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Maydych V, Pöschel H, Kübler S, Schubert T. The impact of food stimuli and fasting on cognitive control in task switching. PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2024; 88:921-935. [PMID: 37855942 DOI: 10.1007/s00426-023-01884-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2023] [Accepted: 09/29/2023] [Indexed: 10/20/2023]
Abstract
Previous research demonstrated motivation-control interactions in task switching. However, motivational effects on switch costs have been mostly examined using monetary rewards. Here, we investigated whether stimulus material linked to food and fasting affect control processes in task switching. We predicted that switching to the task comprising food stimuli would be facilitated, which should result in lower switch costs for this task, and that these effects would be stronger with higher motivational salience of the food stimuli, i.e. in hungry individuals and/or individuals with restrictive eating. Participants switched between categorising food items as sweet or savoury and digits as odd or even in two task-switching paradigms: an alternating runs and a voluntary task switching. Hunger was induced by 14 h fasting in the experimental compared to the control group. Results showed lower switch costs for the motivational-affective food task in both task-switching paradigms and in both groups. Switch costs for the neutral digit task were significantly higher in the fasting group compared to the control group in alternating runs task switching only. Individual differences in restrictive eating were related negatively but not significantly to the size of the switch costs. All in all, the results demonstrate an impact of motivational-affective stimuli on cognitive control in task switching and suggest a potential modulatory role of motivational states, though the findings need to be replicated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viktoria Maydych
- Institute for Psychology, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Emil-Abderhalden-Str. 26-27, 06108, Halle (Saale), Germany.
| | - Hanna Pöschel
- Institute for Psychology, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Emil-Abderhalden-Str. 26-27, 06108, Halle (Saale), Germany
| | - Sebastian Kübler
- Institute for Psychology, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Emil-Abderhalden-Str. 26-27, 06108, Halle (Saale), Germany
- Department of Psychology, Humboldt-University, Berlin, Germany
| | - Torsten Schubert
- Institute for Psychology, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Emil-Abderhalden-Str. 26-27, 06108, Halle (Saale), Germany
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2
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Wang P, Huang X, Chang X. The effect of inhibitory control and language proficiency on intra-sentential switching costs in reading comprehension. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2023; 241:104063. [PMID: 37976919 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2023.104063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2022] [Revised: 10/22/2023] [Accepted: 10/24/2023] [Indexed: 11/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Based on the inhibition account and activation account, inhibitory control and language proficiency play big roles on language control mechanisms underlying language switching respectively. But it is still debatable whether inhibitory control and language proficiency play roles in sentential context during bilingual language comprehension, and how and when they work if they both do. The present study examined the specific roles of language proficiency and inhibitory control on modulating intra-sentential switching costs in Chinese-English bilinguals using self-paced reading task. Results indicated that language proficiency and switching direction modulated intra-sentential switching costs significantly. Switching costs were larger when switching into L1 than into L2 for the first two code-switched words due to inhibitory effect, but more costly switching into L2 than into L1 since the third code-switched words owing to the effect of relative language proficiency. During bilingual language processing, inhibition and activation of languages shaped a dynamic interplay of complementary language control processes. Specifically, inhibitory control and language proficiency work as a dynamic continuum in language switching at sentence level. Switching into L1 requires the release of inhibition to L1, but switching into L2 asks the activation and access of L2. The interaction effects of language proficiency and inhibitory control influenced the exertion and components of inhibition. This study reconciled the independent roles of language proficiency and inhibitory control on language switching and constructed a new continuum based on language proficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peijuan Wang
- School of Foreign Languages, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Xueyi Huang
- School of Foreign Languages, Shanghai Jiaotong University, Shanghai 200400, China
| | - Xin Chang
- School of Foreign Languages, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China.
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3
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How does bilingualism modify cognitive function? Attention to the mechanism. Psychon Bull Rev 2022; 29:1246-1269. [PMID: 35091993 DOI: 10.3758/s13423-022-02057-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/03/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
It has been claimed that bilingual experience leads to an enhancement of cognitive control across the lifespan, a claim that has been investigated by comparing monolingual and bilingual groups performing standard executive function (EF) tasks. The results of these studies have been inconsistent, however, leading to controversy over the essential assumptions underlying the research program, namely, whether bilingualism produces cognitive change. We argue that the source of the inconsistency is not in the evidence but rather in the framework that has typically been used to motivate the research and interpret the results. We examine the componential view of EF with its central role for inhibition and argue that it provides a poor fit to both bilingual experience and the results of these studies. As an alternative, we propose a more holistic account based on attentional control that overrides the processes in the componential model of EF and applies to a wider range of tasks. The key element in our account is that behavioral differences between monolingual and bilingual individuals reflect differences in the efficiency and deployment of attentional control between the two language groups. In support of this point we show how attentional control provides a more satisfactory account for a range of findings that cannot reasonably be attributed to inhibition. We also suggest that group differences will emerge only when the attentional demands of a task exceed the control abilities of one of the groups, regardless of the EF components involved. We then review literature from across the lifespan to evaluate the extent to which this account is consistent with existing evidence, and conclude with some suggestions on how the field may be advanced by new lines of empirical enquiry.
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Gade M, Declerck M, Philipp AM, Rey-Mermet A, Koch I. Assessing the Evidence for Asymmetrical Switch Costs and Reversed Language Dominance Effects - A Meta-Analysis. J Cogn 2021; 4:55. [PMID: 34611575 PMCID: PMC8447966 DOI: 10.5334/joc.186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2020] [Accepted: 08/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Two seemingly counterintuitive phenomena - asymmetrical language switch costs and the reversed language dominance effect - prove to be particularly controversial in the literature on language control. Asymmetrical language switch costs refer to the larger costs for switching into the dominant language compared to switching into the less dominant language, both relative to staying in either one language. The reversed language dominance effect refers to longer reaction times when in the more dominant of the two languages in situations that require frequent language switching (i.e., mixed-language blocks). The asymmetrical language switch costs are commonly taken as an index for processes of transient, reactive inhibitory language control, whereas the reversed language dominance effect is taken as an index for sustained, proactive inhibitory language control. In the present meta-analysis, we set out to establish the empirical evidence for these two phenomena using a Bayesian linear mixed effects modelling approach. Despite the observation of both phenomena in some studies, our results suggest that overall, there is little evidence for the generality and robustness of these two effects, and this holds true even when conditions - such as language proficiency and preparation time manipulations - were included as moderators of these phenomena. We conclude that asymmetrical switch costs and the reversed language dominance effect are important for theory development, but their utility for theory testing is limited due to their lack of robustness and the absence of confirmed moderatory variables.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miriam Gade
- Catholic University of Eichstätt-Ingolstadt, Department of Psychology, General Psychology
- Medical School Berlin, Department of Sciences, Berlin, Germany
| | - Mathieu Declerck
- Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Department of Linguistics and Literary Studies, Brussels, Belgium
| | | | | | - Iring Koch
- RWTH Aachen University, Department of Psychology, Aachen, Germany
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Hoshino N, Beatty-Martínez AL, Navarro-Torres CA, Kroll JF. Do Cross-Language Script Differences Enable Bilinguals to Function Selectively When Speaking in One Language Alone? FRONTIERS IN COMMUNICATION 2021; 6:668381. [PMID: 35419452 PMCID: PMC9004719 DOI: 10.3389/fcomm.2021.668381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The present study examined the role of script in bilingual speech planning by comparing the performance of same and different-script bilinguals. Spanish-English bilinguals (Experiment 1) and Japanese-English bilinguals (Experiment 2) performed a picture-word interference task in which they were asked to name a picture of an object in English, their second language, while ignoring a visual distractor word in Spanish or Japanese, their first language. Results replicated the general pattern seen in previous bilingual picture-word interference studies for the same-script, Spanish-English bilinguals but not for the different-script, Japanese-English bilinguals. Both groups showed translation facilitation, whereas only Spanish-English bilinguals demonstrated semantic interference, phonological facilitation, and phono-translation facilitation. These results suggest that when the script of the language not in use is present in the task, bilinguals appear to exploit the perceptual difference as a language cue to direct lexical access to the intended language earlier in the process of speech planning.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Judith F. Kroll
- Department of Language Science, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States
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Li C, Gollan TH. What Cognates Reveal about Default Language Selection in Bilingual Sentence Production. JOURNAL OF MEMORY AND LANGUAGE 2021; 118:104214. [PMID: 33456132 PMCID: PMC7810202 DOI: 10.1016/j.jml.2020.104214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
When producing connected speech, bilinguals often select a default-language as the primary force driving the utterance. The present study investigated the cognitive mechanisms underlying default language selection. In three experiments, Spanish-English bilinguals named pictures out of context, or read aloud sentences with a single word replaced by a picture with a cognate (e.g., lemon-limón) or noncognate name (e.g., table-mesa). Cognates speeded naming and significantly reduced switching costs. Critically, cognate effects were not modulated by sentence context. However, switch costs were larger in sentence context, which also exhibited significant language dominance effects, asymmetrical switch costs, and asymmetrical cognate facilitation effects, which were absent or symmetrical respectively in bare picture naming. These results suggest that default-language selection is driven primarily by boosting activation of the default language, not by proactive inhibition of the nondefault language. However, relaxation of proactive control in production of connected speech leads to greater reliance on reactive control to produce language switches relative to out-of-context naming, a contextually driven dynamic tradeoff in language control mechanisms.
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7
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Teubner-Rhodes S. Cognitive Persistence and Executive Function in the Multilingual Brain During Aging. Front Psychol 2020; 11:568702. [PMID: 33013606 PMCID: PMC7494780 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.568702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2020] [Accepted: 08/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Researchers have debated the extent to which the experience of speaking more than two languages induces long-term neuroplasticity that protects multilinguals from the adverse cognitive effects of aging. In this review, I propose a novel theory that multilingualism affects cognitive persistence, the application of effort to improve performance on challenging tasks. I review recent evidence demonstrating that the cingulo-opercular network, consisting of the bilateral inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) and dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC), supports cognitive persistence. I then show that this same network is involved in multilingual language control and changes with multilingual language experience. While both early and late multilinguals exhibit differences in the cingulo-opercular network compared to monolinguals, I find that early multilinguals have a pattern of decreased dACC activity and increased left IFG activity that may enable more efficient cognitive control, whereas late multilinguals show larger dACC responses to conflict that may be associated with higher cognitive persistence. I further demonstrate that multilingual effects on the cingulo-opercular network are present in older adults and have been implicated in the mitigation of cognitive symptoms in age-related neurodegenerative disorders. Finally, I argue that mixed results in the literature are due, in part, to the confound between cognitive persistence and ability in most executive function tasks, and I provide guidance for separating these processes in future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan Teubner-Rhodes
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, United States
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8
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Whole-Language and Item-Specific Inhibition in Bilingual Language Switching: The Role of Domain-General Inhibitory Control. Brain Sci 2020; 10:brainsci10080517. [PMID: 32764300 PMCID: PMC7464702 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci10080517] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2020] [Revised: 08/03/2020] [Accepted: 08/03/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
A prominent theory of bilingual speech production holds that appropriate language selection is achieved via inhibitory control. Such inhibition may operate on the whole-language and/or item-specific level. In this study, we examined these two levels of control in parallel, by introducing a novel element into the traditional cued language switching paradigm: half of the stimuli were univalent (each required naming in the same language every time it appeared), and the other half were bivalent (each required naming in different languages on different trials). Contrasting switch and stay trials provided an index for whole-language inhibition, while contrasting bivalent and univalent stimuli provided an index for item-specific inhibition. We then investigated the involvement of domain-general brain mechanisms in these two levels of language control. Neuroimaging studies report activation of the pre-supplementary motor area (pre-SMA), a key region in the executive control brain network, during language switching tasks. However, it is unclear whether or not the pre-SMA plays a causal role in language control, and at which level it exerts control. Using repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) to transiently disrupt the pre-SMA, we observed an essential role of this brain region in general speech execution, while evidence for its specific involvement in each level of inhibition remains inconclusive.
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Liu H, Kong C, de Bruin A, Wu J, He Y. Interactive influence of self and other language behaviors: Evidence from switching between bilingual production and comprehension. Hum Brain Mapp 2020; 41:3720-3736. [PMID: 32445238 PMCID: PMC7416054 DOI: 10.1002/hbm.25044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2019] [Revised: 04/16/2020] [Accepted: 05/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The neural mechanisms underlying one's own language production and the comprehension of language produced by other speakers in daily communication remain elusive. Here, we assessed how self‐language production and other‐language comprehension interact within a language switching context using event‐related functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (er‐fMRI) in 32 unbalanced Chinese‐English bilinguals. We assessed within‐modality language interference during language production and comprehension as well as cross‐modality interference when switching from production to comprehension and vice versa. Results revealed that the overall effect of production (across switch and repeat trials) was larger in the cross‐modality than within‐modality condition in a series of attentional control areas, namely the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex and left precuneus. Furthermore, the left precuneus was recruited more strongly in switch trials compared to repeat trials (i.e., switching costs) in within‐production conditions but not in the cross‐modality condition. These findings suggest that switching from production to comprehension recruits cognitive control areas to successfully implement switches between modalities. However, cross‐language interference (in the form of language switching costs) mainly stems from the self‐language production system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huanhuan Liu
- Research Center of Brain and Cognitive Neuroscience, Liaoning Normal University, Dalian, China.,Beijing Key Laboratory of Applied Experimental Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China.,Key Laboratory of Brain and Cognitive Neuroscience, Liaoning Province, Dalian, China
| | - Chao Kong
- Research Center of Brain and Cognitive Neuroscience, Liaoning Normal University, Dalian, China
| | | | - Junjie Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning & IDG/McGovern, Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Yuying He
- Research Center of Brain and Cognitive Neuroscience, Liaoning Normal University, Dalian, China
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Kuzyk O, Friend M, Severdija V, Zesiger P, Poulin-Dubois D. Are there Cognitive Benefits of Code-switching in Bilingual Children? A longitudinal study. BILINGUALISM (CAMBRIDGE, ENGLAND) 2020; 23:542-553. [PMID: 32774130 PMCID: PMC7413223 DOI: 10.1017/s1366728918001207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The current study explored bilingual parent and child code-switching patterns over time. Concurrent and predictive models of code-switching behaviour on executive function outcomes were also examined in a sample of 29 French-English bilinguals at 36 (Wave 1) and 61 (Wave 2) months of age. We investigated whether code-switching typology in a single-language context predicted executive function performance at each wave independently, and whether growth in code-switching frequency across waves predicted executive function performance at Wave 2. At both waves, parents and children participated in two free play sessions (in English and French), followed by a battery of executive function tasks administered in the dominant language. Results indicate more frequent code-switching from the non-dominant to the dominant language in children, and that children code-switch to fill lexical gaps. Results also suggest that less frequent code-switching in a single-language context is associated with better inhibitory control skills during the preschool period.
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11
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Chen J, Liu H. The Effect of the Non-task Language When Trilingual People Use Two Languages in a Language Switching Experiment. Front Psychol 2020; 11:754. [PMID: 32425856 PMCID: PMC7204993 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00754] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2019] [Accepted: 03/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
This study investigated the effect of non-task language in a language switching experiment. Non-task language refers to participants' languages (regardless of proficiency level) that are not used in any trials throughout the experiment. We recruited 60 Tibetan-Chinese-English trilinguals (12th-grade high school students with a median age of 17) to perform a lexical decision (word vs. non-word) task in only two of their languages. We repeated the experiment three times to present each language pair once. In each experiment, the participants were divided into two groups that significantly contrasted with each other in their non-task language while remaining comparable in the two task languages. Response time (RT) and error rate (ER) have been examined to evaluate task performance. The interaction between task performance and the participants' proficiency in the non-task language was also examined. The results showed anull effect of language switching. In addition, the effect of the non-task language was not found. These results were interpreted with reference to the main models of bilingual visual word recognition and the role of orthography specificity.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Hong Liu
- Department of English, School of Foreign Languages and Literatures, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China
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12
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Emmorey K, Li C, Petrich J, Gollan TH. Turning languages on and off: Switching into and out of code-blends reveals the nature of bilingual language control. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn 2020; 46:443-454. [PMID: 31246060 PMCID: PMC6933100 DOI: 10.1037/xlm0000734] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
When spoken language (unimodal) bilinguals switch between languages, they must simultaneously inhibit 1 language and activate the other language. Because American Sign Language (ASL)-English (bimodal) bilinguals can switch into and out of code-blends (simultaneous production of a sign and a word), we can tease apart the cost of inhibition (turning a language off) and activation (turning a language on). Results from a cued picture-naming task with 43 bimodal bilinguals revealed a significant cost to turn off a language (switching out of a code-blend), but no cost to turn on a language (switching into a code-blend). Switching from single to dual lexical retrieval (adding a language) was also not costly. These patterns held for both languages regardless of default language, that is, whether switching between speaking and code-blending (English default) or between signing and code-blending (ASL default). Overall, the results support models of bilingual language control that assume a primary role for inhibitory control and indicate that disengaging from producing a language is more difficult than engaging a new language. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen Emmorey
- Laboratory for Language and Cognitive Neuroscience, San Diego State University, 6495 Alvarado Road, Suite 200, San Diego, CA 92120
| | - Chuchu Li
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Ave., La Jolla, CA 92093-0948
| | - Jennifer Petrich
- Laboratory for Language and Cognitive Neuroscience, San Diego State University, 6495 Alvarado Road, Suite 200, San Diego, CA 92120
| | - Tamar H. Gollan
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Ave., La Jolla, CA 92093-0948
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Gollan TH, Li C, Stasenko A, Salmon DP. Intact reversed language-dominance but exaggerated cognate effects in reading aloud of language switches in bilingual Alzheimer's disease. Neuropsychology 2020; 34:88-106. [PMID: 31545627 DOI: 10.1037/neu0000592] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The current study investigated how Alzheimer's disease (AD) affects production of speech errors in reading-aloud of mixed-language passages with language switches on cognates (e.g., family/familia), noncognates (e.g., people/gente), and function words (the/la). METHOD Twelve Spanish-English bilinguals with AD and 22 controls read-aloud 8 paragraphs in 4 conditions: (a) English-default content switches, (b) English-default function switches, (c) Spanish-default content switches, and (d) Spanish-default function switches. RESULTS Reading elicited language intrusions (e.g., saying la instead of the), and several types of within-language errors (e.g., saying their instead of the). Reversed language-dominance effects were intact in AD; both patients and controls produced many intrusions on dominant language targets, and relatively fewer intrusions on nondominant language targets. The opposite held for within-language errors, which were more common with nondominant than dominant targets. Patients produced the most intrusion errors with cognate switch words (which best distinguished patients from controls in ROC curves of all speech error types), while controls had equal difficulty switching on cognate and function word targets. CONCLUSIONS Reversed language-dominance effects appear to illustrate automatic inhibitory control over the dominant language, but could instead reflect limited resources available for monitoring when completing a task in the nondominant language. The greater sensitivity of intrusion errors with cognate than with function word targets for distinguishing patients from controls implies that language control may be aided by relatively intact knowledge of grammatical constraints over code-switching in bilinguals with AD. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).
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Schaeffner S, Philipp AM. Modality-specific effects in bilingual language perception. JOURNAL OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2019. [DOI: 10.1080/20445911.2019.1698584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Simone Schaeffner
- Institute of Psychology, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
- Department of Psychology, University of Koblenz-Landau, Landau, Germany
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15
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Transcranial direct current stimulation influences bilingual language control mechanism: evidence from cross-frequency coupling. Cogn Neurodyn 2019; 14:203-214. [PMID: 32226562 DOI: 10.1007/s11571-019-09561-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2019] [Revised: 10/04/2019] [Accepted: 10/21/2019] [Indexed: 10/25/2022] Open
Abstract
How to better suppress the interference from the non-target language when switching from one language to the other in bilingual production? The current study applied transcranial direct current stimulation over the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex to modulate language control measured by cross-frequency coupling. We found that switching to L2 was more modulated by F4-F3 alpha-beta phase-amplitude compared to switching to L1 after receiving the anodal stimulation at the language task schema phase. These findings suggest that anodal stimulation affects the selection of the target language task schema by enhancing the activation of frontal areas and facilitating the coordination between the left and the right frontal hemispheres.
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Borragan M, Martin CD, de Bruin A, Duñabeitia JA. Exploring Different Types of Inhibition During Bilingual Language Production. Front Psychol 2018; 9:2256. [PMID: 30515123 PMCID: PMC6255976 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2018] [Accepted: 10/30/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Multilinguals have to control their languages constantly to produce accurate verbal output. They have to inhibit possible lexical competitors not only from the target language, but also from non-target languages. Bilinguals' training in inhibiting incongruent or irrelevant information has been used to endorse the so-called bilingual advantage in executive functions, assuming a transfer effect from language inhibition to domain-general inhibitory skills. Recent studies have suggested that language control may rely on language-specific inhibitory control mechanisms. In the present study, unbalanced highly proficient bilinguals completed a rapid naming multi-inhibitory task in two languages. The task assessed three types of inhibitory processes: inhibition of the non-target language, inhibition of lexical competitors, and inhibition of erroneous auditory feedback. The results showed an interaction between lexical competition and erroneous auditory feedback, but no interactions with the inhibition of the non-target language. The results suggested that different subcomponents of language inhibition are involved during bilingual language production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Borragan
- Basque Center on Cognition, Brain and Language, Donostia, Spain
| | - Clara D. Martin
- Basque Center on Cognition, Brain and Language, Donostia, Spain
- IKERBASQUE, Basque Foundation for Science, Bilbao, Spain
| | - Angela de Bruin
- Basque Center on Cognition, Brain and Language, Donostia, Spain
| | - Jon Andoni Duñabeitia
- Basque Center on Cognition, Brain and Language, Donostia, Spain
- Facultad de Lenguas y Educación, Universidad Nebrija, Madrid, Spain
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Timmer K, Calabria M, Branzi FM, Baus C, Costa A. On the Reliability of Switching Costs Across Time and Domains. Front Psychol 2018; 9:1032. [PMID: 29988490 PMCID: PMC6024545 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2018] [Accepted: 05/31/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Bilingual speakers are suggested to use control processes to avoid linguistic interference from the unintended language. It is debated whether these bilingual language control (BLC) processes are an instantiation of the more domain-general executive control (EC) processes. Previous studies inconsistently report correlations between measures of linguistic and non-linguistic control in bilinguals. In the present study, we investigate the extent to which there is cross-talk between these two domains of control for two switch costs, namely the n-1 shift cost and the n-2 repetition cost. Also, we address an important problem, namely the reliability of the measures used to investigate cross-talk. If the reliability of a measure is low, then these measures are ill-suited to test cross-talk between domains through correlations. We asked participants to perform both a linguistic- and non-linguistic switching task at two sessions about a week apart. The results show a dissociation between the two types of switch costs. Regarding test-retest reliability, we found a stronger reliability for the n-1 shift cost compared to the n-2 repetition cost within both domains as measured by correlations across sessions. This suggests the n-1 shift cost is more suitable to explore cross-talk of BLC and EC. Next, we do find cross-talk for the n-1 shift cost as demonstrated by a significant cross-domain correlation. This suggests that there are at least some shared processes in the linguistic and non-linguistic task.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kalinka Timmer
- Center for Brain and Cognition, Pompeu Fabra University, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Marco Calabria
- Center for Brain and Cognition, Pompeu Fabra University, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Francesca M. Branzi
- Neuroscience and Aphasia Research Unit, School of Biological Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Cristina Baus
- Center for Brain and Cognition, Pompeu Fabra University, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Albert Costa
- Center for Brain and Cognition, Pompeu Fabra University, Barcelona, Spain
- Institució Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avançats, Barcelona, Spain
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18
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Liu Y, Chang S, Li L, Liu W, Chen D, Zhang J, Wang R. Effects of Naming Language and Switch Predictability on Switch Costs in Bilingual Language Production. Front Psychol 2018; 9:649. [PMID: 29910748 PMCID: PMC5992385 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2017] [Accepted: 04/16/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Switch costs are defined as the phenomenon that bilinguals have worse performance in switch trials relative to non-switch trials. Bilinguals' naming language and switch predictability have been found to influence the magnitude of switch costs. However, how these two factors modulate switch costs in different phases (i.e., lemma activation and language selection) during language production remains unclear. Most previous studies using the language switching paradigm did not dissociate lemma activation from language selection, because the language cue was either presented simultaneously with or prior to a stimulus. Therefore, here we modified the language switching paradigm by presenting a digit stimulus prior to a visual cue. This allowed us to dissociate lemma activation from language selection, and thus we were able to investigate the mechanisms underlying the effects of naming language and switch predictability on switch costs during the two different phases in language production. Unbalanced Indonesian-Chinese bilinguals were required to name digits in either their L1 (Indonesian) or L2 (Chinese), and their reaction times and electrophysiological responses were recorded. The behavioral results showed the effects of switch predictability on switch costs, with responses in switch trials being slower than those in non-switch trials in the low switch predictability condition, while there was no significant difference in response times between switch trials and non-switch trials in the high switch predictability condition. The event-related potential results showed that neither naming language nor switch predictability affected switch costs during the lemma activation phase, but both did so during the language selection phase, particularly at the language task schema competition stage. The results imply that naming language and switch predictability affect switch costs mainly during the language task schema competition stage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yueyue Liu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Cognitive Science, Center for Studies of Psychological Application, School of Psychology, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
- School of Education, Qufu Normal University, Qufu, China
| | - Song Chang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Cognitive Science, Center for Studies of Psychological Application, School of Psychology, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
- School of Educational Science, Ludong University, Yantai, China
| | - Li Li
- The Key Laboratory of Chinese Learning and International Promotion, and College of International Culture, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Wenjuan Liu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Behavioral Science, Institute of Psychology, and Department of Psychology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Donggui Chen
- College of Chinese Language and Culture, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jinqiao Zhang
- College of Chinese Language and Culture, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Ruiming Wang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Cognitive Science, Center for Studies of Psychological Application, School of Psychology, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
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19
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Abstract
The goal of this study was to determine how trilinguals select the language they intend to use in a language switching context. Two accounts are examined: (a) a language-specific account, according to which language selection considers the activation level of words of the intended language only (i.e., language co-activation without language competition), and (b) a language non-specific account, where activated words from both the intended and non-intended languages compete for selection (i.e., language co-activation with language competition). Results showed that, in both groups, all three languages competed for selection and that selection was achieved by inhibiting the currently non-relevant languages. Moreover, extending findings from previous research, the study reveals that, in both Experiments 1 and 2, the amount of inhibition was influenced not only by language proficiency but also by the typological similarity between languages. Overall, the study shows that language switching performance can be accounted for by a strategic and flexible inhibitory account. In particular, the controlling system is "strategic" in the sense that it aims at preventing potential conflicting situations, such as typological closeness between languages, and it is "flexible" in that it adjusts languages' activation levels, depending on the conflict to be solved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michela Mosca
- 1 International Doctorate for Experimental Approaches to Language And Brain (IDEALAB), Potsdam, Germany.,2 Potsdam Research Institute for Multilingualism (PRIM), University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
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20
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Wu J, Kang C, Ma F, Gao X, Guo T. The influence of short-term language-switching training on the plasticity of the cognitive control mechanism in bilingual word production. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2018; 71:2115-2128. [DOI: 10.1177/1747021817737520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
This study examined the effect of short-term language-switching training on the cognitive control mechanism in bilingual word production. In two experiments, two groups of relatively proficient but unbalanced Chinese–English bilinguals performed a cued picture-naming task, in which they switched between their two languages. On two consecutive days, the participants took part in four sessions. The same procedure was employed on 2 days in Experiment 1, whereas the cue-language mapping was reversed on Day 2 in Experiment 2. In both experiments, picture naming in the dominant language (L1, Chinese) was slower than that in the weaker second language (L2, English) in all sessions. In addition, the reversed language dominance effect was enhanced with training, suggesting that training proactively increases the amount of inhibition of the dominant L1 at the global level. Furthermore, switching costs in the L1 were reduced with training in Experiment 1, but not in Experiment 2. These results indicate that language-switching training improves the efficiency of reactively exerting inhibitory control over the dominant L1 at the local level. However, when a cue matches with different target languages, the effect of training is absent at the local level. These findings reveal the plasticity and complexity of the cognitive control mechanism as a function of bilingual experience, particularly in language switching.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junjie Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning and IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, P.R. China
| | - Chunyan Kang
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning and IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, P.R. China
| | - Fengyang Ma
- School of Education, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Xiaoyi Gao
- Faculty of Education, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, P.R. China
| | - Taomei Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning and IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, P.R. China
- Center for Collaboration and Innovation in Brain and Learning Sciences, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, P.R. China
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21
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Timmer K, Grundy JG, Bialystok E. The influence of contextual cues on representations in the mental lexicon for bilinguals. BILINGUALISM 2017. [DOI: 10.1075/bpa.6.06tim] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kalinka Timmer
- Department of Psychology, York University /Departament de Tecnologies de la Informació i les Comunicacions, Universitat Pompeu Fabra
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22
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Gollan TH, Goldrick M. A switch is not a switch: Syntactically-driven bilingual language control. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn 2017; 44:143-156. [PMID: 28782969 DOI: 10.1037/xlm0000462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The current study investigated the possibility that language switches could be relatively automatically triggered by context. Single-word switches, in which bilinguals switched languages on a single word in midsentence and then immediately switched back, were contrasted with more complete whole-language switches, in which bilinguals completed a full phrase (or more) in the switched to language before switching back. Speech production was elicited by asking Spanish-English bilinguals to read aloud mixed-language paragraphs that manipulated switch type (single word, whole language), part of speech (switches on function or content words), and default language (dominant language English or nondominant Spanish). Switching difficulty was measured by production of translation-equivalent language intrusion errors (e.g., mistakenly saying pero instead of but). Controlling for word length (more errors on short vs. long words), intrusions were produced most often with function word targets in the single-word switch condition, and whole-language switches reduced production of intrusion errors for function but not content word targets. Speakers were also more likely to produce intrusions when intending to produce words in the dominant language-a reversed dominance effect. Finally, switches out of the default language elicited many errors, but switches back into the default language rarely elicited errors. The context-sensitivity of switching difficulty, particularly for function words, implies that some language switches are triggered automatically by control processes involving selection of a default language at a syntactic level. At a later processing stage, an independent form-level monitoring process prevents production of some planned intrusion errors before they are produced overtly. (PsycINFO Database Record
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamar H Gollan
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Diego
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23
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Gollan TH, Stasenko A, Li C, Salmon DP. Bilingual language intrusions and other speech errors in Alzheimer's disease. Brain Cogn 2017; 118:27-44. [PMID: 28753438 DOI: 10.1016/j.bandc.2017.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2017] [Revised: 07/12/2017] [Accepted: 07/20/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
The current study investigated how Alzheimer's disease (AD) affects production of speech errors in reading-aloud. Twelve Spanish-English bilinguals with AD and 19 matched controls read-aloud 8 paragraphs in four conditions (a) English-only, (b) Spanish-only, (c) English-mixed (mostly English with 6 Spanish words), and (d) Spanish-mixed (mostly Spanish with 6 English words). Reading elicited language intrusions (e.g., saying la instead of the), and several types of within-language errors (e.g., saying their instead of the). Patients produced more intrusions (and self-corrected less often) than controls, particularly when reading non-dominant language paragraphs with switches into the dominant language. Patients also produced more within-language errors than controls, but differences between groups for these were not consistently larger with dominant versus non-dominant language targets. These results illustrate the potential utility of speech errors for diagnosis of AD, suggest a variety of linguistic and executive control impairments in AD, and reveal multiple cognitive mechanisms needed to mix languages fluently. The observed pattern of deficits, and unique sensitivity of intrusions to AD in bilinguals, suggests intact ability to select a default language with contextual support, to rapidly translate and switch languages in production of connected speech, but impaired ability to monitor language membership while regulating inhibitory control.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Alena Stasenko
- San Diego State University/University of California, San Diego Joint Doctoral Program in Clinical Psychology, United States
| | - Chuchu Li
- University of California, San Diego, United States
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24
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Abstract
Though bilinguals know many more words than monolinguals, within each language bilinguals exhibit some processing disadvantages, extending to sublexical processes specifying the sound structure of words (Gollan & Goldrick, Cognition, 125(3), 491-497, 2012). This study investigated the source of this bilingual disadvantage. Spanish-English bilinguals, Mandarin-English bilinguals, and English monolinguals repeated tongue twisters composed of English nonwords. Twister materials were made up of sound sequences that are unique to the English language (nonoverlapping) or sound sequences that are highly similar-yet phonetically distinct-in the two languages for the bilingual groups (overlapping). If bilingual disadvantages in tongue-twister production result from competition between phonetic representations in their two languages, bilinguals should have more difficulty selecting an intended target when similar sounds are activated in the overlapping sound sequences. Alternatively, if bilingual disadvantages reflect the relatively reduced frequency of use of sound sequences, bilinguals should have greater difficulty in the nonoverlapping condition (as the elements of such sound sequences are limited to a single language). Consistent with the frequency-lag account, but not the competition account, both Spanish-English and Mandarin-English bilinguals were disadvantaged in tongue-twister production only when producing twisters with nonoverlapping sound sequences. Thus, the bilingual disadvantage in tongue-twister production likely reflects reduced frequency of use of sound sequences specific to each language.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chuchu Li
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA, 92093-0948, USA.
| | | | - Tamar H Gollan
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA, 92093-0948, USA
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25
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Chang S, Xie J, Li L, Wang R, Liu M. Switch Costs Occur at Lemma Stage When Bilinguals Name Digits: Evidence from Language-Switching and Event-Related Potentials. Front Psychol 2016; 7:1249. [PMID: 27630589 PMCID: PMC5005958 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2015] [Accepted: 08/05/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Switch costs are generally found in language switching tasks. However, the locus where switch costs occur during bilingual language production remains unclear. Several studies that used a cued language-switching paradigm have attempted to investigate this question in bilingual language production, but researchers have not reached a consensus. Moreover, we are interested in where switch costs occur when language selection occurs after lemma activation. Previous studies have not investigated this question because most previous studies presented language cues before or along with the stimuli. Therefore, we used a modified cued language-switching paradigm with a combined event-related potentials (ERPs) technique to explore the locus of switch costs during bilingual language production. The cue and stimulus were separated and presented in two different presentation sequences in which Indonesian–Chinese bilingual speakers were instructed to name digits in their L1 or L2 according to the color of the cue. The ERPs related to the cue and stimulus for two presentation sequences were measured. In the stimulus-cue sequence, the analysis that was time-locked to cues revealed a reversed switch cost as early as 220 ms after the cue onset; furthermore, a switch cost was shown in L1 with a late stage post-cue onset. The results suggested that when language selection occurred after lemma activation, the switch costs mainly occurred at the lemma selection stage. In the cue-stimulus sequence, the analysis that was time-locked to cues did not reveal significant main effects of switching, whereas the analysis that was time-locked to digits yielded a switch cost, again indicating that switch costs mainly occurred at the lemma selection stage rather than at the language task schema competition stage. Overall, our results indicated that when bilinguals spoke digits aloud in the language switching task, switch costs mainly occurred at the lemma selection stage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Song Chang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Cognitive Science, Center for Studies of Psychological Application, School of Psychology, South China Normal University Guangzhou, China
| | - Jiushu Xie
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Cognitive Science, Center for Studies of Psychological Application, School of Psychology, South China Normal University Guangzhou, China
| | - Li Li
- College of International Culture, South China Normal University Guangzhou, China
| | - Ruiming Wang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Cognitive Science, Center for Studies of Psychological Application, School of Psychology, South China Normal University Guangzhou, China
| | - Ming Liu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Cognitive Science, Center for Studies of Psychological Application, School of Psychology, South China Normal University Guangzhou, China
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26
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Babcock L, Vallesi A. Language control is not a one-size-fits-all languages process: evidence from simultaneous interpretation students and the n-2 repetition cost. Front Psychol 2015; 6:1622. [PMID: 26539151 PMCID: PMC4612644 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2015] [Accepted: 10/07/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Simultaneous interpretation is an impressive cognitive feat which necessitates the simultaneous use of two languages and therefore begs the question: how is language management accomplished during interpretation? One possibility is that both languages are maintained active and inhibitory control is reduced. To examine whether inhibitory control is reduced after experience with interpretation, students with varying experience were assessed on a three language switching paradigm. This paradigm provides an empirical measure of the inhibition applied to abandoned languages, the n-2 repetition cost. The groups showed different patterns of n-2 repetition costs across the three languages. These differences, however, were not connected to experience with interpretation. Instead, they may be due to other language characteristics. Specifically, the L2 n-2 repetition cost negatively correlated with self-rated oral L2 proficiency, suggesting that language proficiency may affect the use of inhibitory control. The differences seen in the L1 n-2 repetition cost, alternatively, may be due to the differing predominant interactional contexts of the groups. These results suggest that language control may be more complex than previously thought, with different mechanisms used for different languages. Further, these data represent the first use of the n-2 repetition cost as a measure to compare language control between groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Babcock
- Executive Function Laboratory, Department of Neuroscience, University of Padova Padova, Italy
| | - Antonino Vallesi
- Executive Function Laboratory, Department of Neuroscience, University of Padova Padova, Italy ; Cognitive Neuroscience Center, University of Padova Padova, Italy
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27
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - David W Green
- Department of Cognitive, Perceptual, and Brain Sciences, University College London
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28
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TSE, ALT ARRIBA. Local and Global Task Switching Costs in Bilinguals Who Vary in Second Language Proficiency. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY 2015. [DOI: 10.5406/amerjpsyc.128.1.0089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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29
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Gollan TH, Kleinman D, Wierenga CE. What's easier: doing what you want, or being told what to do? Cued versus voluntary language and task switching. J Exp Psychol Gen 2014; 143:2167-95. [PMID: 25313951 DOI: 10.1037/a0038006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The current study contrasted cued versus voluntary switching to investigate switching efficiency and possible sharing of control mechanisms across linguistic and nonlinguistic domains. Bilinguals switched between naming pictures in Spanish versus English or between reading numbers aloud versus adding their digits, either without or with repetition of stimuli and with fewer requirements as to when and how much they had to switch relative to previous instantiations of voluntary switching. Without repetition (Experiment 1), voluntary responses were faster than cued responses on both stay and switch trials (especially in the nonlinguistic switching task), whereas in previous studies the voluntary advantage was restricted to switch-cost reduction. Similarly, when targets were presented repeatedly (Experiment 2), voluntary responses were faster overall for both linguistic and nonlinguistic switching, although here the advantage tended to be larger on switch trials and cross-domain similarity appeared to reflect nonoverlapping switching strategies. Experiment 3 confirmed the overall voluntary speed advantage for the read-add task in monolinguals and revealed a reduction in switch costs only for a different nonlinguistic task (size-parity judgments). These results reveal greater overall advantages for voluntary over cued switching than previously reported but also that the precise manifestation of the voluntary advantage can vary with different tasks. In the linguistic domain, lexical inaccessibility introduces some unique control mechanisms, and repetition may magnify cross-domain overlap in control mechanisms. Finally, under some limited conditions, cost-free switches were found in both linguistic and nonlinguistic domains; however, suspension of top-down control may be restricted to language or highly automatic tasks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamar H Gollan
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Diego
| | - Daniel Kleinman
- Department of Psychology, University of California, San Diego
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30
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Gollan TH, Schotter ER, Gomez J, Murillo M, Rayner K. Multiple levels of bilingual language control: evidence from language intrusions in reading aloud. Psychol Sci 2014; 25:585-95. [PMID: 24367061 PMCID: PMC3946281 DOI: 10.1177/0956797613512661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Bilinguals rarely produce words in an unintended language. However, we induced such intrusion errors (e.g., saying el instead of he) in 32 Spanish-English bilinguals who read aloud single-language (English or Spanish) and mixed-language (haphazard mix of English and Spanish) paragraphs with English or Spanish word order. These bilinguals produced language intrusions almost exclusively in mixed-language paragraphs, and most often when attempting to produce dominant-language targets (accent-only errors also exhibited reversed language-dominance effects). Most intrusion errors occurred for function words, especially when they were not from the language that determined the word order in the paragraph. Eye movements showed that fixating a word in the nontarget language increased intrusion errors only for function words. Together, these results imply multiple mechanisms of language control, including (a) inhibition of the dominant language at both lexical and sublexical processing levels, (b) special retrieval mechanisms for function words in mixed-language utterances, and (c) attentional monitoring of the target word for its match with the intended language.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamar H. Gollan
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Diego
| | | | - Joanne Gomez
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Diego
| | - Mayra Murillo
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Diego
| | - Keith Rayner
- Department of Psychology, University of California, San Diego
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31
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Bobb SC, Wodniecka Z. Language switching in picture naming: What asymmetric switch costs (do not) tell us about inhibition in bilingual speech planning. JOURNAL OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2013. [DOI: 10.1080/20445911.2013.792822] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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32
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Weissberger GH, Wierenga CE, Bondi MW, Gollan TH. Partially overlapping mechanisms of language and task control in young and older bilinguals. Psychol Aging 2012; 27:959-74. [PMID: 22582883 PMCID: PMC3494773 DOI: 10.1037/a0028281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The current study tested the hypothesis that bilinguals rely on domain-general mechanisms of executive control to achieve language control by asking if linguistic and nonlinguistic switching tasks exhibit similar patterns of aging-related decline. Thirty young and 30 aging bilinguals completed a cued language-switching task and a cued color-shape switching task. Both tasks demonstrated significant aging effects, but aging-related slowing and the aging-related increase in errors were significantly larger on the color-shape than on the language task. In the language task, aging increased language-switching costs in both response times and errors, and language-mixing costs only in response times. In contrast, the color-shape task exhibited an aging-related increase in costs only in mixing errors. Additionally, a subset of the older bilinguals could not do the color-shape task, but were able to do the language task, and exhibited significantly larger language-switching costs than matched controls. These differences, and some subtle similarities, in aging effects observed across tasks imply that mechanisms of nonlinguistic task and language control are only partly shared and demonstrate relatively preserved language control in aging. More broadly, these data suggest that age deficits in switching and mixing costs may depend on task expertise, with mixing deficits emerging for less-practiced tasks and switching deficits for highly practiced, possibly "expert" tasks (i.e., language).
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Affiliation(s)
- Gali H Weissberger
- San Diego State University/University of California, San Diego Joint Doctoral Program in Clinical Psychology, San Diego, California, USA
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33
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Misra M, Guo T, Bobb SC, Kroll JF. When bilinguals choose a single word to speak: Electrophysiological evidence for inhibition of the native language. JOURNAL OF MEMORY AND LANGUAGE 2012; 67:10.1016/j.jml.2012.05.001. [PMID: 24222718 PMCID: PMC3820915 DOI: 10.1016/j.jml.2012.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Behavioral and event-related potential (ERP) measures are reported for a study in which relatively proficient Chinese-English bilinguals named identical pictures in each of their two languages. Production occurred only in Chinese (the first language, L1) or only in English (the second language, L2) in a given block with the order counterbalanced across participants. The repetition of pictures across blocks was expected to produce facilitation in the form of faster responses and more positive ERPs. However, we hypothesized that if both languages are activated when naming one language alone, there might be evidence of inhibition of the stronger L1 to enable naming in the weaker L2. Behavioral data revealed the dominance of Chinese relative to English, with overall faster and more accurate naming performance in L1 than L2. However, reaction times for naming in L1 after naming in L2 showed no repetition advantage and the ERP data showed greater negativity when pictures were named in L1 following L2. This greater negativity for repeated items suggests the presence of inhibition rather than facilitation alone. Critically, the asymmetric negativity associated with the L1 when it followed the L2 endured beyond the immediate switch of language, implying long-lasting inhibition of the L1. In contrast, when L2 naming followed L1, both behavioral and ERP evidence produced a facilitatory pattern, consistent with repetition priming. Taken together, the results support a model of bilingual lexical production in which candidates in both languages compete for selection, with inhibition of the more dominant L1 when planning speech in the less dominant L2. We discuss the implications for modeling the scope and time course of inhibitory processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maya Misra
- Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, USA
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34
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Bialystok E, Craik FIM, Luk G. Bilingualism: consequences for mind and brain. Trends Cogn Sci 2012; 16:240-50. [PMID: 22464592 PMCID: PMC3322418 DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2012.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 377] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2012] [Revised: 03/02/2012] [Accepted: 03/06/2012] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Building on earlier evidence showing a beneficial effect of bilingualism on children's cognitive development, we review recent studies using both behavioral and neuroimaging methods to examine the effects of bilingualism on cognition in adulthood and explore possible mechanisms for these effects. This research shows that bilingualism has a somewhat muted effect in adulthood but a larger role in older age, protecting against cognitive decline, a concept known as 'cognitive reserve'. We discuss recent evidence that bilingualism is associated with a delay in the onset of symptoms of dementia. Cognitive reserve is a crucial research area in the context of an aging population; the possibility that bilingualism contributes to cognitive reserve is therefore of growing importance as populations become increasingly diverse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ellen Bialystok
- Department of Psychology, York University, 4700 Keele Street, Toronto, ON, M3J 1P3, Canada.
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Kroll JF, Dussias PE, Bogulski CA, Kroff JRV. Juggling Two Languages in One Mind. PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING AND MOTIVATION 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-394393-4.00007-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 163] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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Are there bilingual advantages on nonlinguistic interference tasks? Implications for the plasticity of executive control processes. Psychon Bull Rev 2011; 18:625-58. [PMID: 21674283 DOI: 10.3758/s13423-011-0116-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 522] [Impact Index Per Article: 40.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
It has been proposed that the unique need for early bilinguals to manage multiple languages while their executive control mechanisms are developing might result in long-term cognitive advantages on inhibitory control processes that generalize beyond the language domain. We review the empirical data from the literature on nonlinguistic interference tasks to assess the validity of this proposed bilingual inhibitory control advantage. Our review of these findings reveals that the bilingual advantage on conflict resolution, which by hypothesis is mediated by inhibitory control, is sporadic at best, and in some cases conspicuously absent. A robust finding from this review is that bilinguals typically outperform monolinguals on both compatible and incompatible trials, often by similar magnitudes. Together, these findings suggest that bilinguals do enjoy a more widespread cognitive advantage (a bilingual executive processing advantage) that is likely observable on a variety of cognitive assessment tools but that, somewhat ironically, is most often not apparent on traditional assays of nonlinguistic inhibitory control processes.
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Green DW. Language control in different contexts: the behavioral ecology of bilingual speakers. Front Psychol 2011; 2:103. [PMID: 21779260 PMCID: PMC3132677 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2011] [Accepted: 05/09/2011] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
This paper proposes that different experimental contexts (single or dual language contexts) permit different neural loci at which words in the target language can be selected. However, in order to develop a fuller understanding of the neural circuit mediating language control we need to consider the community context in which bilingual speakers typically use their two languages (the behavioral ecology of bilingual speakers). The contrast between speakers from code-switching and non-code-switching communities offers a way to increase our understanding of the cortical, subcortical and, in particular, cerebellar structures involved in language control. It will also help us identify the non-verbal behavioral correlates associated with these control processes
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Affiliation(s)
- David William Green
- Department of Cognitive, Perceptual and Brain Sciences, University College London London, UK
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Luk G, Anderson JA, Craik FI, Grady C, Bialystok E. Distinct neural correlates for two types of inhibition in bilinguals: Response inhibition versus interference suppression. Brain Cogn 2010; 74:347-57. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bandc.2010.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 170] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2010] [Revised: 09/20/2010] [Accepted: 09/20/2010] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Bialystok E. Bilingualism. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS. COGNITIVE SCIENCE 2010; 1:559-572. [PMID: 26271503 DOI: 10.1002/wcs.43] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
The cognitive and linguistic processes involved in the acquisition and use of two languages are systematically different from those processes engaged in monolingual language use, leading to detectable changes in language and cognitive outcomes for bilinguals. The present article describes these differences and offers speculation on possible mechanisms. Measures of linguistic proficiency and processing are often poorer in bilinguals than in monolinguals: bilingual children have a smaller vocabulary in each language than comparable monolingual children in that language and bilingual adults take longer to retrieve specific words than monolinguals. In contrast, measures of nonverbal executive control, including the ability to selectively attend to relevant information, inhibit distraction, and shift between tasks is generally better in bilinguals than in monolinguals. These two types of outcomes are illustrated and explained through behavioral and neuroimaging evidence. The implications of these effects of bilingualism on cognitive and linguistic processing are considered in terms of both their clinical and theoretical consequences. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. For further resources related to this article, please visit the WIREs website.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ellen Bialystok
- Department of Behavioural Sciences, York University, Toronto, Ontario M3J 1P3, Canada
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Siegal M, Surian L, Matsuo A, Geraci A, Iozzi L, Okumura Y, Itakura S. Bilingualism accentuates children's conversational understanding. PLoS One 2010; 5:e9004. [PMID: 20140246 PMCID: PMC2815776 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0009004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2009] [Accepted: 12/22/2009] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Although bilingualism is prevalent throughout the world, little is known about the extent to which it influences children's conversational understanding. Our investigation involved children aged 3-6 years exposed to one or more of four major languages: English, German, Italian, and Japanese. In two experiments, we examined the children's ability to identify responses to questions as violations of conversational maxims (to be informative and avoid redundancy, to speak the truth, be relevant, and be polite). PRINCIPAL FINDINGS In Experiment 1, with increasing age, children showed greater sensitivity to maxim violations. Children in Italy who were bilingual in German and Italian (with German as the dominant language L1) significantly outperformed Italian monolinguals. In Experiment 2, children in England who were bilingual in English and Japanese (with English as L1) significantly outperformed Japanese monolinguals in Japan with vocabulary age partialled out. CONCLUSIONS As the monolingual and bilingual groups had a similar family SES background (Experiment 1) and similar family cultural identity (Experiment 2), these results point to a specific role for early bilingualism in accentuating children's developing ability to appreciate effective communicative responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Siegal
- Department of Psychology, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom.
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