1
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Upenieks L, Bounds EM, Melton KK, Glanzer P, Schnitker SA. Trait Courage, Attachment to God, and Mental Well-Being Among U.S. Collegiate Athletes. JOURNAL OF RELIGION AND HEALTH 2024:10.1007/s10943-024-02054-z. [PMID: 38761338 DOI: 10.1007/s10943-024-02054-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/01/2024] [Indexed: 05/20/2024]
Abstract
In recent decades, scholars and practitioners alike have devoted increased attention to the psychological well-being of student-athletes. However, to date, far less research has examined the role of virtues, religion, and spirituality in contributing to well-being in student-athlete populations. In this study, we attempt to address these gaps by (a) assessing the association between trait courage, an understudied virtue in the sporting realm, and mental well-being, and then (b) considering how student-athletes' attachment to God might moderate the association between trait courage and depressive symptoms. Drawing on a sample of 415 student-athletes from the USA, regression results illustrate that courage was not significantly associated with lower depressive symptoms among student-athletes. However, a secure attachment to God appeared to function as a compensatory resource for student-athletes lacking in courage. On the contrary, athletes with low trait courage but who reported greater avoidant attachment to God reported greater depressive symptoms. Taken together, a more positive relationship with God could help provide athletes with lower trait courage a way to find meaning and strength that helps them with emotion-regulation strategies to deal with the pressures within and beyond their sport. This study clearly shows that greater attention should be paid to the religious and spiritual development of student-athletes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Upenieks
- Department of Sociology, Baylor University, 97326 One Bear Place, Waco, TX, 76798, USA.
| | - Elizabeth M Bounds
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Baylor University, Waco, TX, USA
| | - Karen K Melton
- Department of Human Sciences and Design, Baylor University, Waco, TX, USA
| | - Perry Glanzer
- Department of Educational Leadership, Baylor University, Waco, TX, USA
| | - Sarah A Schnitker
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Baylor University, Waco, TX, USA
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2
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Jin K, Wu J, Zhang R, Zhang S, Wu X, Wu T, Gu R, Liu C. Observing heroic behavior and its influencing factors in immersive virtual environments. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2024; 121:e2314590121. [PMID: 38625938 PMCID: PMC11047098 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2314590121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2023] [Accepted: 03/02/2024] [Indexed: 04/18/2024] Open
Abstract
Studying heroism in controlled settings presents challenges and ethical controversies due to its association with physical risk. Leveraging virtual reality (VR) technology, we conducted a three-study series with 397 participants from China to investigate heroic actions. Participants unexpectedly witnessed a criminal event in a simulated scenario, allowing observation of their tendency to physically intercept a thief. We examined situational factors (voluntariness, authority, and risk) and personal variables [gender, impulsivity, empathy, and social value orientation (SVO)] that may influence heroism. Also, the potential association between heroism and social conformity was explored. In terms of situational variables, voluntariness modulated participants' tendency to intercept the escaping thief, while perceived risk demonstrated its impact by interacting with gender. That is, in study 3 where the perceived risk was expected to be higher (as supported by an online study 5), males exhibited a greater inclination toward heroic behavior compared to females. Regarding other personal variables, the tendency to engage in heroic behavior decreased as empathy levels rose among males, whereas the opposite trend was observed for females. SVO influenced heroic behavior but without a gender interaction. Finally, an inverse relationship between heroism and social conformity was observed. The robustness of these findings was partly supported by the Chinese sample (but not the international sample) of an online study 4 that provided written descriptions of VR scenarios, indicating cultural variations. These results advance insights into motivational factors influencing heroism in the context of restoring order and highlight the power of VR technology in examining social psychological hypotheses beyond ethical constraints.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelou Jin
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning, Beijing Normal University, Beijing100875, China
- International Data Group McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University, Beijing100875, China
| | - Jie Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning, Beijing Normal University, Beijing100875, China
- International Data Group McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University, Beijing100875, China
| | - Ran Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning, Beijing Normal University, Beijing100875, China
- International Data Group McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University, Beijing100875, China
| | - Shen Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning, Beijing Normal University, Beijing100875, China
- International Data Group McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University, Beijing100875, China
| | - Xiaoyan Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning, Beijing Normal University, Beijing100875, China
- International Data Group McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University, Beijing100875, China
| | - Tingting Wu
- Beijing Key Lab of Learning and Cognition, School of Psychology, Capital Normal University, Beijing100048, China
| | - Ruolei Gu
- Key Laboratory of Behavioral Science, Institute of Psychology Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing100101, China
- Department of Psychology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing100049, China
| | - Chao Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning, Beijing Normal University, Beijing100875, China
- International Data Group McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University, Beijing100875, China
- Center for Collaboration and Innovation in Brain and Learning Sciences, Beijing Normal University, Beijing100875, China
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Brain Imaging and Connectomics, Beijing Normal University, Beijing100875, China
- National Demonstration Center for Experimental Psychology Education, Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing100875, China
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3
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Bowles HR, Mazei J, Liu HH. "When" Versus "Whether" Gender/Sex Differences: Insights From Psychological Research on Negotiation, Risk-Taking, and Leadership. PERSPECTIVES ON PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2024:17456916241231584. [PMID: 38498311 DOI: 10.1177/17456916241231584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/20/2024]
Abstract
We present a conceptual framework of situational moderators of gender/sex effects in negotiation, risk-taking, and leadership-three masculine-stereotypic domains associated with gender/sex gaps in pay and authority. We propose that greater situational ambiguity and higher relevance and salience of gender/sex increase the likelihood of gender/sex-linked behaviors in these domains. We argue that greater ambiguity increases the extent to which actors and audiences must search inwardly (e.g., mental schema, past experience) or outwardly (e.g., social norms) for cues on how to behave or evaluate a situation and thereby widens the door for gender/sex-linked influences. Correspondingly, we propose that gender/sex effects on behavior and evaluations in these domains will be more likely when gender/sex is more relevant and salient to the setting or task. We propose further that these two situational moderators may work jointly or interactively to influence the likelihood of gender/sex effects in negotiation, risk-taking, and leadership. We conclude by discussing applications of our conceptual framework to psychological science and its translation to practice, including directions for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jens Mazei
- Department of Psychology, TU Dortmund University
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4
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Galinsky AD, Turek A, Agarwal G, Anicich EM, Rucker DD, Bowles HR, Liberman N, Levin C, Magee JC. Are many sex/gender differences really power differences? PNAS NEXUS 2024; 3:pgae025. [PMID: 38415218 PMCID: PMC10898859 DOI: 10.1093/pnasnexus/pgae025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2023] [Accepted: 01/04/2024] [Indexed: 02/29/2024]
Abstract
This research addresses the long-standing debate about the determinants of sex/gender differences. Evolutionary theorists trace many sex/gender differences back to natural selection and sex-specific adaptations. Sociocultural and biosocial theorists, in contrast, emphasize how societal roles and social power contribute to sex/gender differences beyond any biological distinctions. By connecting two empirical advances over the past two decades-6-fold increases in sex/gender difference meta-analyses and in experiments conducted on the psychological effects of power-the current research offers a novel empirical examination of whether power differences play an explanatory role in sex/gender differences. Our analyses assessed whether experimental manipulations of power and sex/gender differences produce similar psychological and behavioral effects. We first identified 59 findings from published experiments on power. We then conducted a P-curve of the experimental power literature and established that it contained evidential value. We next subsumed these effects of power into 11 broad categories and compared them to 102 similar meta-analytic sex/gender differences. We found that high-power individuals and men generally display higher agency, lower communion, more positive self-evaluations, and similar cognitive processes. Overall, 71% (72/102) of the sex/gender differences were consistent with the effects of experimental power differences, whereas only 8% (8/102) were opposite, representing a 9:1 ratio of consistent-to-inconsistent effects. We also tested for discriminant validity by analyzing whether power corresponds more strongly to sex/gender differences than extraversion: although extraversion correlates with power, it has different relationships with sex/gender differences. These results offer novel evidence that many sex/gender differences may be explained, in part, by power differences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam D Galinsky
- Management Division, Columbia University, New York City, NY 10027, USA
| | - Aurora Turek
- Organizational Behavior Unit, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02163, USA
| | - Grusha Agarwal
- Organizational Behaviour & Human Resource Management Department, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5T 1P5, Canada
| | - Eric M Anicich
- Management & Organization Department, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA
| | - Derek D Rucker
- Marketing Department, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
| | - Hannah R Bowles
- Organizational Behavior Unit, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02163, USA
| | - Nira Liberman
- School of Psychological Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 6997801, Israel
| | - Chloe Levin
- Management Division, Columbia University, New York City, NY 10027, USA
| | - Joe C Magee
- Management & Organizations Department, New York University, New York City, NY 10012, USA
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5
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People Overestimate Backlash Against Helpers Who Violate Gender Stereotypes: Experimental Examination of a Prosociality Paradox. SEX ROLES 2023. [DOI: 10.1007/s11199-023-01354-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/12/2023]
Abstract
AbstractMen and women typically help others in gender stereotypic ways (gender-consistent helping), but how might people judge helpers who do so in counter-stereotypic ways (gender-inconsistent helping)? Most of the time helpers are viewed favorably, but behaviors that deviate from gender stereotypes tend to elicit social sanctions from others. Thus, gender-inconsistent helping presents a paradox wherein people may anticipate facing negative judgments from others despite helping being a positive, prosocial act. Across three experiments (two pre-registered), participants provided their own (Studies 1–3) and normative (Studies 2–3) evaluations of gender-consistent and gender-inconsistent helpers. Taken together, results revealed that participants expected other people to evaluate gender-inconsistent helpers less favorably than gender-consistent helpers (Hypothesis 1), and less favorably than they actually did themselves (Hypothesis 2). These findings show that gender-inconsistent helping is less susceptible to backlash than people think, and instead suggest that pluralistic ignorance could be a barrier to gender-inconsistent helping, if people fear that others’ judgments of gender-inconsistent helpers are harsher than their own. Our results highlight novel opportunities for addressing persistent occupational gender segregation in prosocial contexts (by confronting pluralistic ignorance), which could subsequently enhance gender equality more broadly.
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6
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Marici M, Clipa O, Schipor MD, Runcan R, Andrei AM. Offering and Asking for Help with Domestic Chores in Couple Relationships. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2023; 20:3708. [PMID: 36834402 PMCID: PMC9961060 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph20043708] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2023] [Revised: 02/10/2023] [Accepted: 02/17/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Domestic chores are a topic of great interest for couple relationships since they are a source of conflict between intimate partners. The purpose of the present research is to investigate offering and asking for help with domestic chores and the respondents' tendency to be intuitive or verbal or to do chores alone. A vignette applied to children and married adults. The respondents were 116 boys and 116 girls and 110 male partners and 300 female partners, who completed individual questionnaires, online using Google Forms, regarding helping behaviour. Research findings indicate that men are more verbal and women are more intuitive when offering help, but when asking for help with domestic chores, men and women are statistically similar. The present research raises questions about the role of gender differences in couple relationships, and about educational solutions for couples and provides opportunities for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marius Marici
- Faculty of Education Sciences, Ștefan cel Mare University, 720229 Suceava, Romania
| | - Otilia Clipa
- Faculty of Education Sciences, Ștefan cel Mare University, 720229 Suceava, Romania
| | - Maria-Doina Schipor
- Faculty of Education Sciences, Ștefan cel Mare University, 720229 Suceava, Romania
| | - Remus Runcan
- Faculty of Educational Sciences, Psychology and Social Work, Aurel Vlaicu University of Arad, 310032 Arad, Romania
| | - Ana-Maria Andrei
- Psychology and Educational Sciences Faculty, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University, 700506 Iași, Romania
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7
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Shukla S, Mishra SK, Agustino RD. Reflection of Types of Prosocial Behavior During COVID-19 in Collectivistic Asian Countries-India and Indonesia. QUALITATIVE HEALTH RESEARCH 2022; 32:1993-2005. [PMID: 36177963 PMCID: PMC9527149 DOI: 10.1177/10497323221129260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
COVID-19 is an infectious disease that has widened the gap between victims and non-victims in society. Understanding how individuals support and assist COVID-19 sufferers in a pandemic crisis is critical. Thus, this study aims to qualitatively evaluate the prosocial intention and types of prosocial behavior toward COVID-19 victims by low socioeconomic individuals from India and Indonesia's collectivistic societies. We conducted semi-structured and in-depth interviews during the lockdown from March to May 2020, via phone and in-person, using a purposive selection of respondents (total n = 50). The data were analyzed using the qualitative synthesis method. Five themes were discovered: 1) too scared to help, 2) love to help but scared: moral dilemma, 3) informing authority who knows how to handle, 4) caring, sharing, and supporting, but with a distance, and 5) helping at one's personal health risk. This study highlights that prosocial intentions range from minor acts of kindness to self-harm and out-of-bounds acts of kindness for COVID-19 victims.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shanu Shukla
- Indian Institute of Management
Indore, Indore, India
| | | | - Rahmi Dian Agustino
- Josef Korbel School of International
Studies, University of Denver, Denver, CO, USA
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8
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Spector B. Volodymyr Zelenskyy, heroic leadership, and the historical gaze. LEADERSHIP 2022. [DOI: 10.1177/17427150221134140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Since the onset of Russia’s invasion of Ukraine, a great many people have cojoined their admiration for the grit and determination shown by the Ukraine people with their esteem for the nation’s formal leader, Volodymyr Zelenskyy. He has been constructed, particularly in the Western press, as kind of larger-than-life hero, displaying physical courage, resilience, and a brilliant use of communication skills to help mobilize world opinion. But the construction of heroic leadership raises concern within the framework of critical leadership given the often-accompanying characteristics of worshipful acquiescence, hyper-masculinity, and an overly individualized view of causation. In addressing the tension between holding Zelenskyy up as an admirable, even heroic leader while simultaneously harboring a deep distrust of any notion of heroic leadership, the essay examines the historiography devoted to an earlier heroic leader, Martin Luther King, Jr. The goal of this essay is to provoke thought and deepen an appreciation for the complexity of the heroic leadership construct.
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9
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Women take risks to help others to stay alive. Behav Brain Sci 2022; 45:e135. [PMID: 35875969 DOI: 10.1017/s0140525x22000437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Evidence that women voluntarily expose themselves to some threats more than men do challenges the generalizability of the claim that women exceed men in self-protective responses. Examples include women's higher rates of living organ donation and rescuing Jews during the holocaust. In general, women's efforts to keep other people alive can take precedence over their efforts to protect themselves.
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10
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Rosenfeld DL, Balcetis E, Bastian B, Berkman ET, Bosson JK, Brannon TN, Burrow AL, Cameron CD, Chen S, Cook JE, Crandall C, Davidai S, Dhont K, Eastwick PW, Gaither SE, Gangestad SW, Gilovich T, Gray K, Haines EL, Haselton MG, Haslam N, Hodson G, Hogg MA, Hornsey MJ, Huo YJ, Joel S, Kachanoff FJ, Kraft-Todd G, Leary MR, Ledgerwood A, Lee RT, Loughnan S, MacInnis CC, Mann T, Murray DR, Parkinson C, Pérez EO, Pyszczynski T, Ratner K, Rothgerber H, Rounds JD, Schaller M, Silver RC, Spellman BA, Strohminger N, Swim JK, Thoemmes F, Urganci B, Vandello JA, Volz S, Zayas V, Tomiyama AJ. Psychological Science in the Wake of COVID-19: Social, Methodological, and Metascientific Considerations. PERSPECTIVES ON PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2021; 17:311-333. [PMID: 34597198 DOI: 10.1177/1745691621999374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic has extensively changed the state of psychological science from what research questions psychologists can ask to which methodologies psychologists can use to investigate them. In this article, we offer a perspective on how to optimize new research in the pandemic's wake. Because this pandemic is inherently a social phenomenon-an event that hinges on human-to-human contact-we focus on socially relevant subfields of psychology. We highlight specific psychological phenomena that have likely shifted as a result of the pandemic and discuss theoretical, methodological, and practical considerations of conducting research on these phenomena. After this discussion, we evaluate metascientific issues that have been amplified by the pandemic. We aim to demonstrate how theoretically grounded views on the COVID-19 pandemic can help make psychological science stronger-not weaker-in its wake.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Brock Bastian
- Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences, University of Melbourne
| | - Elliot T Berkman
- Department of Psychology, University of Oregon.,Center for Translational Neuroscience, University of Oregon
| | | | | | | | - C Daryl Cameron
- Department of Psychology, The Pennsylvania State University.,Rock Ethics Institute, The Pennsylvania State University
| | - Serena Chen
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Berkeley
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Kurt Gray
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill
| | | | - Martie G Haselton
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles.,Department of Communication, University of California, Los Angeles.,Institute for Society and Genetics, University of California, Los Angeles
| | - Nick Haslam
- Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences, University of Melbourne
| | | | | | | | - Yuen J Huo
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles
| | | | - Frank J Kachanoff
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill
| | | | - Mark R Leary
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University
| | | | - Randy T Lee
- Department of Psychology, Cornell University
| | - Steve Loughnan
- School of Philosophy, Psychology, and Language Sciences, The University of Edinburgh
| | | | - Traci Mann
- Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota
| | | | | | - Efrén O Pérez
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles.,Department of Political Science, University of California, Los Angeles
| | - Tom Pyszczynski
- Department of Psychology, University of Colorado at Colorado Springs
| | | | | | | | - Mark Schaller
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia
| | - Roxane Cohen Silver
- Department of Psychological Science, University of California, Irvine.,Department of Medicine, University of California, Irvine.,Program in Public Health, University of California, Irvine
| | | | - Nina Strohminger
- Department of Legal Studies and Business Ethics, Wharton School of Business, University of Pennsylvania.,Department of Psychology, University of Pennsylvania
| | - Janet K Swim
- Department of Psychology, The Pennsylvania State University
| | - Felix Thoemmes
- Department of Human Development, Cornell University.,Department of Psychology, Cornell University
| | | | | | - Sarah Volz
- Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota
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11
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Bigazzi S, Csernus F, Siegler A, Bokrétás I, Serdült S, Ilea I, Giourga A, Kahraman M, Takács B. Social Representations of Heroes: Triggers from the Past, Values in the Present, Patterns for the Future. HUMAN ARENAS 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s42087-021-00248-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
AbstractThe representations of heroes and the heroic acts point to social values, norms, and morality of the present, creating a bridge between the past and a potential future. In this paper, a cross-cultural explorative study of heroes is presented aiming to explore general tendencies and possible patterns related to the different social contexts. Participants were reached from seven countries via social media (N = 974) for corpus construction. We asked by their choice of hero, national hero, and desired heroic action in their respective countries. A thematic analysis was conducted. Results show that there is a high rate of no choice, while among the chosen the prototypical hero is a lone moral man acting in the private (family) or public sphere (political actors). Both spheres offer the naturalization of the hero. There is a dialogical frame between the exceptional and the ordinary. Chosen heroes are dominantly contemporary males’ family members or political figures. While the purpose attributed to the personal hero is to maintain stability, the purpose attributed to the heroic actions of the public sphere is to obtain change. Similarities and differences between the seven subcorpuses are also described.
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12
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Rusch H. Heroic behavior: A review of the literature on high-stakes altruism in the wild. Curr Opin Psychol 2021; 43:238-243. [PMID: 34454246 DOI: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2021.07.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2021] [Revised: 07/26/2021] [Accepted: 07/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
This review compiles and contextualizes the available empirical literature on natural occurrences of high-stakes altruism among nonrelatives, i.e., behaviors often called 'heroic'. Four domains are covered: exceptional bravery and self-sacrifice in war, heroism in civilian life, undirected organ donations, and rescues of persecuted persons during mass violence and genocides. The diversity of strategies used to identify instances of heroic behavior and the multiplicity of data collection methods employed in this relatively sparse literature currently preclude a systematic comparison of results. Therefore, the aim of this overview is to provide an exhaustive point of entry to a fascinating field of research with much untapped potential for testing theories about prosocial behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannes Rusch
- Microeconomics and Public Economics, School of Business and Economics, Maastricht University, P.O. Box 616, 6200 MD, Maastricht, the Netherlands.
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13
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Atkinson C, Buie H, Sandstrom G, Aknin L, Croft A. Testing the GRIP: An Empirical Examination of the Gender Roles Inhibiting Prosociality Model. SEX ROLES 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s11199-021-01229-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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14
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Roy M, Moreau N, Rousseau C, Mercier A, Wilson A, Dozon JP, Atlani-Duault L. Constructing Ebola martyrs, warriors, and saviours: online heroisation in a context of risk and unease. HEALTH, RISK & SOCIETY 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/13698575.2021.1902954] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Melissa Roy
- School of Social Work (University of Ottawa), Ottawa, Canada
- Division of Social and Cultural Psychiatry (Mcgill University), Montreal, Canada
- Département en sciences de l'Information et de la Communication, Information & Communication, Institut Français De Presse (University Paris 2 – Assas), Paris, France
- Collège d'études mondiales, Fondation Maison Des Sciences De l’Homme, Paris, France
- Social Anthropology (École Des Hautes Études En Sciences Sociales), Paris, France
| | - Nicolas Moreau
- School of Social Work (University of Ottawa), Ottawa, Canada
- Division of Social and Cultural Psychiatry (Mcgill University), Montreal, Canada
- Département en sciences de l'Information et de la Communication, Information & Communication, Institut Français De Presse (University Paris 2 – Assas), Paris, France
- Collège d'études mondiales, Fondation Maison Des Sciences De l’Homme, Paris, France
- Social Anthropology (École Des Hautes Études En Sciences Sociales), Paris, France
| | - Cécile Rousseau
- School of Social Work (University of Ottawa), Ottawa, Canada
- Division of Social and Cultural Psychiatry (Mcgill University), Montreal, Canada
- Département en sciences de l'Information et de la Communication, Information & Communication, Institut Français De Presse (University Paris 2 – Assas), Paris, France
- Collège d'études mondiales, Fondation Maison Des Sciences De l’Homme, Paris, France
- Social Anthropology (École Des Hautes Études En Sciences Sociales), Paris, France
| | - Arnaud Mercier
- School of Social Work (University of Ottawa), Ottawa, Canada
- Division of Social and Cultural Psychiatry (Mcgill University), Montreal, Canada
- Département en sciences de l'Information et de la Communication, Information & Communication, Institut Français De Presse (University Paris 2 – Assas), Paris, France
- Collège d'études mondiales, Fondation Maison Des Sciences De l’Homme, Paris, France
- Social Anthropology (École Des Hautes Études En Sciences Sociales), Paris, France
| | - Andrew Wilson
- School of Social Work (University of Ottawa), Ottawa, Canada
| | - Jean-Pierre Dozon
- School of Social Work (University of Ottawa), Ottawa, Canada
- Division of Social and Cultural Psychiatry (Mcgill University), Montreal, Canada
- Département en sciences de l'Information et de la Communication, Information & Communication, Institut Français De Presse (University Paris 2 – Assas), Paris, France
- Collège d'études mondiales, Fondation Maison Des Sciences De l’Homme, Paris, France
- Social Anthropology (École Des Hautes Études En Sciences Sociales), Paris, France
| | - Laëtitia Atlani-Duault
- School of Social Work (University of Ottawa), Ottawa, Canada
- Division of Social and Cultural Psychiatry (Mcgill University), Montreal, Canada
- Département en sciences de l'Information et de la Communication, Information & Communication, Institut Français De Presse (University Paris 2 – Assas), Paris, France
- Collège d'études mondiales, Fondation Maison Des Sciences De l’Homme, Paris, France
- Social Anthropology (École Des Hautes Études En Sciences Sociales), Paris, France
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15
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Allison ST, Green JD. Nostalgia and Heroism: Theoretical Convergence of Memory, Motivation, and Function. Front Psychol 2020; 11:577862. [PMID: 33424689 PMCID: PMC7786399 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.577862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2020] [Accepted: 11/30/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
This article seeks to develop theoretical convergences between the science of nostalgia and the science of heroism. We take four approaches in forging a conceptual relationship between these two phenomena. First, we examine the definitions of nostalgia and heroism from scholars, laypeople, and across cultures, noting how the history of defining the two phenomena has shaped current conceptualizations. Second, we demonstrate how nostalgic experiences consist of reminiscences about our own personal heroism and about cultural role models and heroes. A review of heroism research, moreover, shows also that our recall of our heroes and of heroism is tinged with nostalgia. Third, we make linkages between heroism and nostalgia research focusing on functions, inspiration, sociality, and motivation. Nostalgia researchers have illuminated the functions of nostalgia implicating the self, existential concerns, goal pursuit, and sociality. Our review shows that heroism researchers invoke similar categories of hero functionality. Finally, we propose three areas of future research that can profit from the merging of nostalgia and heroism science, involving the mechanisms by which (a) heroism can fuel nostalgia, (b) nostalgia can promote heroic action, and (c) wisdom results from nostalgic reverie.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott T. Allison
- Department of Psychology, University of Richmond, Richmond, VA, United States
| | - Jeffrey D. Green
- Department of Psychology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, United States
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Thöni C, Volk S, Cortina JM. Greater Male Variability in Cooperation: Meta-Analytic Evidence for an Evolutionary Perspective. Psychol Sci 2020; 32:50-63. [PMID: 33301379 DOI: 10.1177/0956797620956632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Do men and women differ systematically in their cooperation behaviors? Researchers have long grappled with this question, and studies have returned equivocal results. We developed an evolutionary perspective according to which men are characterized by greater intrasex variability in cooperation as a result of sex-differentiated psychological adaptations. We tested our hypothesis in two meta-analyses. The first involved the raw data of 40 samples from 23 social-dilemma studies with 8,123 participants. Findings provided strong support for our perspective. Whereas we found that the two sexes do not differ in average cooperation levels, men are much more likely to behave either selfishly or altruistically, whereas women are more likely to be moderately cooperative. We confirmed our findings in a second meta-analytic study of 28 samples from 23 studies of organizational citizenship behavior with 13,985 participants. Our results highlight the importance of taking intrasex variability into consideration when studying sex differences in cooperation and suggest important future research directions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Thöni
- Faculty of Law, Criminal Justice, and Public Administration, University of Lausanne
| | - Stefan Volk
- University of Sydney Business School, The University of Sydney
| | - Jose M Cortina
- Department of Management and Entrepreneurship, Virginia Commonwealth University
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Abstract
Abstract. Whereas leadership is generally perceived as a masculine enterprise, heroism research suggests that people view heroes as similarly masculine, but having more feminine traits. We predicted that heroes will be evaluated higher than leaders in communion but not differ in agency. In Study 1, heroes were perceived to have higher communion and similarly high agency as leaders. In Studies 2 and 3, we replicated these trait ratings focusing on perceptions of typical heroes/leaders (S2) and personal heroes/leaders (S3). In Study 4, we showed that the greater level of communion associated with heroes is independent of their gender. In Study 5, using an implicit association test, we showed there is a stronger implicit association of communion with heroes than leaders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Crystal L. Hoyt
- Jepson School of Leadership Studies and Department of Psychology, University of Richmond, VA, USA
| | | | | | - Aliya Sultan
- Department of Psychology, University of Richmond, VA, USA
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Ulqinaku A, Sarial‐Abi G, Kinsella EL. Benefits of heroes to coping with mortality threats by providing perceptions of personal power and reducing unhealthy compensatory consumption. PSYCHOLOGY & MARKETING 2020; 37:1433-1445. [PMID: 32836727 PMCID: PMC7405095 DOI: 10.1002/mar.21391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Mortality threats are among the strongest psychological threats that an individual can encounter. Previous research shows that mortality threats lead people to engage in unhealthy compensatory consumption (i.e., overeating), as a maladaptive coping response to threat. In this paper, we propose that reminders of heroes when experiencing mortality threat increases perceptions of personal power, which in turn buffers the need to engage in unhealthy compensatory consumption. We test and find support for our predictions in a series of four studies that include real-world Twitter data after a series of terrorist attacks in 2016-2017, and three experimental studies conducted online and in the field with behavioral measures after Day of the Dead and during COVID-19 pandemic. These findings advance the literature on compensatory consumption, mortality threats, and the psychological functions of heroes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aulona Ulqinaku
- Marketing DepartmentLeeds University Business School, University of LeedsLeedsUK
| | - Gülen Sarial‐Abi
- Marketing DepartmentCopenhagen Business SchoolFrederiksbergDenmark
| | - Elaine L. Kinsella
- Department of Psychology, Centre for Social Issues ResearchUniversity of LimerickLimerickIreland
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Niedźwieńska A, Zielińska M. Gender Differences in Remembering about Things to Do Depend on Partnership Status. SEX ROLES 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s11199-020-01158-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
AbstractProspective memory, which is the ability to remember to do something in the future, is strongly linked to gender stereotypes. Women are expected to play a mnemonic role in romantic heterosexual couples and be successful in prospective memory tasks. Our purpose was to test whether stereotypical expectations manifest in gender differences in remembering to perform intended actions. Furthermore, we investigated whether these differences manifest only when participants are in a relationship with an other-gender partner which puts women under higher social pressure to be effective in prospective remembering. Forty Polish women (20 in relationship, 20 out of relationship) and 40 Polish men (18 in relationship, 22 out of relationship) were asked to send a SMS text to the experimenter every day for 7 consecutive days. As predicted, a female advantage in performance was found only for participants who were in a relationship, with no gender differences among those who were not. Of particular interest was that women who were in a relationship performed better compared to women without partners. In contrast, men performed worse if they were in a relationship compared to when they did not have a partner. Implications are discussed for how gender inequalities in prospective remembering can be tackled by educators in secondary schools and psychologists who conduct premarital workshops, as well as how they can be used by couple psychotherapists to deal with crises related to the division of labor in a couple.
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Liebst LS, Philpot R, Bernasco W, Dausel KL, Ejbye‐Ernst P, Nicolaisen MH, Lindegaard MR. Social relations and presence of others predict bystander intervention: Evidence from violent incidents captured on CCTV. Aggress Behav 2019; 45:598-609. [PMID: 31359450 PMCID: PMC6790599 DOI: 10.1002/ab.21853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2018] [Revised: 05/11/2019] [Accepted: 05/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Are individuals willing to intervene in public violence? Half a century of research on the “bystander effect” suggests that the more bystanders present at an emergency, the less likely each of them is to provide help. However, recent meta‐analytical evidence questions whether this effect generalizes to violent emergencies. Besides the number of bystanders present, an alternative line of research suggests that pre‐existing social relations between bystanders and conflict participants are important for explaining whether bystanders provide help. The current paper offers a rare comparison of both factors—social relations and the number of bystanders present—as predictors of bystander intervention in real‐life violent emergencies. We systematically observed the behavior of 764 bystanders across 81 violent incidents recorded by surveillance cameras in Copenhagen, Denmark. Bystanders were sampled with a case–control design, their behavior was observed and coded, and the probability of intervention was estimated with multilevel regression analyses. The results confirm our predicted association between social relations and intervention. However, rather than the expected reversed bystander effect, we found a classical bystander effect, as bystanders were less likely to intervene with increasing bystander presence. The effect of social relations on intervention was larger in magnitude than the effect of the number of bystanders. We assess these findings in light of recent discussions about the influence of group size and social relations in human helping. Further, we discuss the utility of video data for the assessment of real‐life bystander behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Richard Philpot
- Department of SociologyUniversity of Copenhagen Copenhagen Denmark
- Department of Psychology, Fylde CollegeLancaster University Lancaster United Kingdom
| | - Wim Bernasco
- Netherlands Institute for the Study of Crime and Law Enforcement (NSCR) Amsterdam The Netherlands
- Department of Spatial Economics, School of Business and EconomicsVrije Universiteit Amsterdam Amsterdam The Netherlands
| | | | - Peter Ejbye‐Ernst
- Netherlands Institute for the Study of Crime and Law Enforcement (NSCR) Amsterdam The Netherlands
| | | | - Marie Rosenkrantz Lindegaard
- Department of SociologyUniversity of Copenhagen Copenhagen Denmark
- Netherlands Institute for the Study of Crime and Law Enforcement (NSCR) Amsterdam The Netherlands
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Schindler S, Pfattheicher S, Reinhard MA, Greenberg J. ‘Heroes aren’t always so great!’ – Heroic perceptions under mortality salience. SOCIAL INFLUENCE 2019. [DOI: 10.1080/15534510.2019.1656668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Simon Schindler
- Department of Psychology, University of Kassel, Kassel 34127, Germany
| | - Stefan Pfattheicher
- Department of Psychology and Behavioral Sciences, Aarhus University, Aarhus C 8000, Denmark
| | | | - Jeff Greenberg
- Department of Psychology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
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Heiner EK. Fostering Heroism in Fourth- and Fifth-Grade Students. JOURNAL OF HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY 2019. [DOI: 10.1177/0022167817753997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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MORAN DOMINIQUE, TURNER JENNIFER, ARNOLD HELEN. Soldiering On? The Prison‐Military Complex and Ex‐Military Personnel as Prison Officers: Transition, Rehabilitation and Prison Reform. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2019. [DOI: 10.1111/hojo.12316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- DOMINIQUE MORAN
- Dominique Moran is Professor in Carceral GeographyUniversity of Birmingham
| | - JENNIFER TURNER
- Jennifer Turner is Lecturer in Human GeographyUniversity of Liverpool
| | - HELEN ARNOLD
- Helen Arnold is Senior Lecturer in CriminologyUniversity of Suffolk
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Wu TJ, Yuan KS, Yen DC, Xu T. Building up resources in the relationship between work–family conflict and burnout among firefighters: moderators of guanxi and emotion regulation strategies. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF WORK AND ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 2019. [DOI: 10.1080/1359432x.2019.1596081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tung-Ju Wu
- School of Management, Harbin Institute of Technology (HIT), Harbin, Heilongjiang, China
| | - Kuo-Shu Yuan
- College of Business Administration, Huaqiao University, Quanzhou, China
| | - David C. Yen
- Department of Management, Marketing and Information Systems, State University of New York (SUNY), Oneonta, NY, USA
| | - Ting Xu
- Department of Business Administration, School of Management, Shanghai University, Shanghai, China
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Kraft-Todd GT, Rand DG. Rare and Costly Prosocial Behaviors Are Perceived as Heroic. Front Psychol 2019; 10:234. [PMID: 30804858 PMCID: PMC6370665 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2018] [Accepted: 01/23/2019] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Heroism has only recently become a topic of empirical investigation. Existing research suggests a connection between heroism and four well-documented dimensions of human social behavior: (1) the cost incurred by the actor; (2) the benefit provided to the recipient; (3) the perceived frequency (i.e., descriptive normativity); and (4) the perceived expectation to perform it (i.e., injunctive normativity). In a series of exploratory studies (total N = 408), we aim to shed light on how each of these constructs influence lay intuitions about the nature of heroism (i.e., what determines which acts people perceive to be heroic). In Study 1, subjects generated a list of acts they deemed to be heroic. In Study 2, subjects rated the heroicness of the acts from Study 1, revealing considerable variation in the level of heroism. Finally, subjects in Study 3 rated the cost to the actor, the benefit to the recipient(s), the descriptive normativity (i.e., frequency), and the injunctive normativity (i.e., obligatoriness) of ten acts, five of which received particularly high heroism scores in Study 2 ("exemplary" acts of heroism) and five of which received particularly low heroism scores in Study 2 ("ambiguous" acts of heroism). We find that more heroic acts are seen as rarer and more costly to actors-but, interestingly, not more beneficial to recipients or less obligatory. These findings help to illuminate what it means to be seen as a hero, and suggest clear future directions for both empirical and theoretical work.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - David G. Rand
- Management Science, Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, United States
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26
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Tender food, tender hearts: The metaphorical mapping of hard-soft orosensory signals to interpersonal trust and prosocial tendencies. Food Qual Prefer 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodqual.2018.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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MacDonald K, De Zylva J, McAllister M, Brien DL. Heroism and nursing: A thematic review of the literature. NURSE EDUCATION TODAY 2018; 68:134-140. [PMID: 29908409 DOI: 10.1016/j.nedt.2018.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2018] [Revised: 03/26/2018] [Accepted: 06/06/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Nursing history is replete with examples of heroic individuals acting courageously to meet the needs of vulnerable patients and communities. Heroism exemplifies the pinnacle of self-actualised behaviour. It fuels the plots of countless human stories, and enthrals and inspires people. Yet, heroism may be seen as an extreme behaviour that only exceptional individuals are capable of enacting, and may thus be seen as out of reach for ordinary nurses, and something that could be risky to teach and disseminate. An alternative view is that altruistic professions such as nursing are often regarded as being heroic by nature, and that nurses therefore need to be encouraged to understand, deepen and exercise their potential through a recognition of acts of heroism in nursing - whether these can be classed as exceptional or everyday acts of nursing heroism. The purpose of this article is to provide a thematic review of the literature on heroism in nursing, in order to understand how recent research in heroism science is being, or could be, applied to the nursing discipline. Heroism science is an emerging research area that is of interest to nursing leaders, educators and all those seeking to advance the social change agenda in healthcare. REVIEW METHODS A literature review was undertaken in 2017 using CINAHL, PUBMED, Cochrane, Medline, and Google Scholar. The search was limited to papers that were peer reviewed, in English, and published in the last ten years. RESULTS Four books and 33 papers were identified. CONCLUSION Gaining a clear understanding of what constitutes a hero and heroism is essential to applying heroism to nursing and to education of students so they are inspired to act courageously.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathleen MacDonald
- School of Nursing, Midwifery and Social Sciences, Central Queensland University, Australia
| | - Jessica De Zylva
- School of Nursing, Midwifery and Social Sciences, Central Queensland University, Australia
| | - Margaret McAllister
- School of Nursing, Midwifery and Social Sciences, Central Queensland University, Australia.
| | - Donna Lee Brien
- School of Education and the Arts, Central Queensland University, Australia
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Gumb L. Trauma and Recovery: Finding the Ordinary Hero in Fictional Recovery Narratives. JOURNAL OF HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY 2017. [DOI: 10.1177/0022167817749703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Our desire to speak, to tell the stories of our personal and communal suffering, offered literature myriad tales spanning continents and histories. Traumatic experience has been recorded for historical reference and has been represented in fiction as individual and collective stories. The word “trauma” is so broadly used in contemporary vernacular that it is difficult to wrangle it into a simple definition. Literary theory, informed by the fields of social psychology, neurobiology, psychology, and psychiatry, has developed contradictory theories of trauma, and contentious debates continue as theorists try to capture what has become an almost indefinable term. Links between trauma and heroism exist in trauma fiction which can be teased from existing literary canons or from contemporary novels. Traditional notions of heroism, much like the concept of trauma, are complex and weighted with a catalogue of elements that may serve to complicate an already multifarious field of study. Notions of heroism can be integrated within a new trauma narrative that reveals a new subject, the recovery process. I argue for a shift from the focus on trauma stories of wounding, or on suffering, and revenge narratives to repositioning literary trauma studies toward more life-affirming subjectivities emerging from recovery narratives. It is my view that recovery narratives consist of three associated elements: resilience, reconciliation, and resistance. I demonstrate how trauma survivors can be read as heroes in their own tales of recovery, and how the story of the hero can be infused into the trauma narrative, or teased from existing texts, to create a productive and progressive narrative rather than the destructive and degenerative approach that focusses on extreme responses to trauma. It is my position that recovery from trauma, as depicted in literary fiction, can be productively read as a tale of “ordinary” heroism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lynn Gumb
- Murdoch University, Murdoch, Western Australia, Australia
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Abstract
There are many differences between men and women. To some extent, these are captured in the stereotypical images of these groups. Stereotypes about the way men and women think and behave are widely shared, suggesting a kernel of truth. However, stereotypical expectations not only reflect existing differences, but also impact the way men and women define themselves and are treated by others. This article reviews evidence on the nature and content of gender stereotypes and considers how these relate to gender differences in important life outcomes. Empirical studies show that gender stereotypes affect the way people attend to, interpret, and remember information about themselves and others. Considering the cognitive and motivational functions of gender stereotypes helps us understand their impact on implicit beliefs and communications about men and women. Knowledge of the literature on this subject can benefit the fair judgment of individuals in situations where gender stereotypes are likely to play a role.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naomi Ellemers
- Faculty of Social Sciences, Utrecht University, 3508 TC Utrecht, Netherlands;
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Morgenroth T, Fine C, Ryan MK, Genat AE. Sex, Drugs, and Reckless Driving. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL AND PERSONALITY SCIENCE 2017. [DOI: 10.1177/1948550617722833] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
We investigated whether risk-taking measures inadvertently focus on behaviors that are more normative for men, resulting in the overestimation of gender differences. Using a popular measure of risk-taking (Domain-Specific Risk-Taking) in Study 1 ( N = 99), we found that conventionally used behaviors were more normative for men, while, overall, newly developed behaviors were not. In Studies 2 ( N = 114) and 3 ( N = 124), we demonstrate that differences in normativity are reflected in gender differences in self-reported risk-taking, which are dependent on the specific items used. Study 3 further demonstrates that conventional, masculine risk behaviors are perceived as more risky than newly generated, more feminine items, even when risks are matched. We conclude that there is confirmation bias in risk-taking measurement.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Michelle K. Ryan
- University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
- University of Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
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Riches BR. What Makes a Hero? Exploring Characteristic Profiles of Heroes Using Q-Method. JOURNAL OF HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY 2017. [DOI: 10.1177/0022167817716305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Building on research about the characteristics and varieties of actual heroes, the purpose of this project was to investigate the extent to which different types of real heroes have similar and distinct characteristics using Q-method, a person focused method. Awarded heroes sorted 49 psychological characteristics and Q-factor analysis revealed two profiles, or groups, of heroes; “open, loving, and risk-taking heroes,” and “spiritual, socially responsible, and prudent heroes.” These findings are interpreted in light of humanistic psychology, and the implications of these findings on the field of heroism science are discussed. The profiles bring the field of heroism science a deeper and more comprehensive view of the whole heroic person, and suggest directions for using heroic examples to fostering heroism.
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Kohen A, Langdon M, Riches BR. The Making of a Hero: Cultivating Empathy, Altruism, and Heroic Imagination. JOURNAL OF HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY 2017. [DOI: 10.1177/0022167817708064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ari Kohen
- University of Nebraska–Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, USA
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Randall JG, Zimmer CU, O’Brien KR, Trump-Steele RC, Villado AJ, Hebl MR. Weight discrimination in helping behavior. EUROPEAN REVIEW OF APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.erap.2017.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Coughlan G, Igou ER, van Tilburg WAP, Kinsella EL, Ritchie TD. On Boredom and Perceptions of Heroes: A Meaning-Regulation Approach to Heroism. JOURNAL OF HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY 2017. [DOI: 10.1177/0022167817705281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Das-Friebel A, Wadhwa N, Sanil M, Kapoor H, V. S. Investigating Altruism and Selfishness Through the Hypothetical Use of Superpowers. JOURNAL OF HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY 2017. [DOI: 10.1177/0022167817699049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Sonnentag TL, Wadian TW, Barnett MA, Gretz MR, Bailey SM. Characteristics Associated With Individuals’ Caring, Just, and Brave Expressions of the Tendency to Be a Moral Rebel. ETHICS & BEHAVIOR 2017. [DOI: 10.1080/10508422.2017.1304821] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Mark A. Barnett
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Kansas State University
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Webster RJ, Saucier DA. Angels everywhere? How beliefs in pure evil and pure good predict perceptions of heroic behavior. PERSONALITY AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2016.08.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Franco ZE, Allison ST, Kinsella EL, Kohen A, Langdon M, Zimbardo PG. Heroism Research: A Review of Theories, Methods, Challenges, and Trends. JOURNAL OF HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY 2016. [DOI: 10.1177/0022167816681232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Heroism as an expression of self-actualization and a pinnacle social state is of fundamental interest to humanistic psychology and the field more broadly. This review places the growing discussion on heroic action in a humanistic perspective, as heroism aligns with ethical self-actualization in its highest form, personal meaning making, and social good, and can also involve profound existential costs. This review is organized in four major sections: First, the historical and philosophical underpinnings of heroism are examined, moving from ancient Greco-Roman perspectives, to more modern interpretations of Continental philosophy, and to Freud and Le Bon. Second, the article summarizes in detail a renaissance of interest in the psychology of heroism that began in the early 2000s, moving from a modern re-theorizing of heroism toward empirical exploration. This renewal of interest is described as six overlapping phases: theory building and exploration of operational definitions of heroism, taxonometric approaches to heroic figures, implicit theories of heroism, social ascription of heroic status, social influence of heroes, and internal motivations for heroic action. Third, key methodological challenges in studying heroism are discussed. Finally, the renewed interest in heroism is considered as a social movement involving not just researchers but also the broader public.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Ari Kohen
- University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, USA
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Hansen K, Littwitz C, Sczesny S. The Social Perception of Heroes and Murderers: Effects of Gender-Inclusive Language in Media Reports. Front Psychol 2016; 7:369. [PMID: 27047410 PMCID: PMC4801896 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2015] [Accepted: 02/29/2016] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
The way media depict women and men can reinforce or diminish gender stereotyping. Which part does language play in this context? Are roles perceived as more gender-balanced when feminine role nouns are used in addition to masculine ones? Research on gender-inclusive language shows that the use of feminine-masculine word pairs tends to increase the visibility of women in various social roles. For example, when speakers of German were asked to name their favorite “heroine or hero in a novel,” they listed more female characters than when asked to name their favorite “hero in a novel.” The research reported in this article examines how the use of gender-inclusive language in news reports affects readers’ own usage of such forms as well as their mental representation of women and men in the respective roles. In the main experiment, German participants (N = 256) read short reports about heroes or murderers which contained either masculine generics or gender-inclusive forms (feminine-masculine word pairs). Gender-inclusive forms enhanced participants’ own usage of gender-inclusive language and this resulted in more gender-balanced mental representations of these roles. Reading about “heroines and heroes” made participants assume a higher percentage of women among persons performing heroic acts than reading about “heroes” only, but there was no such effect for murderers. A post-test suggested that this might be due to a higher accessibility of female exemplars in the category heroes than in the category murderers. Importantly, the influence of gender-inclusive language on the perceived percentage of women in a role was mediated by speakers’ own usage of inclusive forms. This suggests that people who encounter gender-inclusive forms and are given an opportunity to use them, use them more themselves and in turn have more gender-balanced mental representations of social roles.
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Phillips T. HUMAN ALTRUISM AND COOPERATION EXPLAINABLE AS ADAPTATIONS TO PAST ENVIRONMENTS NO LONGER FULLY EVIDENT IN THE MODERN WORLD. QUARTERLY REVIEW OF BIOLOGY 2015; 90:295-314. [PMID: 26591852 DOI: 10.1086/682589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Evolutionary theory predicts rigorous competition in nature and selfish behavior is thus seen as its inevitable consequence. Evidence of altruistic and cooperative behavior therefore appears at odds with evolutionary theory. However, evolutionary psychology suggests that past environments may be different from the current environments that humans inhabit. Here it is hypothesized that competition in two past environments might have led to strategies that favored altruism and cooperation toward nonkin. First, the expansion of the human brain is seen as requiring long-term, quality parental investment to sustain it. Altruistic displays could well have signaled an ability and willingness to provide such parental investment in a potential mate and been favored as a result. Second, the development of extra-somatic weapons is seen as leading to competition within hominin groups becoming more costly as disputes would have become lethal. A cooperative strategy could have achieved greater net fitness if the benefits of reduced involvement in such lethal disputes exceeded the costs of cooperation. Genes associated with human altruism and cooperation toward nonkin could thus have increased infrequency and come to be expressed in modern human populations despite the environments in which they evolved no longer being fully evident in the modern world.
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Eagly AH, Wood W. The Nature-Nurture Debates: 25 Years of Challenges in Understanding the Psychology of Gender. PERSPECTIVES ON PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2015; 8:340-57. [PMID: 26172976 DOI: 10.1177/1745691613484767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Nature-nurture debates continue to be highly contentious in the psychology of gender despite the common recognition that both types of causal explanations are important. In this article, we provide a historical analysis of the vicissitudes of nature and nurture explanations of sex differences and similarities during the quarter century since the founding of the Association for Psychological Science. We consider how the increasing use of meta-analysis helped to clarify sex difference findings if not the causal explanations for these effects. To illustrate these developments, this article describes socialization and preferences for mates as two important areas of gender research. We also highlight developing research trends that address the interactive processes by which nature and nurture work together in producing sex differences and similarities. Such theorizing holds the promise of better science as well as a more coherent account of the psychology of women and men that should prove to be more influential with the broader public.
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Sachdeva S, Iliev R, Ekhtiari H, Dehghani M. The Role of Self-Sacrifice in Moral Dilemmas. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0127409. [PMID: 26075881 PMCID: PMC4468073 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0127409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2014] [Accepted: 04/15/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Centuries' worth of cultural stories suggest that self-sacrifice may be a cornerstone of our moral concepts, yet this notion is largely absent from recent theories in moral psychology. For instance, in the footbridge version of the well-known trolley car problem the only way to save five people from a runaway trolley is to push a single man on the tracks. It is explicitly specified that the bystander cannot sacrifice himself because his weight is insufficient to stop the trolley. But imagine if this were not the case. Would people rather sacrifice themselves than push another? In Study 1, we find that people approve of self-sacrifice more than directly harming another person to achieve the same outcome. In Studies 2 and 3, we demonstrate that the effect is not broadly about sensitivity to self-cost, instead there is something unique about sacrificing the self. Important theoretical implications about agent-relativity and the role of causality in moral judgments are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonya Sachdeva
- Social Science Research Unit, US Forest Service, Evanston, IL, United States of America
| | - Rumen Iliev
- Ford School of Public Policy, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States of America
| | - Hamed Ekhtiari
- Research Center for Molecular and Cellular Imaging, Iranian National Center for Addiction Studies, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
- Translational Neuroscience Program, Institute for Cognitive Science Studies, Tehran, Iran
| | - Morteza Dehghani
- Department of Psychology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States of America
- Brain and Creativity Institute, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States of America
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Kinsella EL, Ritchie TD, Igou ER. Lay perspectives on the social and psychological functions of heroes. Front Psychol 2015; 6:130. [PMID: 25741302 PMCID: PMC4330705 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2014] [Accepted: 01/26/2015] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Declaring and thinking about heroes are common human preoccupations but surprisingly aspects of heroism that reinforce these behaviors are not well-understood. In four thematically consistent studies, we attempt to identify lay perspectives about the psychological functions served by heroes. In Study 1, participants (n = 189) freely generated open-ended descriptions of hero functions, which were then sorted by independent coders into 14 categories (e.g., instill hope, guide others). In Study 2, in an attempt to identify the most important functions associated with heroes, participants (n = 249) rated how each function corresponded with their personal views about heroes. Results from a confirmatory factor analysis suggested that a three-factor model of hero functions fit the data well: participants thought that heroes enhanced the lives of others, promoted morals, and protected individuals from threats. In Study 3 (n = 242), participants rated heroes as more likely to fulfill a protecting function than either leaders or role models. In Studies 4A (n = 38) and 4B (n = 102), participants indicated that thinking about a hero (relative to a leader or an acquaintance) during psychological threat fulfilled personal enhancement, moral modeling, and protection needs. In all, these findings provide an empirical basis to spur additional research about the social and psychological functions that heroes offer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elaine L Kinsella
- Department of Psychology and Centre for Social Issues Research, University of Limerick, Limerick Ireland
| | | | - Eric R Igou
- Department of Psychology, University of Limerick, Limerick Ireland
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Wiltshire TJ. A Prospective Framework for the Design of Ideal Artificial Moral Agents: Insights from the Science of Heroism in Humans. Minds Mach (Dordr) 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s11023-015-9361-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Schilpzand P, Hekman DR, Mitchell TR. An Inductively Generated Typology and Process Model of Workplace Courage. ORGANIZATION SCIENCE 2015. [DOI: 10.1287/orsc.2014.0928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Original article Readiness to deny group’s wrongdoing and willingness to fight for its members: the role of Poles’ identity fusion with the country and religious group. CURRENT ISSUES IN PERSONALITY PSYCHOLOGY 2014. [DOI: 10.5114/cipp.2014.43101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
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Zimbardo PG, Breckenridge JN, Moghaddam FM. “Exclusive” and “Inclusive” Visions of Heroism and Democracy. CURRENT PSYCHOLOGY 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/s12144-013-9178-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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