The multi-year contribution of Indo-China peninsula fire emissions to aerosol radiation forcing in southern China during 2013-2019

Fire emissions in Southeast Asia transported to southern China every spring (March-May), influencing not only the air quality but also the weather and climate. However, the multi-year variations and magnitude of this impact on aerosol radiation forcing in southern China remain unclear. Here, we quantified the multi-year contributions of fire emissions in Indo-China Peninsula (ICP) region to aerosol radiation forcing in the various southern Chinese provinces during the fire season (March-May) of 2013-2019 combining the 3-dimension chemical transport model and the Column Radiation Model (CRM) simulations. The models' evaluations showed they reasonably capture the temporal and spatial distribution of surface aerosol concentrations and column aerosol optical properties over the study regions. The fire emissions over the ICP region were found to increase the aerosol optical depth (AOD) value by 0.1 (15 %) and reduce the single scattering albedo (SSA) in three southern regions of China (Yunnan-YN, Guangxi-GX, and Guangdong-GD from west to east), owing to increases in the proportions of black carbon (BC, 0.4 % ± 0.1 %) and organic carbon (OC, 3.0 % ± 0.9 %) within the aerosol compositions. The transported smoke aerosols cooled surface but heated the atmosphere in the southern China regions, with the largest mean reduction of -5 Wm-2 (-3 %) in surface shortwave radiation forcing and the maximum daily contributions of about -15 Wm-2 (-15 %) to the atmosphere radiation forcing in the GX region, followed by the GD and YN regions. The impacts of ICP fire emissions on aerosol optical and radiative parameters declined during 2013-2019, with the highest rate of 0.393 ± 0.478 Wm-2 yr-1 in the GX for the shortwave radiation forcing in the atmosphere. Besides, their yearly changes in the contribution were consistent with the annual fire emissions in the ICP region. Such strong radiative perturbations of ICP fire emissions were expected to influence regional meteorology in southern China and should be considered in the climate simulations.

Interannual changes in atmospheric oxidation over forests determined from space

The hydroxyl radical (OH) is the central oxidant in Earth's troposphere, but its temporal variability is poorly understood. We combine 2012-2020 satellite-based isoprene and formaldehyde measurements to identify coherent OH changes over temperate and tropical forests with attribution to emission trends, biotic stressors, and climate. We identify a multiyear OH decrease over the Southeast United States and show that with increasingly hot/dry summers the regional chemistry could become even less oxidizing depending on competing temperature/drought impacts on isoprene. Furthermore, while global mean OH decreases during El Niño, we show that near-field effects over tropical rainforests can alternate between high/low OH anomalies due to opposing fire and biogenic emission impacts. Results provide insights into how atmospheric oxidation will evolve with changing emissions and climate.

Quantification and evaluation of atmospheric emissions from crop residue burning constrained by satellite observations in China during 2016-2020

In rural regions of China, crop residue burning (CRB) is the major biomass burning activity, which can result in massive emissions of atmospheric particulate, greenhouse gas, and trace gas pollutants. Based on Himawari-8 satellite fire radiative power and agricultural statistics data, we implemented a daily inventory of agricultural fire emissions in 2016-2020 with a 2-km spatial resolution, including atmospheric pollutants such as CO₂, CH₄, CO, N₂O, NO_X, NH₃, SO₂, PM₁₀, PM_2.5, Hg, OC, EC, and NMVOCs. Our inventory constrained by geostationary satellite monitoring is more consistent with the actual CRB emissions in China, as many flaring events occur surreptitiously in the early morning and late evening to avoid regulation, which may be overlooked by polar-orbiting satellites. The spatiotemporal characterizations of various CRB emissions are found to be consistent with multiple satellite trace gas retrievals. We also assessed the effectiveness of field burning bans in China. Combined with other relevant datasets, it was found that although China has been advocating for a long time not to burn straw in the open field, CRB emissions was not successfully controlled nationwide until 2016. We estimated that the cumulative reduction of CO₂ CRB emissions alone amounts to 809 ± 651 (2σ) teragram (Tg) during the 13th Five-Year Plan period (2016-2020), with an average value equivalent to 1.2 times the total annual territorial CO₂ emissions by fossil fuels from Germany in 2021 (675 Tg, ranked 1st in EU27 and 7th in the world). Our inventory also suggests that continuous, long-term controls are necessary. Otherwise, CRB emissions may only be delayed on a seasonal scale, rather than reduced.

Air quality impacts of crop residue burning in India and mitigation alternatives

Crop residue burning contributes to poor air quality and imposes a health burden on India. Despite government bans and other interventions, this practice remains widespread. Here we estimate the impact of changes in agricultural emissions on air quality across India and quantify the potential benefit of district-level actions using an adjoint modeling approach. From 2003 to 2019, we find that agricultural residue burning caused 44,000-98,000 particulate matter exposure-related premature deaths annually, of which Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh contribute 67-90%. Due to a combination of relatively high downwind population density, agricultural output, and cultivation of residue-intensive crops, six districts in Punjab alone contribute to 40% of India-wide annual air quality impacts from residue burning. Burning two hours earlier in Punjab alone could avert premature deaths up to 9600 (95% CI: 8000-11,000) each year, valued at 3.2 (95% CI: 0.49-7.3) billion US dollars. Our findings support the use of targeted and potentially low-cost interventions to mitigate crop residue burning in India, pending further research regarding cost-effectiveness and feasibility.

Active fires show an increasing elevation trend in the tropical highlands

As an inherent element of the Earth's ecosystem, forest, and vegetation fires are one of the key contributors to and direct consequences of climate change. Given that topography is one of the key drivers of forest landscapes and fire behavior, it is important to clarify what the topographical characteristics and trends of global fire events are, particularly in the tropics. Here, we have investigated the variations in elevation of active fires at the continental to a global scale, including the tropics, the extra-tropics, the lowlands, and the highlands (greater than 200 m above sea level [asl]), using the available MODIS Collection 6 active fire products (2001-2019). The main conclusions are: (1) the annual totality (average of 4.5 million) of global active fire events decreased and over 97% of them occurred frequently below 1500 m asl. (2) The tropics and the highlands accounted for ~74% (±3%) and 71% (±2%) of global active fires, respectively, and 77% (±2%) were observed in the tropical highlands. (3) From the beginning of the 21st century, active fires in the highlands displayed an upward elevational trend, particularly in the tropics, while the opposite trend was observed for the lowlands. More importantly, the rate of the increasing elevation in the highlands had a greater magnitude than that of decreasing elevation in the lowlands. (4) Finally, the United Nations collaborative program on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (UN-REDD) in Developing Countries seemed to slow down or even result in a reversal of the upward elevational trend of fire occurrences in the tropics for the partner countries, especially in the lowlands. In the context of global climate change and rampant fires, the trend of rising elevation for active fire occurrences, particularly in the tropical highlands, indicates that more vegetation burning events occur or will occur in hilly to mountainous areas, thus posing further threats to tropical forests and some important biodiversity refuges. More sustained efforts should be made by governments and the scientific community to instigate enhanced fire management practices and to conduct in-depth research programs.

Statistical Comparison and Assessment of Four Fire Emissions Inventories for 2013 and a Large Wildfire in the Western United States

Wildland fires produce smoke plumes that impact air quality and human health. To understand the effects of wildland fire smoke on humans, the amount and composition of the smoke plume must be quantified. Using a fire emissions inventory is one way to determine the emissions rate and composition of smoke plumes from individual fires. There are multiple fire emissions inventories, and each uses a different method to estimate emissions. This paper presents a comparison of four emissions inventories and their products: Fire INventory from NCAR (FINN version 1.5), Global Fire Emissions Database (GFED version 4s), Missoula Fire Labs Emissions Inventory (MFLEI (250 m) and MFLEI (10 km) products), and Wildland Fire Emissions Inventory System (WFEIS (MODIS) and WFEIS (MTBS) products). The outputs from these inventories are compared directly. Because there are no validation datasets for fire emissions, the outlying points from the Bayesian models developed for each inventory were compared with visible images and fire radiative power (FRP) data from satellite remote sensing. This comparison provides a framework to check fire emissions inventory data against additional data by providing a set of days to investigate closely. Results indicate that FINN and GFED likely underestimate emissions, while the MFLEI products likely overestimate emissions. No fire emissions inventory matched the temporal distribution of emissions from an external FRP dataset. A discussion of the differences impacting the emissions estimates from the four fire emissions inventories is provided, including a qualitative comparison of the methods and inputs used by each inventory and the associated strengths and limitations.

Estimating the health effects of environmental mixtures using principal stratification

The control of ambient air quality in the United States has been a major public health success since the passing of the Clean Air Act, with particulate matter (PM) reductions resulting in an estimated 160 000 premature deaths prevented in 2010 alone. Currently, public policy is oriented around lowering the levels of individual pollutants and this focus has driven the nature of much epidemiological research. Recently, attention has been given to viewing air pollution as a complex mixture and to developing a multi-pollutant approach to controlling ambient concentrations. We present a statistical approach for estimating the health impacts of complex environmental mixtures using a mixture-altering contrast, which is any comparison, intervention, policy, or natural experiment that changes a mixture's composition. We combine the notion of mixture-altering contrasts with sliced inverse regression, propensity score matching, and principal stratification to assess the health effects of different air pollution chemical mixtures. We demonstrate the application of this approach in an analysis of the health effects of wildfire PM air pollution in the Western US.

Fires Drive Long-Term Environmental Degradation in the Amazon Basin

The Amazon Basin is undergoing extensive environmental degradation as a result of deforestation and the rising occurrence of fires. The degradation caused by fires is exacerbated by the occurrence of anomalously dry periods in the Amazon Basin. The objectives of this study were: (i) to quantify the extent of areas that burned between 2001 and 2019 and relate them to extreme drought events in a 20-year time series; (ii) to identify the proportion of countries comprising the Amazon Basin in which environmental degradation was strongly observed, relating the spatial patterns of fires; and (iii) examine the Amazon Basin carbon balance following the occurrence of fires. To this end, the following variables were evaluated by remote sensing between 2001 and 2019: gross primary production, standardized precipitation index, burned areas, fire foci, and carbon emissions. During the examined period, fires affected 23.78% of the total Amazon Basin. Brazil had the largest affected area (220,087 fire foci, 773,360 km2 burned area, 54.7% of the total burned in the Amazon Basin), followed by Bolivia (102,499 fire foci, 571,250 km2 burned area, 40.4%). Overall, these fires have not only affected forests in agricultural frontier areas (76.91%), but also those in indigenous lands (17.16%) and conservation units (5.93%), which are recognized as biodiversity conservation areas. During the study period, the forest absorbed 1,092,037 Mg of C, but emitted 2908 Tg of C, which is 2.66-fold greater than the C absorbed, thereby compromising the role of the forest in acting as a C sink. Our findings show that environmental degradation caused by fires is related to the occurrence of dry periods in the Amazon Basin.

Air Pollution From Forest and Vegetation Fires in Southeast Asia Disproportionately Impacts the Poor

Forest and vegetation fires, used as tools for agriculture and deforestation, are a major source of air pollutants and can cause serious air quality issues in many parts of Asia. Actions to reduce fire may offer considerable, yet largely unrecognized, options for rapid improvements in air quality. In this study, we used a combination of regional and global air quality models and observations to examine the impact of forest and vegetation fires on air quality degradation and public health in Southeast Asia (including Mainland Southeast Asia and south-eastern China). We found that eliminating fire could substantially improve regional air quality across Southeast Asia by reducing the population exposure to fine particulate matter (PM2.5) concentrations by 7% and surface ozone concentrations by 5%. These reductions in PM2.5 exposures would yield a considerable public health benefit across the region; averting 59,000 (95% uncertainty interval (95UI): 55,200-62,900) premature deaths annually. Analysis of subnational infant mortality rate data and PM2.5 exposure suggested that PM2.5 from fires disproportionately impacts poorer populations across Southeast Asia. We identified two key regions in northern Laos and western Myanmar where particularly high levels of poverty coincide with exposure to relatively high levels of PM2.5 from fires. Our results show that reducing forest and vegetation fires should be a public health priority for the Southeast Asia region.

Surface Plasmon Resonance Sensor of CO2 for Indoors and Outdoors

The ability to detect CO2 with the smallest possible devices, equipped with alarms and having great precision, is vital for human life, whether indoors or outdoors. It is essential to know if we are being subjected to this gas to establish the level of ventilation in factories, houses, classrooms, etc., and to be protected against viruses or dangerous gas concentrations. Equally, when we are in the countryside, it is useful to be able to evaluate if the greenhouse effect, caused by this gas, is increasing. We propose a surface plasmon resonance (SPR) sensor for the measurement of CO2 concentrations taking into account that the refractive index of carbon dioxide depends on temperature, humidity, pressure, etc. With our sensor we can measure (in air) in any type of environment and concentration. Our sensor has a resolution of 5.15 × 10−5 RIU and a sensitivity of 19.4 RIU−1 for 400 ppm.

Machine Learning Estimation of Fire Arrival Time from Level-2 Active Fires Satellite Data

Producing high-resolution near-real-time forecasts of fire behavior and smoke impact that are useful for fire and air quality management requires accurate initialization of the fire location. One common representation of the fire progression is through the fire arrival time, which defines the time that the fire arrives at a given location. Estimating the fire arrival time is critical for initializing the fire location within coupled fire-atmosphere models. We present a new method that utilizes machine learning to estimate the fire arrival time from satellite data in the form of burning/not burning/no data rasters. The proposed method, based on a support vector machine (SVM), is tested on the 10 largest California wildfires of the 2020 fire season, and evaluated using independent observed data from airborne infrared (IR) fire perimeters. The SVM method results indicate a good agreement with airborne fire observations in terms of the fire growth and a spatial representation of the fire extent. A 12% burned area absolute percentage error, a 5% total burned area mean percentage error, a 0.21 False Alarm Ratio average, a 0.86 Probability of Detection average, and a 0.82 Sørensen’s coefficient average suggest that this method can be used to monitor wildfires in near-real-time and provide accurate fire arrival times for improving fire modeling even in the absence of IR fire perimeters.

Persistent fire foci in all biomes undermine the Paris Agreement in Brazil

Brazil is one of the world’s biggest emitters of greenhouse gases (GHGs). Fire foci across the country contributes to these emissions and compromises emission reduction targets pledged by Brazil under the Paris Agreement. In this paper, we quantify fire foci, burned areas, and carbon emissions in all Brazilian biomes (i.e., Amazon, Cerrado, Caatinga, Atlantic Forest, Pantanal and Pampa). We analyzed these variables using cluster analysis and non-parametric statistics to predict carbon and CO₂ emissions for the next decade. Our results showed no increase in the number of fire foci and carbon emissions for the evaluated time series, whereby the highest emissions occur and will persist in the Amazon and Cerrado biomes. The Atlantic Forest, Pantanal, Caatinga and Pampa biomes had low emissions compared to the Amazon and Cerrado. Based on 2030 projections, the sum of emissions from fire foci in the six Brazilian biomes will exceed 5.7 Gt CO2, compromising the national GHG reduction targets. To reduce GHG emissions, Brazil will need to control deforestation induced by the expansion of the agricultural frontier in the Amazon and Cerrado biomes. This can only be achieved through significant political effort involving the government, entrepreneurs and society as a collective.

Atmospheric Simulations of Total Column CO2 Mole Fractions from Global to Mesoscale within the Carbon Monitoring System Flux Inversion Framework

Quantifying the uncertainty of inversion-derived CO2 surface fluxes and attributing the uncertainty to errors in either flux or atmospheric transport simulations continue to be challenges in the characterization of surface sources and sinks of carbon dioxide (CO2). Despite recent studies inferring fluxes while using higher-resolution modeling systems, the utility of regional-scale models remains unclear when compared to existing coarse-resolution global systems. Here, we present an off-line coupling of the mesoscale Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model to optimized biogenic CO2 fluxes and mole fractions from the global Carbon Monitoring System inversion system (CMS-Flux). The coupling framework consists of methods to constrain the mass of CO2 introduced into WRF, effectively nesting our regional domain covering most of North America (except the northern half of Canada) within the CMS global model. We test the coupling by simulating Greenhouse gases Observing SATellite (GOSAT) column-averaged dry-air mole fractions (XCO2) over North America for 2010. We find mean model-model differences in summer of ∼0.12 ppm, significantly lower than the original coupling scheme (from 0.5 to 1.5 ppm, depending on the boundary). While 85% of the XCO2 values are due to long-range transport from outside our North American domain, most of the model-model differences appear to be due to transport differences in the fraction of the troposphere below 850 hPa. Satellite data from GOSAT and tower and aircraft data are used to show that vertical transport above the Planetary Boundary Layer is responsible for significant model-model differences in the horizontal distribution of column XCO2 across North America.

Constraining remote oxidation capacity with ATom observations

The global oxidation capacity, defined as the tropospheric mean concentration of the hydroxyl radical (OH), controls the lifetime of reactive trace gases in the atmosphere such as methane and carbon monoxide (CO). Models tend to underestimate the methane lifetime and CO concentrations throughout the troposphere, which is consistent with excessive OH. Approximately half of the oxidation of methane and non-methane volatile organic compounds (VOCs) is thought to occur over the oceans where oxidant chemistry has received little validation due to a lack of observational constraints. We use observations from the first two deployments of the NASA ATom aircraft campaign during July-August 2016 and January-February 2017 to evaluate the oxidation capacity over the remote oceans and its representation by the GEOS-Chem chemical transport model. The model successfully simulates the magnitude and vertical profile of remote OH within the measurement uncertainties. Comparisons against the drivers of OH production (water vapor, ozone, and NO y concentrations, ozone photolysis frequencies) also show minimal bias, with the exception of wintertime NO y . The severe model overestimate of NO y during this period may indicate insufficient wet scavenging and/or missing loss on sea-salt aerosols. Large uncertainties in these processes require further study to improve simulated NO y partitioning and removal in the troposphere, but preliminary tests suggest that their overall impact could marginally reduce the model bias in tropospheric OH. During the ATom-1 deployment, OH reactivity (OHR) below 3 km is significantly enhanced, and this is not captured by the sum of its measured components (cOHRobs) or by the model (cOHRmod). This enhancement could suggest missing reactive VOCs but cannot be explained by a comprehensive simulation of both biotic and abiotic ocean sources of VOCs. Additional sources of VOC reactivity in this region are difficult to reconcile with the full suite of ATom measurement constraints. The model generally reproduces the magnitude and seasonality of cOHRobs but underestimates the contribution of oxygenated VOCs, mainly acetaldehyde, which is severely underestimated throughout the troposphere despite its calculated lifetime of less than a day. Missing model acetaldehyde in previous studies was attributed to measurement uncertainties that have been largely resolved. Observations of peroxyacetic acid (PAA) provide new support for remote levels of acetaldehyde. The underestimate in both model acetaldehyde and PAA is present throughout the year in both hemispheres and peaks during Northern Hemisphere summer. The addition of ocean sources of VOCs in the model increases cOHRmod by 3% to 9% and improves model-measurement agreement for acetaldehyde, particularly in winter, but cannot resolve the model summertime bias. Doing so would require 100 Tg yr-1 of a long-lived unknown precursor throughout the year with significant additional emissions in the Northern Hemisphere summer. Improving the model bias for remote acetaldehyde and PAA is unlikely to fully resolve previously reported model global biases in OH and methane lifetime, suggesting that future work should examine the sources and sinks of OH over land.

Occurrence frequencies and regional variations in Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) global active fires

Active fires are considered to be the key contributor to, and critical consequence of, climate change. Quantifying the occurrence frequency and regional variations in global active fires is significant for assessing carbon cycling, atmospheric chemistry, and postfire ecological effects. Multiscale variations in fire occurrence frequencies have still never been fully investigated despite free access to global active fire products. We analyzed the occurrence frequencies of Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) active fires at national, pan-regional (tropics and extratropics) to global scales and at hourly, monthly, and annual scales during 2012-2017. The results revealed that the accumulated occurrence frequencies of VIIRS global active fires were up to 12,193 × 10⁴ , yet exhibiting slight fluctuations annually and with respect to the 2014-2016 El Niño event, especially during 2015. About 35.52% of VIIRS active fires occurred from July to September, particularly in August (13.06%), and typically between 10:00 and 13:00 Greenwich Mean Time (GMT; 42.96%) and especially at 11:00 GMT (17.65%). The total counts conform to a bimodal pattern with peaks in 5°-11°N (18.01%) and 5°-18°S (32.46%), respectively, alongside a unimodal distribution in terms of longitudes between 15°E and 30°E (32.34%). Tropical annual average of active fire (1,496.81 × 10⁴ ) accounted for 75.83%. Nearly 30% were counted in Brazil, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Indonesia, and Mainland Southeast Asia (MSEA). Fires typically occurred between June (or August) and October (or November) with far below-average rainfall in these countries, while those in MSEA primarily occurred between February and April during the dry season. They were primarily observed between 00:00 and 02:00 GMT, between 12:00 and 14:00 within each Zone Time. We believed that VIIRS global active fires products are useful for developing fire detection algorithms, discriminating occurrence types and ignition causes via correlation analyses with physical geographic elements, and assessment of their potential impacts.

Estimation of CO2 Emissions from Wildfires Using OCO-2 Data

The biomass burning model (BBM) has been the most widely used method for estimation of trace gas emissions. Due to the difficulty and variability in obtaining various necessary parameters of BBM, a new method is needed to quickly and accurately calculate the trace gas emissions from wildfires. Here, we used satellite data from the Orbiting Carbon Observatory-2 (OCO-2) to calculate CO2 emissions from wildfires (the OCO-2 model). Four active wildfires in Siberia were selected in which OCO-2 points intersecting with smoke plumes identified by Aqua MODIS (MODerate-resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) images. MODIS band 8, band 21 and MISR (Multi-angle Imaging SpectroRadiometer) data were used to identify the smoke plume area, burned area and smoke plume height, respectively. By contrast with BBM, which calculates CO2 emissions based on the bottom–top mode, the OCO-2 model estimates CO2 emissions based on the top–bottom mode. We used a linear regression model to compute CO2 concentration (XCO2) for each smoke plume pixel and then calculated CO2 emissions for each wildfire point. The CO2 mass of each smoke plume pixel was added to obtain the CO2 emissions from wildfires. After verifying our results with the BBM, we found that the biases were between 25.76% and 157.11% for the four active fires. The OCO-2 model displays the advantages of remote-sensing technology and is a useful tool for fire-emission monitoring, although we note some of its disadvantages. This study proposed a new perspective to estimate CO2 emissions from wildfire and effectively expands the applied range of OCO-2 satellite data.

Regional Estimates of Chemical Composition of Fine Particulate Matter Using a Combined Geoscience-Statistical Method with Information from Satellites, Models, and Monitors

An accurate fine-resolution surface of the chemical composition of fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) would offer valuable information for epidemiological studies and health impact assessments. We develop geoscience-derived estimates of PM_2.5 composition from a chemical transport model (GEOS-Chem) and satellite observations of aerosol optical depth, and statistically fuse these estimates with ground-based observations using a geographically weighted regression over North America to produce a spatially complete representation of sulfate, nitrate, ammonium, black carbon, organic matter, mineral dust, and sea-salt over 2000-2016. Significant long-term agreement is found with cross-validation sites over North America (R² = 0.57-0.96), with the strongest agreement for sulfate (R² = 0.96), nitrate (R² = 0.90), and ammonium (R² = 0.86). We find that North American decreases in population-weighted fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) concentrations since 2000 have been most heavily influenced by regional changes in sulfate and organic matter. Regionally, the relative importance of several chemical components are found to change with PM_2.5 concentration, such as higher PM_2.5 concentrations having a larger proportion of nitrate and a smaller proportion of sulfate. This data set offers information for research into the health effects of PM_2.5 chemical components.

Modeling emissions for three-dimensional atmospheric chemistry transport models

Poor air quality is still a threat for human health in many parts of the world. In order to assess measures for emission reductions and improved air quality, three-dimensional atmospheric chemistry transport modeling systems are used in numerous research institutions and public authorities. These models need accurate emission data in appropriate spatial and temporal resolution as input. This paper reviews the most widely used emission inventories on global and regional scales and looks into the methods used to make the inventory data model ready. Shortcomings of using standard temporal profiles for each emission sector are discussed, and new methods to improve the spatiotemporal distribution of the emissions are presented. These methods are often neither top-down nor bottom-up approaches but can be seen as hybrid methods that use detailed information about the emission process to derive spatially varying temporal emission profiles. These profiles are subsequently used to distribute bulk emissions such as national totals on appropriate grids. The wide area of natural emissions is also summarized, and the calculation methods are described. Almost all types of natural emissions depend on meteorological information, which is why they are highly variable in time and space and frequently calculated within the chemistry transport models themselves. The paper closes with an outlook for new ways to improve model ready emission data, for example, by using external databases about road traffic flow or satellite data to determine actual land use or leaf area. In a world where emission patterns change rapidly, it seems appropriate to use new types of statistical and observational data to create detailed emission data sets and keep emission inventories up-to-date.

IMPLICATIONS

Emission data are probably the most important input for chemistry transport model (CTM) systems. They need to be provided in high spatial and temporal resolution and on a grid that is in agreement with the CTM grid. Simple methods to distribute the emissions in time and space need to be replaced by sophisticated emission models in order to improve the CTM results. New methods, e.g., for ammonia emissions, provide grid cell-dependent temporal profiles. In the future, large data fields from traffic observations or satellite observations could be used for more detailed emission data.

Influence of uncertainties in burned area estimates on modeled wildland fire PM2.5 and ozone pollution in the contiguous U.S

Wildland fires are a major source of fine particulate matter (PM_2.5), one of the most harmful ambient pollutants for human health globally. To represent the influence of wildland fire emissions on atmospheric composition, regional and global chemical transport models rely on emission inventories developed from estimates of burned area (i.e. fire size and location). While different methods of estimating annual burned area agree reasonably well in the western U.S. (within 20-30% for most years during 2002-2014), estimates for the southern U.S. can vary by more than a factor of 5. These differences in burned area lead to significant variability in the spatial and temporal allocation of emissions across fire emission inventory platforms. In this work, we implement wildland fire emission estimates for 2011 from three different products - the USEPA National Emission Inventory (NEI), the Fire Inventory of NCAR (FINN), and the Global Fire Emission Database (GFED4s) - into the Community Multiscale Air Quality (CMAQ) model to quantify and characterize differences in simulated PM and ozone concentrations across the contiguous U.S. (CONUS) due to the fire emission inventory used. The NEI is developed specifically for the U.S., while both FINN and GFED4s are available globally. We find that NEI emissions lead to the largest increases in modeled annual average PM_2.5 (0.85 μg m^-3) and April-September maximum daily 8-h ozone (0.28 ppb) nationally compared to a "no fire" baseline, followed by FINN (0.33 μg m^-3 and 0.22 ppb) and GFED4s (0.12 μg m^-3 and 0.17 ppb). Annual mean enhancements in wildland fire pollution are highest in the southern U.S. across all three inventories (over 4 μg m^-3 and 2 ppb in some areas), but show considerable spatial variability within these regions. We also examine the representation of five individual fire events during 2011 and find that of the two global inventories, FINN reproduces more of the acute changes in pollutant concentrations modeled with NEI and shown in surface observations during each of the episodes investigated compared to GFED4s. Understanding the sensitivity of modeling fire-related PM_2.5 and ozone in the U.S. to burned area estimation approaches will inform future efforts to assess the implications of present and future fire activity for air quality and human health at national and global scales.

Rainforest-initiated wet season onset over the southern Amazon

Although it is well established that transpiration contributes much of the water for rainfall over Amazonia, it remains unclear whether transpiration helps to drive or merely responds to the seasonal cycle of rainfall. Here, we use multiple independent satellite datasets to show that rainforest transpiration enables an increase of shallow convection that moistens and destabilizes the atmosphere during the initial stages of the dry-to-wet season transition. This shallow convection moisture pump (SCMP) preconditions the atmosphere at the regional scale for a rapid increase in rain-bearing deep convection, which in turn drives moisture convergence and wet season onset 2-3 mo before the arrival of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). Aerosols produced by late dry season biomass burning may alter the efficiency of the SCMP. Our results highlight the mechanisms by which interactions among land surface processes, atmospheric convection, and biomass burning may alter the timing of wet season onset and provide a mechanistic framework for understanding how deforestation extends the dry season and enhances regional vulnerability to drought.

PM2.5 source attribution for Seoul in May from 2009 to 2013 using GEOS-Chem and its adjoint model

Enforcement of an air quality standard for PM_2.5 in the Seoul metropolitan area (SMA) was enacted in 2015. From May to June of 2016, an international airborne and surface measurement campaign took place to investigate air pollution mechanisms in the SMA. The total and speciated PM_2.5 concentrations since 2008 have been measured at an intensive monitoring site for the SMA operated by the National Institute of Environmental Research (NIER). To gain insight on the trends and sources of PM_2.5 in the SMA in May, we analyze PM_2.5 concentrations from 2009 to 2013 using the measurements and simulations from a 3-dimensional global chemical transport model, GEOS-Chem and its adjoint. The model is updated here with the latest regional emission inventory and diurnally varying NH₃ emissions. Monthly average PM_2.5 concentration measured by β-ray attenuation ranges from 28 (2010) to 45 (2013) μg/m³, decreased from 2009 to 2010, and then continuously increased until 2013. The model shows good agreement with the measurements for the daily average PM_2.5 concentrations (R ≥ 0.5), and reproduces 10 out of 17 measured episodes exceeding the daily air quality standard (50 μg/m³). Using the GEOS-Chem adjoint model, we find that anthropogenic emissions from the Shandong region have the largest modeled influence on PM_2.5 in Seoul in May. Average contributions to the high PM_2.5 episodes simulated by the model are 39% from the Shandong region, 16% from the Shanghai region, 14% from the Beijing region, and 15% from South Korea. Anthropogenic SO₂ emissions from South Korea are negligible with 90% of the total contribution originating from China. Findings from this study may guide interpretation of observations obtained in the KORUS-AQ measurement campaign.

Particulate-phase mercury emissions from biomass burning and impact on resulting deposition: a modelling assessment

Mercury (Hg) emissions from biomass burning (BB) are an important source of atmospheric Hg and a major factor driving the interannual variation of Hg concentrations in the troposphere. The greatest fraction of Hg from BB is released in the form of elemental Hg ( Hg ( g ) 0 ) . However, little is known about the fraction of Hg bound to particulate matter (HgP) released from BB, and the factors controlling this fraction are also uncertain. In light of the aims of the Minamata Convention to reduce intentional Hg use and emissions from anthropogenic activities, the relative importance of Hg emissions from BB will have an increasing impact on Hg deposition fluxes. Hg speciation is one of the most important factors determining the redistribution of Hg in the atmosphere and the geographical distribution of Hg deposition. Using the latest version of the Global Fire Emissions Database (GFEDv4.1s) and the global Hg chemistry transport model, ECHMERIT, the impact of Hg speciation in BB emissions, and the factors which influence speciation, on Hg deposition have been investigated for the year 2013. The role of other uncertainties related to physical and chemical atmospheric processes involving Hg and the influence of model parametrisations were also investigated, since their interactions with Hg speciation are complex. The comparison with atmospheric HgP concentrations observed at two remote sites, Amsterdam Island (AMD) and Manaus (MAN), in the Amazon showed a significant improvement when considering a fraction of HgP from BB. The set of sensitivity runs also showed how the quantity and geographical distribution of HgP emitted from BB has a limited impact on a global scale, although the inclusion of increasing fractions HgP does limit Hg ( g ) 0 availability to the global atmospheric pool. This reduces the fraction of Hg from BB which deposits to the world's oceans from 71 to 62 %. The impact locally is, however, significant on northern boreal and tropical forests, where fires are frequent, uncontrolled and lead to notable Hg inputs to local ecosystems. In the light of ongoing climatic changes this effect could be potentially be exacerbated in the future.

Particulate-phase mercury emissions from biomass burning and impact on resulting deposition: a modelling assessment

Mercury (Hg) emissions from biomass burning (BB) are an important source of atmospheric Hg and a major factor driving the interannual variation of Hg concentrations in the troposphere. The greatest fraction of Hg from BB is released in the form of elemental Hg(Hg(g)0) . However, little is known about the fraction of Hg bound to particulate matter (Hg^P) released from BB, and the factors controlling this fraction are also uncertain. In light of the aims of the Minamata Convention to reduce intentional Hg use and emissions from anthropogenic activities, the relative importance of Hg emissions from BB will have an increasing impact on Hg deposition fluxes. Hg speciation is one of the most important factors determining the redistribution of Hg in the atmosphere and the geographical distribution of Hg deposition. Using the latest version of the Global Fire Emissions Database (GFEDv4.1s) and the global Hg chemistry transport model, ECHMERIT, the impact of Hg speciation in BB emissions, and the factors which influence speciation, on Hg deposition have been investigated for the year 2013. The role of other uncertainties related to physical and chemical atmospheric processes involving Hg and the influence of model parametrisations were also investigated, since their interactions with Hg speciation are complex. The comparison with atmospheric Hg^P concentrations observed at two remote sites, Amsterdam Island (AMD) and Manaus (MAN), in the Amazon showed a significant improvement when considering a fraction of Hg^P from BB. The set of sensitivity runs also showed how the quantity and geographical distribution of Hg^P emitted from BB has a limited impact on a global scale, although the inclusion of increasing fractions Hg^P does limit Hg(g)0 availability to the global atmospheric pool. This reduces the fraction of Hg from BB which deposits to the world's oceans from 71 to 62 %. The impact locally is, however, significant on northern boreal and tropical forests, where fires are frequent, uncontrolled and lead to notable Hg inputs to local ecosystems. In the light of ongoing climatic changes this effect could be potentially be exacerbated in the future.

The sources of atmospheric black carbon at a European gateway to the Arctic

Black carbon (BC) aerosols from incomplete combustion of biomass and fossil fuel contribute to Arctic climate warming. Models-seeking to advise mitigation policy-are challenged in reproducing observations of seasonally varying BC concentrations in the Arctic air. Here we compare year-round observations of BC and its δ(13)C/Δ(14)C-diagnosed sources in Arctic Scandinavia, with tailored simulations from an atmospheric transport model. The model predictions for this European gateway to the Arctic are greatly improved when the emission inventory of anthropogenic sources is amended by satellite-derived estimates of BC emissions from fires. Both BC concentrations (R(2)=0.89, P<0.05) and source contributions (R(2)=0.77, P<0.05) are accurately mimicked and linked to predominantly European emissions. This improved model skill allows for more accurate assessment of sources and effects of BC in the Arctic, and a more credible scientific underpinning of policy efforts aimed at efficiently reducing BC emissions reaching the European Arctic.

Simulating the Black Saturday 2009 smoke plume with an interactive composition-climate model: sensitivity to emissions amount, timing and injection height

We simulated the high-altitude smoke plume from the early February 2009 Black Saturday bushfires in southeastern Australia using the NASA GISS ModelE2. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first single-plume analysis of biomass burning emissions injected directly into the upper-troposphere/lower stratosphere (UTLS) using a full-complexity composition-climate model. We compared simulated carbon monoxide (CO) to a new Aura TES/MLS joint CO retrieval, focusing on the plume's initial transport eastward, anticyclonic circulation to the north of New Zealand, westward transport in the lower stratospheric easterlies, and arrival over Africa at the end of February. Our goal was to determine the sensitivity of the simulated plume to prescribed injection height, emissions amount and emissions timing from different sources for a full complexity model when compared to Aura. The most realistic plumes were obtained using injection heights in the UTLS, including one drawn from ground-based radar data. A six-hour emissions pulse or emissions tied to independent estimates of hourly fire behavior produced a more realistic plume in the lower stratosphere compared to the same emissions amount being released evenly over 12 or 24-hours. Simulated CO in the plume was highly sensitive to the differences between emissions amounts estimated from the Global Fire Emissions Database and from detailed, ground-based estimates of fire growth. The emissions amount determined not only the CO concentration of the plume, but the proportion of the plume that entered the stratosphere. We speculate that this is due to either or both non-linear CO loss with a weakened OH sink, or plume self-lofting driven by shortwave absorption of the co-emitted aerosols.

Evaluating greenhouse gas emissions inventories for agricultural burning using satellite observations of active fires

Fires in agricultural ecosystems emit greenhouse gases and aerosols that influence climate on multiple spatial and temporal scales. Annex 1 countries of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), many of which ratified the Kyoto Protocol, are required to report emissions of CH4 and N2O from these fires annually. In this study, we evaluated several aspects of this reporting system, including the optimality of the crops targeted by the UNFCCC globally and within Annex 1 countries, and the consistency of emissions inventories among different countries. We also evaluated the success of individual countries in capturing interannual variability and long-term trends in agricultural fire activity. In our approach, we combined global high-resolution maps of crop harvest area and production, derived from satellite maps and ground-based census data, with Terra and Aqua Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) measurements of active fires. At a global scale, we found that adding ground nuts (e.g., peanuts), cocoa, cotton and oil palm, and removing potato, oats, rye, and pulse other from the list of 14 crops targeted by the UNFCCC increased the percentage of active fires covered by the reporting system by 9%. Optimization led to a different recommended list for Annex 1 countries, requiring the addition of sunflower, cotton, rapeseed, and alfalfa and the removal of beans, sugarcane, pulse others, and tuber-root others. Extending emissions reporting to all Annex 1 countries (from the current set of 19 countries) would increase the efficacy of the reporting system from 6% to 15%, and further including several non-Annex 1 countries (Argentina, Brazil, China, India, Indonesia, Thailand, Kazakhstan, Mexico, and Nigeria) would capture over 55% of active fires in croplands worldwide. Analyses of interannual trends from the United States and Australia showed the importance of both intensity of fire use and crop production in controlling year-to-year variations in agricultural fire emissions. Remote sensing provides an effective means for evaluating some aspects of the current UNFCCC emissions reporting system; and, if combined with census data, field experiments and expert opinion, has the potential to improve the robustness of the next generation inventory system.