrum insecticide for vegetables and has a very low application rate. The mechanism of action involves stimulation of high-affinity GABA receptors and a consequent increase in membrane chloride ion permeability. Animal studies indicate a wide margin of safety because mammalian species are much less sensitive due to lower GABA receptor affinities and relative impermeability of the blood-brain barrier. Notably, the literature has not reported human exposure resulting in toxicity. CASE REPORT This paper describes a case of acute poisoning with Proclaim insecticide (Syngenta, Taiwan), consisting of 2.15% w/w emamectin benzoate in 2, 6-bis (1, 1-dimethylethyl)-4-methyl-phenol and 1-hexanol. The clinical manifestation was transient gastrointestinal upset with endoscopy-proven gastric erosion and superficial gastritis, mild central nervous system depression, and aspiration pneumonia. No specific antidote exists for emamectin benzoate intoxication; this patient was treated successfully with gastric lavage, administration of activated charcoal, and empiric antibiotics. Drugs that enhance GABA activity such as barbiturates and benzodiazepines were avoided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tzung-Hai Yen
- Division of Clinical Toxicology, Department of Nephrology, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Chang Gung University School of Medicine, Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China
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Sun Y, Dwyer-Nield LD, Malkinson AM, Zhang YL, Thompson JA. Responses of tumorigenic and non-tumorigenic mouse lung epithelial cell lines to electrophilic metabolites of the tumor promoter butylated hydroxytoluene. Chem Biol Interact 2003; 145:41-51. [PMID: 12606153 DOI: 10.1016/s0009-2797(02)00161-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
A model system to investigate the promotion phase of pulmonary carcinogenesis involves chronic exposure of carcinogen-initiated mice to the food additive, butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT). Previous studies strongly suggested that this activity is due to the cytochrome p450-catalyzed formation of quinone methides 2,6-di-tert-butyl-4-methylenecyclohexa-2,5-dienone (BHT-QM) and 6-tert-butyl-2-(1',1'-dimethyl-2'-hydroxy)ethyl-4-methylenecyclohexa-2,5-dienone (BHTOH-QM). The effects of these electrophiles on non-tumorigenic C10 and E10 epithelial cell lines derived from a normal mouse lung explant were compared with effects on their corresponding neoplastic siblings, the A5 and E9 spontaneous transformants, respectively. The tumorigenic cells were more resistant to cell killing, with LC(50) values of 165-180 microM for BHT-QM and 12-22 microM for BHTOH-QM, versus LC(50) values in the non-tumorigenic cells of 105-118 microM and 5.0-6.0 microM, respectively. Constitutive glutathione (GSH) concentrations were 12-20 nmol/10(6) cells, and BHT-QM toxicity was enhanced >2-fold by depleting GSH with buthionine sulfoximine (BSO). Formation of the GSH conjugate of BHT-QM accounted for a substantial fraction of the cellular GSH lost by quinone methide exposure. Enhanced lipid peroxidation and superoxide formation occurred in all cell lines treated with BHT-QM, but both tumorigenic lines contained higher levels of GSH S-transferase and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities. These data suggest the possibility that BHT-derived quinone methides may exert their promoting effects by inducing oxidative stress; such stress is better tolerated by tumorigenic cells, which have higher levels of antioxidant enzymes. Normal cells are destroyed more readily which allows neoplastic cells to expand their proliferation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yude Sun
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Colorado Health Sciences Center, 4200 East 9th Avenue Box C238, Denver, CO 80262, USA
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