Body image, attitudes to weight, and misperceptions of figure preferences of the opposite sex: A comparison of men and women in two generations

Beyond Gender: Interoceptive Sensibility as a Key Predictor of Body Image Disturbances

Body image disturbance (BID) involves negative attitudes towards shape and weight and is associated with lower levels of interoceptive sensibility (IS) (the subjective perceptions of internal bodily states). This association is considered a risk factor for developing eating disorders (EDs) and is linked to altered sensorimotor representations of the body (i.e., body schema). BIDs manifest across genders and are currently understudied in men. This study investigated gender-related differences in BID and its relationship to the body schema and IS. Data were collected from 86 men and 86 women. BID was assessed using questionnaires measuring self-objectification, state, and trait body dissatisfaction. IS was measured via the MAIA-2. The body schema was indexed via an embodied mental rotation task. Results showed that women reported higher BID than men across all scales. Gender differences in sub-components of interoceptive sensibility were found. Overall, both gender and interoceptive sensibility predicted BID. However, interoceptive sensibility exhibited its own unique association with BID beyond the influence of gender. BID, IS and gender were not significant predictors of performance in the body schema task. Therefore, while gender predicts differences in BID and interoceptive sensibility, there was no evidence of gender-related differences in body schema.

Sex Differences in Body Image Perception and Ideals: Analysis of Possible Determinants

The study analyzed the differences between sexes in body image perception and body ideals to assess possible dissatisfaction and misinterpretation in the body image considered attractive for the other sex. Moreover, the influence of anthropometric traits and sports practice on body dissatisfaction and misjudgment was evaluated. Using a cross-sectional design, 960 Italian university students were investigated. Anthropometric characteristics were measured directly. Assessment of body image perception was performed using Thompson and Gray’s silhouettes. We developed two new indexes to assess the possible discrepancy between (1) the perceived silhouette of one’s body and that of the same sex deemed attractive to the other sex (FAD); (2) the silhouette is deemed attractive to the opposite sex and the average attractive silhouette selected by the opposite sex (AMOAD). As expected, females showed greater dissatisfaction with their bodies than males concerning both their own ideal and the silhouette they considered attractive to the opposite sex. Although both sexes misjudged the attractive silhouette for the opposite sex, women were found to be more wrong. According to the outcomes of multivariate regression models, stature, body composition parameters, amount of sport, sex, and FAD were significant predictors of dissatisfaction and misjudgment. In addition to action aimed at correcting misperceptions, the study revealed the importance of sports participation in improving the perception and acceptance of one’s body image.

Weight Trajectory Since Birth, Current Body Composition, Dietary Intake, and Glucose Tolerance in Young Underweight Japanese Women

Introduction: We studied weight trajectory since birth and dietary intake in Japanese female students majoring in nutrition sciences. Materials and Methods: Birth weight, adolescent height and weight, current body composition by whole-body dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry, dietary intake, glucose tolerance, lipid profile, and adipokines were cross-sectionally compared between young underweight (body mass index [BMI] <18.5) and normal-weight (BMI ≥18.5 and <25.0) women with overweight (BMI ≥25.0) women as an internal reference. Results: Serum adiponectin (leptin) was the highest (lowest) in 42 underweight women, intermediate levels in 251 normal-weight women, and the lowest (highest) levels in 14 overweight women. Compared with normal-weight women, underweight women had lower weight at birth, at age 12, 15, and 20 years, but comparable height, and hence lower BMI at three time points. Underweight women had higher gluteofemoral fat adjusted for total body fat and weight-adjusted skeletal muscle mass, although absolute and height-adjusted fat mass and skeletal muscle mass were lower. Glucose tolerance assessed by oral glucose testing, serum triglycerides, and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol did not differ between the two groups. Daily intake expressed per kg of body mass of energy and protein was the highest in underweight women, intermediate levels in normal-weight women, and the lowest levels in overweight women. Conclusions: Some young Japanese women are underweight not because of a strong drive for thinness, but because they were born lighter and remained lean until young adults. Underweight was associated with higher gluteofemoral fat adjusted for total body fat and relative skeletal muscle mass.

Women's body image throughout the adult life span: a living history approach

Based on the life course perspective, this study used a mixed method approach to (1) arrive at a deeper understanding of body image in each of three adult life stages among older white women living in a Midwest state of the United States of America, (2) investigate how these women's body images have changed during aging, and (3) identify major life transitions affecting women's body image throughout the adult life span. This study used retrospective, self-reported data. Both open-ended and scale ratings questions were incorporated into the paper-based survey questionnaire. Older white women (n = 102) aged 65 to 94 years completed a survey questionnaire. Written responses to seven open-ended questions assessing the older women's past and current body images were analyzed, and 14 themes emerged. A quantitative scale of body satisfaction with five body attributes was included to provide a validity check with written responses. The women's body images significantly changed across the adult life span, reflecting different body concerns and evaluations at each life stage. This study revealed contrasting results to previous cross-generational comparisons which concluded that women's perceived level of body satisfaction remains stable through life. Many of the women expressed some degree of positive body image at all stages but became less satisfied with several aspects of their bodies as they aged, including aging appearance, decline in physical function, and several health problems. The study provided a general picture of white women's body image development throughout the adult life span.

Self-reported body weight and weight-related stigmatization experiences among young adult women-two contexts, but similar attitudes related to body image, mental self-schemas, self-esteem, and stereotypes of people with obesity

Background

Weight stigma is a serious challenge because of its negative impact on human health and harmful psychological and behavioral consequences. The aim of the study was to explore and compare the relationships between self-reported body weight and weight-related stigmatization experiences and body image, mental self-image, self-esteem, and stereotypes concerning people with obesity among young adult Polish women (N = 374; aged between 18 and 35).

Methods

The study was conducted online on a Polish sample recruited through a social network site, a website, and snowball sampling. Body mass index (BMI) was used to assign the respondents to groups with normal or excess weight. We tested whether women enrolled in the study experienced weight-related stigmatization using two questions based on the concepts of spoiled identity and related to the obesity stigma. The Contour Drawing Rating Scale was used to study different aspects of the body image and discrepancies between them. The Self-Discrepancy Questionnaire was used to study the self-schemas associated with mental qualities. The Polish version of the Rosenberg’s Self Esteem Scale was applied to determine self-esteem level. Stereotypes concerning people with obesity were studied using the semantic differential method.

Results

Although excess weight was associated with weight-related stigmatization experiences, many women reported confronting such stigmatization even though their body weight was normal according to the World Health Organization (WHO) standards. Women with excess weight and women with weight-related stigmatization experiences were characterized by larger discrepancies between the actual body image and the ideal, reflected, and ought body image, lower self-esteem, and more negative beliefs about their mental actual and reflected self compared to women with normal weight and without weight-related stigmatization experiences. The study participants from all groups tended to believe their actual body image to be ampler than the ideal and the ought body images. They also believed that other people perceived their mental qualities more positively than they did. The study groups were also characterized by negative stereotypes of people with obesity, although these stereotypes were more vital in women with excess weight and women who experienced weight-related stigmatization.

Conclusion

The study shows the similarity between psychological functioning of women with self-reported excess weight and those who experience weight-related stigma. The results also provide guidelines for practical actions aimed at reducing negative mental outcomes associated with not conforming to body weight standards.

Updating Long-Held Assumptions About Fat Stigma: For Women, Body Shape Plays a Critical Role

Heavier bodies—particularly female bodies—are stigmatized. Such fat stigma is pervasive, painful to experience, and may even facilitate weight gain, thereby perpetuating the weight-stigma cycle. Leveraging research on functionally distinct forms of fat (deposited on different parts of the body), we propose that body shape plays an important but largely underappreciated role in fat stigma, above and beyond fat amount. Across three samples varying in participant ethnicity (White and Black Americans) and nation (United States, India), patterns of fat stigma reveal that, as hypothesized, participants differently stigmatized equally overweight or equally obese female targets as a function of target shape, sometimes even more strongly stigmatizing targets with less rather than more body mass. Such findings suggest value in updating our understanding of fat stigma to include body shape and in querying a predominating, but often implicit, theoretical assumption that people simply view all fat as ‘bad’ (and more fat as ‘worse’).

Weight perceptions in older adults: findings from the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing

OBJECTIVES

To explore weight perceptions in a large, nationally representative sample of older adults, and the extent to which they differ according to age and perceived health status.

SETTING

England.

PARTICIPANTS

5240 men and women (≥50 years old) participating in the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing (2016/2017).

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Weight perception was self-reported as too heavy, too light or about right.

RESULTS

The majority of older adults endorsed a weight perception that matched their (objectively measured) body mass index (BMI) classification. However, 1 in 10 (9.9%) older adults classified by BMI as normal weight (18.5-24.9 kg/m2) felt too light, with women at the upper end of the older age spectrum (OR=1.04, 95% CI 1.01 to 1.09), and men (OR=3.70, 95% CI 1.88 to 7.28) and women (OR=2.61, 95% CI 1.27 to 5.35) in poorer health more likely to do so. Almost half (44.8%) of older adults classified as overweight (25-29.9 kg/m2) and 1 in 10 (10.3%) classified as obese (≥30 kg/m2) felt about the right weight, with this observed more frequently among men and women at the upper end of the older age spectrum (OR range 1.04-1.06).

CONCLUSION

Older adults' perceptions of their own weight generally correspond with traditional BMI cut-offs for normal weight, overweight and obesity. However, a substantial minority 'underestimate' their weight status, with those at the upper end of the age spectrum and those in poorer health more likely to do so.

Body image in older, inpatient women and the relationship to BMI, anxiety, depression, and other sociodemographic factors

OBJECTIVES

To determine the prevalence of body image dysfunction in a cohort of older, inpatient women, and to examine any associated health or sociodemographic factors.

METHODS

In this cross-sectional, observational study, 50 older women admitted to a subacute hospital completed the Body Shape Questionnaire (BSQ-34), Geriatric Depression Screen (GDS), and Geriatric Anxiety Index (GAI). Additional sociodemographic and health-related data including body mass index (BMI) were collected on all participants. Data were first analysed to determine the prevalence of body image dysfunction. To examine factors significantly associated with body image impairment, partial correlation analyses were initially performed between BSQ-34 score and included variables, followed by stepwise regression analysis undertaken to determine significantly contributing independent variables.

RESULTS

Only three out of 50 women displayed body image dysfunction using suggested cut-off scores from the BSQ-34, giving a prevalence rate of only 6%. After controlling for multiple variables however, both higher GDS score and higher BMI were found to be significantly and independently associated with poorer body image, with the strongest association being between higher BSQ-34 score and higher BMI (Spearman rank r = 0.455, P < 0.001). Furthermore, when high BMI and depression occurred together, this association was even greater, accounting for over 50% of the impact on body image scores (P = 0.0001).

CONCLUSION

For this small cohort of older, inpatient women, rates of body image dysfunction were low. There did however appear to be an association between poorer body image and higher BMI and depression rates in the group, which may be worth exploring further in less frail, community-dwelling cohorts.

Reactions to ideal body shapes

Difficult-to-attain beauty standards that are promulgated by the media could contribute to body dissatisfaction, but their potential impact upon body image remains unclear. The present study examined reactions to thin-ideal and muscular-ideal images, and examined the effects of ideal image exposure on preferred body shape and time spent deliberating about ideal shape. In a 2 × 2 experimental design, 200 Internet users completed the Kessler psychological distress scale (K10) and were randomly assigned to view idealistic body images or houses (and rated them on semantic differential dimensions). Females viewed thin ideal images and males viewed muscular ideal images, while the control groups viewed images of houses. Between group measures analysis of variance revealed women reacted negatively to thinspirational images. Women were more driven for thinness and idealized a thinner shape for the female body than men. Psychologically distressed participants had a stronger drive for thinness and greater body dissatisfaction compared to low-distress participants. In addition, although beauty ideal imagery had no significant impact on males, females spent more time in choosing ideal body figure. Viewing thin bodies for females created a trend toward desiring a slimmer figure, as well as increased preoccupation with size as they spent more time deliberating over a photorealistic figure rating scale. Therefore, exposure to thinspiration promotes dissatisfaction with self and leads women to dwell more upon their body image.

Implicit Attitudes to Female Body Shape in Spanish Women With High and Low Body Dissatisfaction

Research on implicit attitudes to body image has grown substantially in recent years. The extant evidence reveals an implicit weight bias in the general population that has generally been interpreted in terms of anti-fat attitudes. However, research with the Implicit Relational Assessment Procedure (IRAP) shows that this bias appears to be driven by pro-slim rather than anti-fat implicit attitudes. Besides, the only IRAP study of this sort conducted in Spain found no evidence of such implicit weight bias (with similarly positive attitudes to thinness and fatness). Given the existing differences in body dissatisfaction (BD) among diverse cultural contexts, we predicted that discrepancies in findings about implicit weight bias might be related to differences in BD amongst the samples in the different studies. This study explores whether women with extreme scores in BD (High vs. Low) show different patterns of attitudes to female body shape. Spanish female college students with extreme scores in the Body Shape Questionnaire (BSQ: high ≥ 104, percentile 80; low ≤ 52, percentile 20) completed an IRAP with pictures of overweight and underweight women as target stimuli and the words pleasant and unpleasant as labels. Participants also completed explicit ratings to the same stimuli and clinically relevant measures of body image related distress. Results showed an implicit weight bias only for women high in BD. While both groups showed equally positive implicit attitudes to thinness, only women with low BD showed implicit positive attitudes to fatness (and hence no bias). In turn, both groups presented a clear pro-thin/anti-fat explicit bias with positive ratings for underweight pictures and negative ratings for overweight pictures. The latter were stronger for the high BD group. Therefore, between-group differences were mainly driven by differences in attitudes to fatness (both implicit and explicit). Both implicit and explicit attitudes to fatness independently predicted eating disorders symptoms and other clinically relevant measures. These results are discussed in terms of their clinical implications.

'Just because I'm old it doesn't mean I have to be fat': a qualitative study exploring older adults' views and experiences of weight management

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study was to explore older adults' beliefs about the appropriateness of weight management, and how their experiences and expectations of weight management have changed as they have got older.

DESIGN

Qualitative semistructured interview study.

SETTING

UK.

PARTICIPANTS

Older adults (≥65 years) in the UK who had recent (<5 years) experience of trying to manage their weight (n=15; 12 women; 73% white British).

RESULTS

Data were analysed using thematic analysis. Emergent themes highlighted that weight remained a concern for many older adults, although having a high body weight was seen to be more acceptable at older than younger ages. Excess weight was reported to have negative consequences for health and well-being which participants felt could be alleviated by losing weight. Participants were motivated to lose weight for appearance and health reasons, but mentioned finding it harder to lose weight as they had got older and generally felt they had received limited guidance on weight management from health professionals.

CONCLUSIONS

The views of our participants highlight the need for further research into safe and effective methods of weight loss for older people and indicate that advice and support from health professionals would be welcomed.

Self-esteem and Body Mass Index from Adolescence to Mid-adulthood. A 26-year Follow-up

PURPOSE

This study examined the developmental trajectories of self-esteem and body mass index (BMI) from adolescence to mid-adulthood and the way the association between self-esteem and BMI changed during a 26-year follow-up.

METHODS

Participants of a Finnish cohort study in 1983 at 16 years (N = 2194) were followed up at ages 22 (N = 1656), 32 (N = 1471), and 42 (N = 1334) using postal questionnaires. Measures at each time point covered self-esteem and self-reported weight and height. Analyses were done using latent growth curve models (LGM) and difference scores.

RESULTS

In LGM analyses among females both the initial levels (r = -0.13) and slopes (r = -0.26) of the self-esteem and BMI trajectories correlated negatively. Among males, there were no significant correlations between self-esteem and BMI growth factors. The association between increasing BMI and decreasing self-esteem among females was strongest between ages 22 and 32 (r = -0.16), while among males, increases in BMI and self-esteem correlated positively (r = 0.11) during that period. Among females, cross-sectional correlations between self-esteem and BMI showed an increasing trend (p < 0.001) from age 16 (r = -0.07) to age 42 (r = -0.17), whereas among males negative correlation (r = -0.08) emerged only in mid-adulthood at age 42.

CONCLUSION

Among females, higher and increasing BMI is associated with lower and more slowly increasing self-esteem. This association is not restricted to adolescent years but persists and gets stronger in mid-adulthood. Among males, associations are weaker but indicate more age-related differences. The results highlight the need for interventions that tackle weight-related stigma and discrimination, especially among women with higher body weight and size.

Physical activity and body image among men and boys: A meta-analysis

Three meta-analytic reviews have concluded that physical activity is positively related to body image. Historically, research regarding physical activity and body image has been disproportionately focused on female samples. For example, the most recent meta-analysis (2009) extracted 56 effect sizes for women and only 12 for men. The current paper provides an update to the literature regarding the relationship between physical activity and body image among men and boys across 84 individual effect sizes. The analysis also provides insight regarding moderator variables including participant age, and physical activity type and intensity. Overall, physical activity was positively related to body image among men and boys with various moderator variables warranting further investigation. Pragmatic implications are discussed as well as the limitations within existing research and need for additional research to further understand moderator and mediator variables.

Weight gain, body image and sexual function in young patients treated with contraceptive vaginal ring. A prospective pilot study

INTRODUCTION

Oral contraceptives could induce mood changes. As far as our knowledge, there are no studies in literature that have examined the role of vaginal contraception in self-perceived body image.

AIM

To evaluate the effects of intravaginal contraception on weight gain and perceived body image in relation with the Beck's Depression Inventory questionnaire (BDI) and the McCoy Female Sexuality Questionnaire (MFSQ).

METHODS

Twenty-one adult (18-35 years old) eumenorrheic (menstrual cycle of 25-35 days), lean (body mass index - BMI - of 19-25 kg/m²) women who were referred for hormonal contraception were administered the Stunkard Figure Rating Scale (FRS), BDI and MFSQ. Subjects were studied in basal condition and after 6 months of therapy with vaginal contraception (NuvaRing®; Organon-Schering-Plough Italia, Milan, Italy).

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

BMI, FRS, MFSQ and BDI.

RESULTS

After 6 months of therapy with NuvaRing®, both body weight (60.0 ± 8.3; p = 0.050) and BMI (22.1 ± 3.1; p = 0.028) slightly, but statistically, increased. FRS and BDI showed no differences after the vaginal contraception. Hormonal contraception was associated with a significant decrease in the two-factor Italian MFSQ score.

CONCLUSIONS

Vaginal ring seems a good alternative to other hormonal contraceptive not significantly altering the female sexuality and not influencing the FRS and BDI.

Caloric estimation of healthy and unhealthy foods in normal-weight, overweight and obese participants

Individuals make dietary choices each time they consume food or drink, and assign labels to each item, such as un/healthy, high/low in calories, high/low in nutrients. These labels are thought to be snap judgments based on prior, and often limited nutritional knowledge. The aim of this study was to examine the perception of the caloric content of 'healthy' and 'unhealthy' foods. Participants (N=141) rated 53 food images on perceived healthiness/un-healthiness alongside the caloric content. Participants were subdivided into three groups: BMI (normal-weight, overweight, obese). Findings suggest that weight status impacts on participant's caloric estimation of foods perceived as healthy, but only marginally for unhealthy foods. However, not all foods were consistently labeled as healthy or unhealthy, on these occasions weight salience appears not to have influenced estimations of caloric content. Foods that confound the dichotomous labeling of healthy or unhealthy appear to gain a 'branding' that confers either greater or fewer calories than they actually contain, on these occasions weight salience does not appear to influence the labeling; implications are discussed.

Female and Male Perceptions of Ideal Body Shapes: Distorted Views Among Caucasian College Students

Recent studies have demonstrated that women overestimate male preferences for thin female figures. This study examined whether women also overestimate the desirability of thin figures among female peers. Using body silhouettes employed by Fallon and Rozin (1985), 87 college women and 118 college men indicated the size of their own body figure, their ideal figure, the figure most attractive to other-sex peers, and the figure most attractive to same-sex peers. As predicted, the female silhouette that women selected as most attractive to same-sex peers was significantly thinner than the silhouette that women actually selected as most desirable. College men also misjudged the body preference of same-sex peers, exaggerating the extent to which other men perceived large physiques as ideal and desirable.

Body-Shape Perceptions in Older Adults and Motivations for Exercise

This study examined the relationships among age, sex, exercise and body-image dissatisfaction in older adults and evaluated the role of body-shape dissatisfaction as a motivation to exercise. A pencil-and-paper questionnaire was administered to 175 older adults (101 women and 74 men) ranging in age from 50 to 98 years ( M = 72 yr., SD = 9) to obtain general information, information regarding exercise participation, motivations for exercise and body-shape perceptions. A body-shape dissatisfaction score was calculated using the difference between the participant's choice for current and ideal body shape from a nine-figure body-silhouette scale. Present study findings suggested that both older adult men and women expressed a desire for a thinner body shape independent of age and current participation in exercise. In addition, the results indicated that body-shape dissatisfaction did not motivate this sample to engage in regular exercise; physical health and physical fitness emerged as the most important motivations to exercise.

Gender Differences in Characteristics Reported to Be Important Features of Physical Attractiveness

The purpose of this study was to ascertain whether characteristics of physical attractiveness named by respondents as important would differ from those attributes previously examined by researchers. Gender differences related to the identification of important characteristics of physical attractiveness were also explored. Subjects, 230 male and 240 female undergraduates at two western state universities, completed a self-administered questionnaire. Respondents agreed that body build was the characteristic of greatest importance for both physically attractive males and females. Other important characteristics for physically attractive males were eyes, face, height, and hair and for females, hair, face, and eyes. Other than body build, there was no consistent ranking of characteristics by male and female respondents.

Family, Self, And Sociocultural Contributions To Body-Image Attitudes Of African-American Women

This study examined factors that influenced body-image attitudes of 90 African-American college women. Participants completed two instruments assessing body image attitudes and measures of social self-esteem, racial identity attitudes, and family and personal characteristics. Data analyses indicated that self and sociocultural variables were associated with evaluations of physical appearance, fitness, and investment in health. Dissatisfaction with the total body was predicted with family variables, whereas family and self variables were related to satisfaction with body areas. Fathers' education; body mass and fathers' education; body mass and social self-esteem; internalization of racial attitudes; and social self-esteem best predicted body areas satisfaction, appearance evaluation, fitness evaluation, and health orientation, respectively. Implications for the divergence/convergence of subjective measures of body image are discussed and suggestions offered for future studies.

Acculturation, Body Image, Self-Esteem, And Eating-Disorder Symptomatology In Adolescent Mexican American Women

In this article the relationship among acculturation, body image, self-esteem, and eating disorder symptomatology in 120 Mexican American adolescent women was investigated. Surprisingly, acculturation levels were not related to anorexic or bulimic symptomatology, self-esteem, body dissatisfaction or thinness of ideal and attractive figures. Lower levels of self-esteem predicted higher levels of anorexic and bulimic symptomatology. Body mass was positively related to bulimic scores. In contrast to Lester and Petrie (1995), body dissatisfaction was significantly related to eating-disorder symptomatology. The high levels of disordered eating attitudes and behaviors found in this study suggest that rather than exclusively being an Anglo, middle-to upper-class phenomenon, eating-disordered behavior also exists within lower socioeconomic status Mexican American adolescent women.

Age and Gender in Relation to Body Attitudes

In order to examine whether the double standard of aging exists in self-perceptions of body attitudes, 144 men and women aged 20 to 80 years were tested. Variables that might moderate the relationship between body attitudes and aging, including self-esteem, health, masculinity, appearance orientation, and exercise participation were also examined. No age, gender, nor Age × Gender differences in body attitudes were found. Self-esteem, health, and masculinity were positively related to body attitudes, but these relationships did not vary according to age or gender. An Age × Gender × Exercise interaction indicated a positive relationship between age and body satisfaction among women exercisers but a negative relationship among women nonexercisers. Finally, appearance orientation was unrelated to body attitudes among all participants. The results of this study do not support the double standard of aging in self-perceptions but do suggest the similarity and importance of body attitudes across the adult life span.

Assessing the factor structure of the Body Uneasiness Test (BUT) in an overweight and obese Croatian non-clinical sample

PURPOSE

The study objectives are to investigate the psychometric properties of the Body Uneasiness Test (BUT-A) in a general sample of overweight and obese persons in Croatia, to evaluate structure differences between men and women and to examine the relationship with other measures of body dissatisfaction as well as with objective body mass measure.

METHODS

This study included 320 adults (156 women and 164 men; aged between 20 and 71) with BMIs ranging from 24 to 48.83 kg/m(2).

RESULTS

The analysis confirmed a structural one-factor model for BUT-A. The one-factor model fits the data equally as well as the more complex five-factor model did and should be considered a more robust, parsimonious and adequate model. Female participants showed higher results (higher body uneasiness), but the importance of items is roughly comparable between genders. The BUT-A score significantly contributes to the prediction of general body dissatisfaction, even after gender and BMI are controlled. The multifaceted nature of the BUT-A might explain the relatively low measure of general body dissatisfaction in this sample. Congruent with previous studies, obese subjects expressed dissatisfaction with their body on the figure rating scale by selecting the ideal figure two units thinner than their current body figure. In overweight and obese men, body dissatisfaction is lower than in women.

CONCLUSION

The BUT-A can be a reliable one-dimensional tool for the assessment of body uneasiness in a wide range of samples, including obese individuals.

What are the main barriers to healthy eating among families? A qualitative exploration of perceptions and experiences of Tehranian men

Despite women playing a pivotal role in shaping nutritional patterns in their families, it is the men whose ideas and preferences, after children, influence the selection and consumption of daily foods among Iranian families. This study focused on exploring the main barriers to healthy eating as experienced by male participants of the Tehran Lipid Glucose Study (TLGS). A grounded theory approach was used for analyzing participants' experiences and their perceptions regarding these barriers. Participants were 98 men, aged 25-65 years, selected and recruited from the TGLS cohort. Data collection was conducted through fourteen semi-structured focus group discussions, between 2008 and 2009. All interviews and focus group discussions were audio recorded and transcribed verbatim. Constant comparative analysis of the data was conducted manually according to the Strauss and Corbin analysis method. The most important barriers to healthy eating were: (i) Personal factors, which included two subthemes--lack of knowledge and personal taste, (ii) Communication and modeling included two subthemes--other individuals and media/advertisements; (iii) Modernization included two subthemes--nutrition transition and women's role; and (iv) Lack of access to healthy foods, which included four subthemes--Inadequate confidence, perceived risk, high cost and time limitations. Appropriate attention and prioritized policy-making to modify the socio-environmental barriers to healthy eating were explored in the current study, along with effective educational programs that could help to promote healthy eating among Iranian families.

One Size Doesn't Fit All: New Continua of Figure Drawings and Their Relation to Ideal Body Image

OBJECTIVE

This study introduces a new figure drawing measure, the Presentation of Images on a Continuum Scale (PICS), which includes continua of bodies from thin to obese and thin to muscular for both men and women.

PARTICIPANTS

Participants were undergraduate students from a private, Catholic university in Connecticut. The data were collected in the spring of 2010.

METHODS

Three hundred forty-eight undergraduates completed an online survey that assessed current versus ideal body image as well as attractiveness of body types.

RESULTS

Results showed that current versus ideal body selection discrepancies on the PICS among women (but not among men) were related to several negative outcomes involving increased body concerns, less body satisfaction, and lower self-esteem, as well as increased drive for muscularity among men. Study implications are described from a social norming perspective.

Pathological eating and body dissatisfaction in middle-aged and older women

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

To summarize the recent literature examining eating disorders, eating behavior, and body image in middle-aged and elderly women.

RECENT FINDINGS

A small but evolving literature has begun to address the epidemiology, features, and potential treatment of eating disorders and related body-image concerns in middle-aged and elderly women. Preliminary findings suggest that pathological eating behaviors and frank eating disorders are surprisingly common in older women, as are associated body-image disturbances. Older women appear less likely to exhibit anorexia and bulimia nervosa and more likely to exhibit binge eating disorder and eating disorder not otherwise specified. The prevalence of such conditions in older women has likely increased in recent decades. On many indices of disordered eating and body image, older women with eating disorder resemble younger women with similar conditions, although older women exhibit certain unique concerns, such as dealing with menopause and with aging.

SUMMARY

It appears that clinicians should be alert for eating and body-image disorder even in women well beyond the younger age range in whom these disorders have traditionally been described. Subsequent research should consider treatment strategies tailored for older women with eating disorders.

Trends in thinness prevalence among adolescents in ten European countries and the USA (1998-2006): a cross-sectional survey

OBJECTIVE

To describe the prevalence of 'graded thinness' in children aged 11, 13 and 15 years in eleven developed countries and to identify trends in the prevalence of 'thinness' (BMI < 17 kg/m2 at age 18 years) by age and gender.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional study using data collected through self-reported questionnaires.

SETTING

Data were taken from the 1997/1998, 2001/2002 and 2005/2006 surveys of the Health Behaviours in School-aged Children (HBSC) Study.

SUBJECTS

Children and adolescents from ten European countries and the USA (n 158 000).

RESULTS

Prevalence of grades 1, 2 and 3 of thinness was higher among 11-year-old students compared with the 13- and 15-year-olds in all countries. A higher prevalence of thinness was observed in girls than in boys. Since 1998 the prevalence of thinness decreased steadily in Czech boys and girls, while it increased for French girls. In the total European sample of females, thinness decreased from 1998 to 2006 (χ 2 for trend, P < 0·01). Age-adjusted logistic regression analysis showed that Czech boys and girls, and Flemish and American girls were less likely to be thin in 2006 than in 1998; while a noteworthy increment, even if borderline significant, was observed for French girls with a 41% increase in the likelihood to be thin.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that thinness is an important overlooked phenomenon with wide variation in prevalence and trends across developed countries. It deserves further longitudinal studies in a multinational context that could increase the understanding of the factors associated with thinness and contribute to developing preventive and nutritional programmes targeted at controlling obesity and chronic diseases, while monitoring thinness.

Good intentions gone awry? Effects of weight-related social control on health and well-being

A negative body image has been associated with a variety of negative health and well-being outcomes. Social pressures from others, in the form of weight-related social control, may serve to exacerbate this effect, especially for college-aged women. Undergraduate students (N=399) completed a variety of questionnaires assessing weight-related social control, well-being, and diet and exercise behaviors. The results suggest that weight is associated with a variety of negative health and well-being outcomes and particularly for women, weight-related social control is also associated with these negative effects. In addition, men of higher body mass indexes (BMIs) or higher self-perceived weight did not experience negative health and well-being outcomes to the same degree that overweight women did. Parents in particular seem to instigate weight-related social control to change students' diet and exercise behaviors. These results help clarify the effects of weight-related social control in a college population, where weight may be especially important.

Body shape and women's attractiveness : The critical role of waist-to-hip ratio

This paper examines the role of body fat distribution as measured by waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) on the judgment of women's physical attractiveness. It presents evidence that WHR is correlated with a woman's reproductive endocrinological status and long-term health risk. Three studies were conducted to investigate whether humans have perceptual and cognitive mechanisms to utilize the WHR to infer attributes of women's health, youthfulness, attractiveness, and reproductive capacity. College-age as well as older subjects of both sexes rank female figures with normal weight and low WHR as attractive and assign to them higher reproductive capability. The study concludes that WHR is a reliable and honest signal of a woman's reproductive potential. The adaptive significance of body fat distribution and its role in mate selection is also discussed.

Associations between different forms of body dissatisfaction and the use of weight-related behaviors among a representative population-based sample of adolescents

Weight management strategies have two components: weight goals and behaviors to reach weight goals. In the literature, weight goals and weight-related behaviors have both been linked with body dissatisfaction separately, but have rarely been examined simultaneously. This paper examines the associations between different forms of body dissatisfaction and various weight-related behaviors and investigates the moderating role of weight goals in these associations. Measures included weight goals (matching or mismatching current weight status), self-reported frequencies of use of weight-related behaviors, and a body dissatisfaction measure (strength of aspiring for weight gain or weight loss) from a representative population-based sample of adolescents (n = 2,346, 51 % female). Sex-specific multilevel logistic and ordinal regression analyses indicated that aspiring for a thinner body among girls was associated with more frequent use of healthy and unhealthy behaviors, whereas body dissatisfaction of any type among boys was linked to more frequent use of unhealthy behaviors. Girls aspiring for substantial weight loss and boys aspiring for substantial weight gain were more likely to use disordered health behaviors. Aiming for a goal that is mismatched with current weight status increases the use of unhealthy behaviors among body dissatisfied adolescents. We conclude that in order to elaborate interventions aimed at promoting health, research should focus on processes leading to specific forms of body dissatisfaction which in turn produce varying frequencies of use of weight-related behaviors.

Clitoral changes, sexuality, and body image during the menstrual cycle: a pilot study

INTRODUCTION

A relationship between sexual function and all body image variables has been reported. However, there are no studies analyzing the relationship between menstrual cycle, body image, and sexuality.

AIM

To evaluate clitoral changes, sexual behavior, and perceived body image during the menstrual cycle.

METHODS

Twenty-four women underwent ultrasonographic (US) clitoral measurements, color Doppler evaluation of the clitoral artery, and hormonal testing. In addition, they were administered the McCoy Female Sexuality Questionnaire (MFSQ), the Stunkard Figure Rating Scale (FRS), and the Beck's Depression Inventory questionnaire (BDI).

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

The main outcome measures were clitoral volume, clitoral artery pulsatility index (PI), the MFSQ, the FRS, and the BDI.

RESULTS

The subjects had a mean age of 29.3 ± 4.5 years and a mean body mass index (kg/m(2)  = BMI) of 21.2 ± 2.0. US and color Doppler assessments showed significant increase in clitoral body volume (P = 0.039) and a decrease in the PI (P = 0.027) of the clitoral artery during the periovulatory phase of the menstrual cycle. These changes were significantly and positively correlated with estradiol levels (P = 0.009 and P = 0.017, respectively). The two-factor Italian MFSQ for sexuality and partnership was similar in all the phases of the cycle. The number of intercourses/week slightly increased in the periovulatory phase. The mean BDI was normal in all women and did not change during the cycle. The FRS showed no difference in all examined parameters during the three phases of the menstrual cycle.

CONCLUSIONS

In young, lean, eumenorrheic Italian women, there is no significant change, during the menstrual cycle, in sexual function, body image perception, and symptoms of depression, as assessed by the two-factor Italian MFSQ for sexuality and partnership, the FRS, and the total BDI score. However, our results suggest that estrogens, influencing clitoral anatomic and vascular changes, may favor genital arousability.

Characteristics of women with body size satisfaction at midlife: results of the Gender and Body Image (GABI) Study

This study characterizes the profile of women (N = 1,789) ages 50 and over who report body size satisfaction on a figure rating scale. Satisfied women (12.2%) had a lower body mass index and reported fewer eating disorder symptoms, dieting behaviors, and weight and appearance dissatisfaction. Interestingly, satisfied women exercised more than dissatisfied women, and weight and shape still played a primary role in their self-evaluation. Weight monitoring and appearance-altering behaviors did not differ between groups. Body satisfaction was associated with better overall functioning. This end point appears to represent effortful body satisfaction rather than passive contentment.

Body dissatisfaction in women across the lifespan: results of the UNC-SELF and Gender and Body Image (GABI) studies

To explore age differences in current and preferred silhouette and body dissatisfaction (current - preferred silhouette discrepancy) in women aged 25-89 years using figural stimuli [range: 1 (very small) to 9 (very large)]. Data were abstracted from two online convenience samples (N = 5868). t-tests with permutation-adjusted p-values examined linear associations between mean silhouette scores (current, preferred, discrepancy score) and age with/without stratification by body mass index (BMI). Modal current silhouette was 5; modal preferred silhouette was 4; mean discrepancy score was 1.8. There was no significant association between current silhouette and age, but a positive linear association between preferred silhouette and age remained after stratification by BMI. A significant inverse linear association of silhouette discrepancy score and age was found only prior to stratification by BMI. Body dissatisfaction exists in women across the adult life span and is influenced by BMI.

What is an attractive body? Using an interactive 3D program to create the ideal body for you and your partner

What is the ideal body size and shape that we want for ourselves and our partners? What are the important physical features in this ideal? And do both genders agree on what is an attractive body? To answer these questions we used a 3D interactive software system which allows our participants to produce a photorealistic, virtual male or female body. Forty female and forty male heterosexual Caucasian observers (females mean age 19.10 years, s.d. 1.01; 40 males mean age 19.84, s.d. 1.66) set their own ideal size and shape, and the size and shape of their ideal partner using the DAZ studio image manipulation programme. In this programme the shape and size of a 3D body can be altered along 94 independent dimensions, allowing each participant to create the exact size and shape of the body they want. The volume (and thus the weight assuming a standard density) and the circumference of the bust, waist and hips of these 3D models can then be measured. The ideal female body set by women (BMI = 18.9, WHR = 0.70, WCR = 0.67) was very similar to the ideal partner set by men, particularly in their BMI (BMI = 18.8, WHR = 0.73, WCR = 0.69). This was a lower BMI than the actual BMI of 39 of the 40 women. The ideal male body set by the men (BMI = 25.9, WHR = 0.87, WCR = 0.74) was very similar to the ideal partner set by the women (BMI = 24.5, WHR = 0.86, WCR = 0.77). This was a lower BMI than the actual BMI of roughly half of the men and a higher BMI than the other half. The results suggest a consistent preference for an ideal male and female body size and shape across both genders. The results also suggest that both BMI and torso shape are important components for the creation of the ideal body.

Body dissatisfaction within couples: adding the social context to perceptions of self

Nineteen heterosexual couples completed questionnaires concerning their own and their partner's body size. Although women reported higher levels of body dissatisfaction, both men and women reported being dissatisfied with their body parts. Further, the results showed comparability within couples for ratings of the male partner's body size but consistent differences for ratings of the female partner's body size. In addition, both partners reported most dissatisfaction with the female partner's body size. It is suggested that a sexual partner's beliefs may play a greater role in the development of men's body dissatisfaction and that the female body may have become a legitimate source of criticism for both men and women. The implications for the social context on self-perception are discussed.

To weigh or not to weigh: the relationship between self-weighing behavior and body image among adults

Given the high prevalence of overweight and obesity in the U.S., identifying behaviors that aid or hinder weight control efforts continues to be a research priority. Body weight monitoring is a technique used in many popular weight management programs. However, how weight monitoring-particularly self-weighing behavior-relates to psychological constructs like body image is poorly understood. Participants included 268 undergraduates (190 women, 78 men) at a midwestern university who completed questionnaires about self-weighing behavior and body image (multidimensional body-self relations questionnaire; eating disorder examination-questionnaire: weight and shape concern subscales). Among women, more frequent self-weighing was associated with greater appearance orientation, overweight preoccupation, and shape concern. Among men, more frequent self-weighing was associated with greater body areas satisfaction, health and fitness orientation, and positive health evaluation. Results suggest that self-weighing is a fairly common behavior, but its relationship with body image is complex and gender-specific.

'I don't know whether it is to do with age or to do with hormones and whether it is do with a stage in your life': making sense of menopause and the body

This article discusses a mixed-methods study that explored women's views about menopause and any relationship between these and several measures of body consciousness. A total of 270 women in the United Kingdom completed surveys of menopausal attitudes, self-objectification, body surveillance and body shame. There was a positive association between rating highly on body dissatisfaction scales and holding negative attitudes towards menopause. Interviews (n = 12) were conducted to investigate this further. Menopause was inextricably linked with aging for these women, and changing appearance was a particular concern for women who rated high on self-objectification. The implications of this are discussed.

Inspiration or deflation? Feeling similar or dissimilar to slim and plus-size models affects self-evaluation of restrained eaters

The present studies examined the effect of perceiving images of slim and plus-size models on restrained eaters' self-evaluation. While previous research has found that such images can lead to either inspiration or deflation, we argue that these inconsistencies can be explained by differences in perceived similarity with the presented model. The results of two studies (ns=52 and 99) confirmed this and revealed that restrained eaters with high (low) perceived similarity to the model showed more positive (negative) self-evaluations when they viewed a slim model, compared to a plus-size model. In addition, Study 2 showed that inducing in participants a similarities mindset led to more positive self-evaluations after viewing a slim compared to a plus-size model, but only among restrained eaters with a relatively high BMI. These results are discussed in the context of research on social comparison processes and with regard to interventions for protection against the possible detrimental effects of media images.

Body weight relationships in early marriage. Weight relevance, weight comparisons, and weight talk

This investigation uncovered processes underlying the dynamics of body weight and body image among individuals involved in nascent heterosexual marital relationships in Upstate New York. In-depth, semi-structured qualitative interviews conducted with 34 informants, 20 women and 14 men, just prior to marriage and again one year later were used to explore continuity and change in cognitive, affective, and behavioral factors relating to body weight and body image at the time of marriage, an important transition in the life course. Three major conceptual themes operated in the process of developing and enacting informants' body weight relationships with their partner: weight relevance, weight comparisons, and weight talk. Weight relevance encompassed the changing significance of weight during early marriage and included attracting and capturing a mate, relaxing about weight, living healthily, and concentrating on weight. Weight comparisons between partners involved weight relativism, weight competition, weight envy, and weight role models. Weight talk employed pragmatic talk, active and passive reassurance, and complaining and critiquing criticism. Concepts emerging from this investigation may be useful in designing future studies of and approaches to managing body weight in adulthood.

Disordered Eating and Psychological Distress among Adults

The majority of our knowledge about eating disorders derives from adolescent and young adult samples; knowledge regarding disordered eating in middle and later adulthood is limited. We examined the associations among known predictors of eating disorders for younger adults in an age-diverse sample and within the context of psychological distress. Using data from 567 adults (ages 18 to 88 years), we tested a path model in which age, gender, eating-related cognitions, and satisfaction with appearance predicted eating disorders which, in turn, predicted psychological distress. The model fit the data well (χ2 (DF= 11, N = 567) = 30.58, p < .001; GFI = .987, NFI = .963; RMSEA = .056), explaining 20.1% of the variance in psychological distress.