Racial and ethnic socialization as moderators of racial discrimination and school adjustment of adopted and nonadopted Korean American adolescents

Navigating puberty, identity, and race among transnationally, transracially adopted Korean American adolescents

This exploratory study examined the relation between pubertal timing and dimensions of ethnic-racial identity among adopted Korean Americans raised transracially in White families. The study also examined whether internalized racism moderated the association between pubertal timing and ethnic-racial identity. Adopted Korean American adolescents (N = 202; 108 females; ages 13-19 years) completed measures of pubertal development, ethnic-racial identity, and internalized racism in 2007. There was no significant main effect of pubertal timing for either male or female adolescents. Internalized racism moderated the relation between pubertal timing and ethnic-racial identity clarity (B = -.16, p = .015) among male adolescents. Specifically, earlier pubertal timing was significantly associated with lower ethnic-racial identity clarity for male adolescents with higher levels of internalized racism.

Juvenile justice-involved Haitian families' experiences of structural racism and socioethnic discrimination

Objective

This article examines how Haitian families with youth interfacing with the juvenile justice system cope with structural racism and socioethnic discrimination (RSD).

Background

Haitian families' experiences of discrimination based on their histories, immigrant status, and positionality illustrates the need for more scientific scrutiny of the experiences of RSD among Black immigrant groups. This National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA)-funded study details the narratives of and responses to RSD experienced by Haitian families interfacing with the juvenile justice system.

Method

Data are drawn from psychosocial assessment tools, therapeutic sessions, and ethnographic interviews conducted with Haitian families participating in a family-based therapeutic intervention. Using critical race theory, we foreground the voices of those negatively impacted and use Bourdieu's theory of practice to examine the intersectionality of race and ethnicity in this population's experiences of RSD.

Results

The different experiences of and responses to RSD among youth and caregivers of Haitian descent are both a variation of the complex continuum of structural racism in the United States and unique to their immigrant experience of marginalization and cultural invalidation by public institutions, community members, and peers.

Conclusion

Professionals working with this population must be sensitive to the ways these experiences impact young people's identity development processes, their health, and well-being. Haitian caregivers should be encouraged to protect their children by engaging in racial and socioethnic socialization that validates their RSD experiences.

Implications

Understanding the intergenerational experiences of RSD among Black, immigrant groups and encouraging family dialogue and adolescent support will strengthen family cohesion during this period of racial reckoning.

How age and race affect the frequency, timing, and content of conversations about race with children

Anti-racist efforts require talking with children about race. The present work tested the predictors of U.S. adults' (N = 441; 52% female; 32% BIPOC participants; M_age  = 35 years) conversations about race with children across two timepoints in 2019. Approximately 60% of adult participants talked to their children (3-12 years) about race during the preceding week; only 29% talked to other adults about race during the same period. This paper describes the content and predictors of conversations about race, revealing how conversations differ depending on the participant's race, a child's age, and whether the conversation occurs with children or another adult. These data have important implications for theorizing about when, why, and how adults actually talk about race with children and adults.

From One Generation to the Next: Hmong American Adolescents’ Views of Maternal Racial Socialization

This study investigated Hmong American adolescents’ perceptions of their mother as helping them understand race as Asian American youths in an urban context. Twenty-four Hmong American adolescents ages 14 to 18 ( M = 15.8; 67% female; 54% U.S. born, 46% born in Southeast Asia) participated in semi-structured interviews, following approval of the Institutional Review Board. Directed content analysis revealed three themes of racial, ethnic, and neutral socialization practices. Frequently, responses reflected the categories of racism awareness, racial group identification, and diversity awareness, as well as no discussion of race (racial socialization theme). Although the study asked specifically about racial socialization, some responses indicated that mothers engaged in cultural practices that included cultural markers and ethnic group identification (ethnic socialization theme). A few responses also represented neutral socialization that emphasized good behavior. Emergent categories included intra-racial discrimination and bicultural socialization. More frequently than girls, boys reported having discrimination experiences without discussing race with mothers. Girls reported more intra-racial discrimination messages, as well as bicultural and neutral messages than boys. These findings can help Hmong American adolescents and their families continue to build successful strategies for dealing with racism and discrimination, and support understanding how Asian Americans address racialized experiences in the U.S.

Ethnic Socialization, Ethnic Identity, and Self-Esteem in Chinese Mulao Adolescents

We examined the associations and likely pathways between ethnic socialization, ethnic identity, and self-esteem among junior high school students of Chinese Mulao ethnic minority. A total of 469 Mulao students (220 boys and 249 girls) completed the Ethnic Socialization Measurement revised by Yin et al. (2016), the Revised Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (MEIM-R) by Roberts et al. (1999), and Rosenberg’s Self-esteem Scale (Chinese Version) by Wang et al. (1999). The main results indicated that adolescents who perceived more promotion of harmony messages tended to report stronger ethnic identity and higher self-esteem. Adolescents who perceived cultural socialization displayed stronger ethnic identity and higher self-esteem, while the promotion of distrust messages was negatively associated with self-esteem. Multiple-group analysis revealed that the relationships were stable across gender, parental education, but varied significantly across students’ grade. These findings emphasize the important role of positive ethnic socialization messages in adolescents’ ethnic identity and self-esteem. In addition, it is also important that we pay attention to negative ethnic socialization messages and consider their grade when communicating ethnic information with adolescents. Finally, our results are analyzed and notable suggestions are presented for ethnic family education.

"Race was something we didn't talk about": Racial Socialization in Asian American Families

OBJECTIVE

Our goal was to explore racial socialization practices in Asian American families during a time of heightened racial tension.

BACKGROUND

Asian Americans hold a complex racial position in the United States, made even more complicated by an increase in public protests regarding socioracial injustices in the United States experienced by racial minority groups. Discussions about race and ethnicity occur within Asian American families but often focus on cultural heritage rather than awareness of discrimination and the historical roots of racism.

METHOD

Our study used an inductive-deductive thematic analysis to collect data from 12 Asian American young adults. Semistructured interviews queried participants' experiences with racial socialization in their nuclear families and their own racial identity.

FINDINGS

Qualitative analysis revealed the following themes: (a) Participants received limited messages regarding racial issues, (b) participants engaged in "bottom-up" racial socialization and taught their parents about race, and (c) participants felt left out of society's racial dialogue.

CONCLUSION

During this time of heightened racial tension, Asian American young adults struggle to find their place, despite wanting to participate in community building.

IMPLICATIONS

Without strong Asian American racial socialization practices in families, young adults must educate themselves and initiate racial meaning-making in their families.

Racial discrimination and the moderating effects of racial and ethnic socialization on the mental health of Asian American youth

This study investigates trajectories of racial discrimination, racial and ethnic socialization (RES), and their interaction effects with social positions (nativity and gender) on mental health. A longitudinal study of 786 Filipino American (FA) and Korean American (KA) youth from the Midwestern United States (M_age.Wave1  = 15) confirmed that discrimination increased and significantly contributed to the upward trend of mental health distress, whereas the impact of RES differed by its type and by ethnicity. For example, promotion of mistrust and ethnic-heritage socialization were protective among U.S.-born FA youth, but for KA youth, preparation for bias was protective regardless of nativity and gender. This study highlights the importance of considering social positions to better understand the role of RES in youth psychological adjustment.

Family Adversity and Relationship Quality for Pacific Islanders and the Mediating Role of Coming to Terms, Self-Esteem, and Depression

This study investigated the association between family of origin (FOO) adversities and relationship quality for Pacific Islanders as well as the potential intermediary role of coming to terms (CTT), depression, and self-esteem. The sample consisted of 226 self-identified Pacific Islanders who completed the RELATE assessment (see www.relate-institute.org). Results indicated that greater levels of FOO adversity predicted lower levels of CTT. However, higher levels of CTT in turn associated with higher self-esteem, and lower levels of depression. Results also indicated that greater FOO adversity associates with lower relationship quality indirectly. The clinical implications of these findings and directions for future research are discussed.

Profiles of Ethnic-Racial Identity, Socialization, and Model Minority Experiences: Associations with Well-Being Among Asian American Adolescents

Ethnic-racial identity, ethnic-racial socialization, and racialized experiences are fundamental to the development of youth of color. However, most prior studies have examined their developmental impact in isolation. The present study fills this gap using a person-centered approach to elucidate patterns of ethnic-racial identity, socialization, and model minority experiences among 145 Asian American adolescents (Mage = 14.3, SD = 0.59; 65% female). Three distinct profiles were identified. Overall, adolescents with stronger ethnic-racial identity and more cultural socialization but less preparation for bias (Salient, 13%) demonstrated better psychosocial and academic outcomes. Adolescents with moderate levels on the six indicators of ethnic-racial identity, socialization, and model minority experiences (Moderate, 72%) reported better sleep quality and less delinquency. Adolescents with low levels of ethnic-racial identity and cultural socialization but greater preparation for bias (Marginal, 15%) had the least adaptative outcomes across all domains. The findings observed the heterogeneity of ethnic-racial experiences within the Asian American group and highlighted the importance of examining the combined influences of ethnic-racial identity, socialization, and model minority experiences on health and well-being among Asian American adolescents from a multidimensional perspective.

The quiet migration of adopted adolescents in Italy: Ethnic identity, reflected minority categorization, and ethnic discrimination

Internationally adopted adolescents face the crucial developmental task of shaping their ethnic identity by balancing their dual belongingness to the current cultural background and the birth country's ethnic background. This process does not depend exclusively on individual variables, but it is embedded within the social context. The present study was aimed at exploring the role of ethnic discrimination in moderating the association between reflected minority categorization, on the one hand, and ethnic identity, on the other. A self-report questionnaire was administrated to 180 internationally adopted adolescents. Results showed that at high levels of ethnic discrimination the relation between reflected minority categorization and ethnic identity in terms of commitment was negative and stronger. When considering instead ethnic identity in terms of exploration, it is possible to note that higher levels of reflected minority categorization were associated with higher levels of exploration. Findings are discussed in light of post-adoption intervention for adoptees.

Stress, Burnout, and Low Self-Efficacy of Nursing Professionals: A Qualitative Inquiry

Nursing professionals face a high level of stress and burnout due to overloaded responsibilities, which may cause a low level of self-efficacy. From the perspective of nursing professionals, the research aims to understand what are the sources of stress and burnout which would reduce the self-efficacy and the unbalanced patient ratio and how would nursing professionals describe their experiences, sources of stress and burnout, and self-efficacy. Based on the snowball sampling strategy, 60 nursing professionals were invited for qualitative research data collection. Based on the lens of the self-efficacy approach, the results indicated that the environmental factors, including workplace bullying, family stress, misunderstanding of public members, and personal development and career enhancement took important roles in increasing their stress and burnout and in reducing their self-efficacy. The outcomes of this study discovered the social status and discrimination toward nursing professionals. Government leaders, policymakers, and researchers should take this research as an opportunity to reform their policy for human resource management and education for the respectfulness of medical and nursing professionals in the public health system.

The Moderation of Parental Support on the Relationship Between Race-Related Career Barriers and Academic Achievement

This study investigated the relationship between college students’ perception of race-related barriers in career and educational development and their immediate (first-semester grade point average [GPA]) and long-term academic performance (4-year cumulative GPA) and the role of parents’ instrumental and emotional support in moderating such effects. Participants were 820 undergraduate students at a Mid-Atlantic university in the United States. Path analysis of the proposed moderated mediation model indicated that (1) perception of race-related barriers was significantly and negatively correlated with students’ 4-year cumulative GPA, (2) parents’ instrumental support negatively predicted students’ 4-year GPA, whereas emotional support positively predicted students’ 4-year GPA, and (3) parental emotional support significantly buffered the negative direct effect of race-related barriers on students’ 4-year GPA. Research and practical implications were discussed.

Stress, Burnout, and Turnover Issues of Black Expatriate Education Professionals in South Korea: Social Biases, Discrimination, and Workplace Bullying

The purpose of this study is to understand expatriate educators’ overall teaching experiences and opinions about living in South Korea. The research study sought to explore the relationship between stressors and social biases against Black individuals and their suicidal behaviours and turnover decisions. The approach of stress, burnout, career decision, and suicide guided this study as the lens. The research method for this study included a phenomenological analysis of two sessions of semi-structured interviews with 18 Black expatriates in the field of education in South Korea. The results indicate that their experiences were impacted by unfairness against individuals based on their skin colour and nationalities. The outcomes of this study highlight the major difficulties experienced by foreign professionals living in South Korea. They can be used by human resource professionals, school administrators, and government leaders to reform their current policy and improve expatriate experiences so as to prevent turnover.

Perceived ethnic discrimination, ethnic-racial socialization, and substance use among ethnic minority adolescents

Perceived discrimination is a significant problem among ethnic minority adolescents and has been consistently linked to negative outcomes, including substance use, although few studies examine this relation with more than one time point. The present study adds to the literature by examining whether ethnic-racial socialization moderates the effects of perceived discrimination at time 1 on recent substance use six months later in a sample of ethnic minority, public high school students in Southern California. The results from analyses of survey data showed that perceived discrimination did not predict the likelihood of the outcomes, and they suggest that discrimination based on attributes other than ethnicity, such as immigration or documentation status, may be operating in the sample. Future research should simultaneously analyze effects of discrimination by type of attribute as well as level (e.g., intragroup, intergroup, and structural). With regard to ethnic-racial socialization in the multivariate models, cultural socialization was negatively related to the likelihood of the outcomes. Preparation for bias was positively related to the likelihood of the outcomes. Promotion of mistrust was not statistically significantly related to the likelihood of the outcomes. Although the socialization variables did not moderate the effect of perceived discrimination, they were clearly related to substance use in multiple ways, suggesting that future research continue to distinguish the effects of socialization by type to better understand how they can be addressed to optimize youth outcomes.

Child development at the intersection of race and SES: An overview

Racial/ethnic disparities in socioeconomic status (SES) persist in the United States. These disparities perpetuate the intergenerational transmission of inequality. Although families of color vary significantly in socioeconomic standing and evidence suggests the links between SES and child development may differ by race/ethnicity, we know relatively little about how race and SES interact to shape children's social contexts and developmental outcomes. This chapter draws theoretical insights from sociocultural perspectives on development and intersectionality theory to understand how and why family life and child development may play out in complex ways at the nexus of race and SES.

Time-varying associations of racial discrimination and adjustment among Chinese-heritage adolescents in the United States and Canada

The aim of our study was twofold: to examine (a) whether the link between racial discrimination and adjustment showed age-related changes across early to late adolescence for Chinese-heritage youth and (b) whether the age-related associations of the discrimination–adjustment link differed by gender, nativity, and geographical region. We pooled two independently collected longitudinal data sets in the United States and Canada (N = 498, ages 12–19 at Wave 1) and used time-varying effect modeling to show that discrimination is consistently associated with poorer adjustment across all ages. These associations were stronger at certain ages, but for males and females, first- and second-generation adolescents, and US and Canadian adolescents they differed. There were stronger relations between discrimination and adjustment in early adolescence for males compared to females, in middle adolescence for first-generation compared to second-generation adolescents, and in early adolescence for US adolescents compared to Canadian adolescents. In general, negative implications for adjustment associated with discrimination diminished across the span of adolescence for females, second-generation, and US and Canadian adolescents, but not for males or first-generation adolescents. The results show that the discrimination–adjustment link must be considered with regard to age, gender, nativity, and region, and that attention to discrimination in early adolescence may be especially important.

Everyday discrimination, negative emotions, and academic achievement in Filipino secondary school students: Cross-sectional and cross-lagged panel investigations

Different forms of overt discrimination have been consistently linked to maladaptive psychological, physical health, and educational outcomes. However, limited research has been carried out to assess the link of subtle forms of discrimination like everyday discrimination on academic functioning in the school context. The current study addressed this research gap through examining the association of everyday discrimination with negative emotions and academic achievement among Filipino high school students. A cross-sectional study (Study 1) showed that everyday discrimination was positively associated with negative emotions and negatively linked to perceived academic achievement. Furthermore, everyday discrimination had indirect effects on academic achievement through the intermediate variable negative emotions. Then, a two-wave cross-lagged panel investigation (Study 2) demonstrated that Time 1 everyday discrimination was linked to higher Time 2 negative emotions. Reciprocal associations were also found among the constructs because Time 1 academic achievement was linked to lower levels Time 2 negative emotions and Time 2 everyday discrimination. The theoretical and practical implications of the research are elucidated.

Reactive and Proactive Ethnic-Racial Socialization Practices of Second-Generation Asian American Parents

Studies of Asian American parenting have primarily focused on first-generation immigrant parents. Few studies have examined the experiences of second-generation Asian American adults who now have children of their own. The purpose of this qualitative study, then, is to better understand the values, practices, and concerns of second-generation Asian American parents regarding ethnic and racial socialization. The sample included 34 Asian American parents from seven different cities across the United States. Using interviews and a focus group, the results show that (a) place, specific contexts, and transitions were important to second-generation parents' motivation behind ethnic and racial socialization, (b) parents are reactive and proactive, especially with regard to promoting an awareness of discrimination, in the racial socialization of their children, (c) parents engage in predominantly proactive ethnic socialization when passing on heritage culture, which they believe is important, but also difficult to do, (d) in contrast to ethnic socialization, passing on American culture and passing on important values (that they did not see as solely "American" or "Asian") came easily, and (e) parents consider the intersection of race and culture with religion and disability when socializing their children. Our findings highlight unique aspects of how second-generation Asian American parents engage in ethnic and racial socialization in an increasingly socially diverse world.

A Post-Racial Society in Which Ethnic-Racial Discrimination Still Exists and Has Significant Consequences for Youths’ Adjustment

Ethnic and racial minority youths in the United States are at risk for experiencing unfair treatment and other forms of marginalization based on their ethnic-racial background. The current article discusses the prevalence of perceived ethnic-racial discrimination among ethnic-racial minority children and adolescents in the United States, provides an overview of the potentially negative consequences of such experiences for youth, and explains how youths’ ethnic-racial identity may protect against the negative effects of ethnic-racial discrimination.

A Transactional/Ecological Perspective on Ethnic-Racial Identity, Socialization, and Discrimination

We first review current literature on three ethnic-racial dynamics that are considered to be resources and stressors in the lives of ethnic-minority youth: ethnic-racial identity, socialization, and discrimination. Next, we propose that a more contextualized view of these ethnic-racial dynamics reveals that they are interdependent, inseparable, and mutually defining and that an ecological/transactional perspective on these ethnic-racial dynamics shifts researchers' gaze from studying them as individual-level processes to studying the features of settings that produce them. We describe what is known about how identity, socialization, and discrimination occur in four microsystems-families, peers, schools, and neighborhoods-and argue that focusing on specific characteristics of these microsystems in which particular types of identity, socialization, and discrimination processes cooccur would be informative.