Longitudinal associations between mothers' and fathers' anger/irritability expressiveness, harsh parenting, and adolescents' socioemotional functioning in nine countries

The Association between Discrepancies in Parental Emotional Expressivity, Adolescent Loneliness and Depression: A Multi-Informant Study Using Response Surface Analysis

Incongruent perceptions of parental emotional expressivity between parents and adolescents may signify relational challenges, potentially impacting adolescents' socioemotional adjustment. Direct evidence is still lacking and father-adolescent discrepancies are overlooked. This study employed a multi-informant design to investigate whether both mother-adolescent and father-adolescent discrepancies in perceptions of parental expressivity are related to adolescents' mental well-being, specifically focusing on loneliness and depression. Analyzing data from 681 families (mean age of adolescents = 15.5 years old, 51.2% girls, 40% only-children) in China revealed that adolescents tended to perceive paternal and maternal emotional expressivity more negatively than their parents, particularly fathers. Polynomial regression and response surface analysis showed significant links between parent-adolescent congruence and incongruence and adolescent loneliness. (In)Congruence between adolescents and mothers or fathers predicted later adolescent depression, mediated by adolescent loneliness and varied by the dimension of emotional expressivity. These findings provide insights into the roles of mothers' and fathers' emotional expressivity in shaping children's mental well-being during adolescence.

An Expanded Conceptual Framework for Understanding Irritability in Childhood: The Role of Cognitive Control Processes

Children prone to irritability experience significant functional impairments and internalising and externalising problems. Contemporary models have sought to elucidate the underlying mechanisms in irritability, such as aberrant threat and reward biases to improve interventions. However, the cognitive control processes that underlie threat (e.g., attention towards threats) and reward (e.g., attention towards reward-related cues) biases and the factors which influence the differential activation of positive and negative valence systems and thus leading to maladaptive activation of cognitive control processes (i.e., proactive and reactive control) are unclear. Thus, we aim to integrate extant theoretical and empirical research to elucidate the cognitive control processes underlying threat and reward processing that contribute to irritability in middle childhood and provide a guiding framework for future research and treatment. We propose an expanded conceptual framework of irritability that includes broad intraindividual and environmental vulnerability factors and propose proximal 'setting' factors that activate the negative valence and positive valence systems and proactive and reactive cognitive control processes which underpin the expression and progression of irritability. We consider the implications of this expanded conceptualisation of irritability and provide suggestions for future research.

Child-parent agreement on the SDQ: The role of child-parent attachment and parental feelings

OBJECTIVES

Children and their parents often provide divergent reports regarding their mental health on the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). These discrepancies may impede the diagnostic processes. The present study aimed to explore how a child's attachment to the parent and parental feelings may explain some of the variability between parent's and children's reports on the SDQ.

METHODS

Data were collected using self-report questionnaires from 277 children and their parents (n = 421) who were referred to a public mental health clinic. This information was classified into clinical categories (normal and abnormal) and analyzed using multinomial logistic regression.

RESULTS

The agreement rates between children and parents on the normality of children were high in general and across gender and age. Insecure attachment to parents positively and significantly predicted the agreement of child and parent reporting abnormality and disagreement when parents reported normality and children reported abnormality. Parental anger positively and significantly predicted disagreement in reports in which parents reported abnormal anger and children reported normal anger.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings highlight the importance of assessing informant variability in association with emotional and relationship variables as clinically meaningful information for a clinical diagnosis.

Parenting a High and Growing Population of Youth in the Arab Region: A Scoping Review for an Evidence-Informed Research Agenda

The Arab region is experiencing the largest youth cohort in its history. Parental influence is a clear factor in the well-being of this demographic. This scoping review serves as the first consolidated synthesis of existing research on parenting in the Arab world, aimed at identifying research gaps and informing future research agendas. Searches of 18 databases resulted in 4,758 records (1995-2018) in all languages. Using Arksey and O'Malley's methodological framework, eligible studies (n = 152) underwent duplicate data abstraction. An evidence gap map was developed using 3i.e.'s platform. Studies were mostly published in English (88%), and lead authors' affiliations were mostly from Arab institutions. Included studies were mostly cross-sectional (89%), quantitative (96%), conducted in a school/university (83%), and surveyed children and adolescents (70%). Most studies (79%) examined parenting influences on youth outcomes. Fewer examined parenting measurement (30%) or evaluated interventions (1%). Mental health and school performance were the most commonly investigated outcomes. The evidence gap map allows researchers who study youth in the Arab world to efficiently and visually delineate the gaps and strategically prioritize research needs. Future studies should employ robust mixed methods study designs, focus on evaluation and psychometric research, engage youth in the research process and explore a more diverse set of outcomes.

Irritability in Youths: A Critical Integrative Review

Irritability, defined as proneness to anger that may impair an individual's functioning, is common in youths. There has been a recent upsurge in relevant research. The authors combine systematic and narrative review approaches to integrate the latest clinical and translational findings and provide suggestions for addressing research gaps. Clinicians and researchers should assess irritability routinely, and specific assessment tools are now available. Informant effects are prominent, are stable, and vary by age and gender. The prevalence of irritability is particularly high among individuals with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, autism spectrum disorder, and mood and anxiety disorders. Irritability is associated with impairment and suicidality risk independent of co-occurring diagnoses. Developmental trajectories of irritability (which may begin early in life) have been identified and are differentially associated with clinical outcomes. Youth irritability is associated with increased risk of anxiety, depression, behavioral problems, and suicidality later in life. Irritability is moderately heritable, and genetic associations differ based on age and comorbid illnesses. Parent management training is effective for treating psychological problems related to irritability, but its efficacy in treating irritability should be tested rigorously, as should novel mechanism-informed interventions (e.g., those targeting exposure to frustration). Associations between irritability and suicidality and the impact of cultural context are important, underresearched topics. Analyses of large, diverse longitudinal samples that extend into adulthood are needed. Data from both animal and human research indicate that aberrant responses to frustration and threat are central to the pathophysiology of irritability, revealing important translational opportunities.

Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Relations Among Irritability, Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Symptoms, and Inhibitory Control

OBJECTIVE

Irritability and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms frequently co-occur in youth. Although ADHD has been associated with inhibitory control deficits, the literature on irritability and inhibitory control is mixed. Examining how irritability, ADHD symptoms, and inhibitory control interrelate both cross-sectionally and longitudinally across development could shed light on common and distinct mechanisms of youth psychopathology.

METHOD

We utilized a cross-lagged panel model with data from 2 time points (at ages 10 and 12 years) of the Adolescent Brain and Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study (N = 7,444, or ∼63% of the baseline sample with full data at each time point) to test cross-sectional and longitudinal associations among parent-reported irritability and ADHD symptoms and behaviorally assessed inhibitory control. This was performed separately across discovery and replication subsamples, each n = 3,722.

RESULTS

As expected, irritability and ADHD symptoms exhibited strong cross-sectional and reciprocal cross-lagged associations. Higher ADHD symptoms at age 10 years were associated concurrently with poorer inhibitory control and predicted poorer inhibitory control at age 12. Contrary to predictions, inhibitory control was not significantly associated with irritability cross-sectionally, nor was it predictive of later irritability or ADHD symptoms.

CONCLUSION

These findings highlight strong links between irritability and ADHD. Although inhibitory control deficits were linked to ADHD and predictive of its symptom course, inhibitory control had no significant associations with irritability. Future research should investigate other candidate mechanisms of the co-occurrence of irritability and ADHD symptoms and predictors of their developmental trajectories.

Editorial: Neuropsychological Correlates of Irritability Accompanying Symptoms of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: Clues and Pitfalls

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is one of the most common neurodevelopmental disorders and is characterized by developmentally inappropriate, pervasive, and impairing symptoms of inattention and/or hyperactivity/impulsivity.1 Although not listed among the core symptoms, irritability, reduced tolerance to frustration, and labile mood are considered features associated with ADHD.1,2 Irritability refers to a tendency to get angry quickly and/or easily at a lower threshold of frustration and respond disproportionately to triggers.3 Almost two-thirds of youth with ADHD may display impairing irritability, while rates of ADHD may be elevated among youth with clinically significant irritability.2 Irritability and impulsivity are thought to share neurobiological mechanisms that may overlap with executive and self-regulatory functions such as inhibitory control.3-5 The nature and developmental stability of these associations are still debated. Areas of controversy include the role of emotion regulation problems in positive vs negative emotions for impairment6; relations between those problems and risk-taking behavior, hyperactive-impulsive symptoms, and disruptive behavior problems2-5; and the nature of emotion regulation problems (ie, as core symptoms, as a feature of a variant of ADHD, or as a characteristic of specific comorbidities such as depression).2.

Investigating associations between emotional and behavioral problems, self-esteem, and parental attachment among adolescents: A cross-sectional study in Indonesia

Background

Emotional and Behavioral Problems (EBPs) are prevalent among adolescents, and adolescents' capacity for adaptation can be influenced by their interactions with their parents, environment, and self-esteem. This link has not been systematically examined among adolescents in West Sumatra, Indonesia. This study aimed to assess the association of parental attachment and self-esteem with EBPs in adolescents.

Methods

A cross-sectional study was conducted from July to November 2022 in Padang West Sumatra, Indonesia. In total, 854 students from public senior high school 4 Padang were involved in this study and completed questionnaires on demographics, EBPs, parental attachment, and self-esteem. There was a total of five subscales for EBPs, which included emotional problems, conduct problems, hyperactivity, peer problems and prosocial. Additionally, there were three subscales for parental attachment, which included the mother's attachment, father's attachment, and peer attachment. Spearman's correlation, independent-sample t-tests, ANOVA and multiple linear regression analysis were employed to examine factors associated with EBPs.

Results

This study showed that father's attachment (r = -0.191, p < 0.001), mother's attachment (r = -0.241, p < 0.001), and self-esteem (r = -0.437, p < 0.001) were negatively correlated with EBPs. The linear regression analysis showed EBPs was associated with father's education, father's communication, father's alienation, mother's alienation, and self-esteem. All predictors of overall EBPs among adolescents were able to explain 31 % of the variance in EBPs.

Conclusion

High self-esteem and a strong parental attachment have positive outcomes in terms of mental health in adolescents. Thus, increasing adolescent self-esteem and establishing a warm parent attachment can be the main target in providing interventions for Indonesian adolescents with EBPs.

Maternal and paternal emotion expression and youths' negative emotions: The moderation of resting respiratory sinus arrhythmia

OBJECTIVE

We investigated whether college students' resting Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia (RSA) would moderate the association between parental negative dominant and submissive emotion expression and their negative emotions.

METHODS

Participants were 97 Chinese college students (28.87% male, Mage = 19.11, SD =.89). Participants reported their perceived maternal and paternal emotion expression, as well as their negative emotions. Resting RSA was assessed during a laboratory visit.

RESULTS

Parental negative dominant emotion expression was positively related to students' negative emotions. Additionally, the association between paternal negative dominant emotion expression and negative emotions was stronger among students with low (versus high) levels of resting RSA. Nonetheless, no similar association was found in maternal negative emotion expression.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings contribute important information regarding the different roles of maternal and paternal negative emotion expression in college students' emotional outcomes, and signify the interaction between parental socialization and individual characteristics in human developmental process.

Mother phubbing and harsh mothering: Mothers' irritability and adolescents' gender as moderators

BACKGROUND

While extant evidence supports the link between mother phubbing (Mphubbing) and harsh mothering, the current understanding of factors that may affect this relationship is limited.

METHODS

Hierarchical regression analyses were conducted to examine the relation between Mphubbing and harsh mothering, as well as to explore whether mothers' irritability and adolescents' gender would moderate this relationship. The participants included 482 middle school students (51.7 % girls) and their mothers from China.

RESULTS

The results revealed a significant positive association between Mphubbing as reported by adolescents and their perception of harsh mothering. However, the predictive power of Mphubbing for harsh mothering varied based on mothers' irritability and adolescents' gender. Specifically, the association between Mphubbing and harsh mothering was perceived more strongly in girls than in boys, but this gender difference was only observed among adolescents whose mothers rated themselves as high in irritability.

CONCLUSIONS

The current study offers a preliminary understanding of the association between Mphubbing and harsh mothering through mothers' irritability and adolescents' gender as moderators, which has certain theoretical and practical implications for comprehending harsh mothering in the digital age.

Prospective within-family bidirectional effects between parental emotion socialization practices and Chinese adolescents' psychosocial adjustment

Previous research indicates that parental emotion socialization (ES) practices play important roles in adolescents' social and emotional development. However, longitudinal studies testing bidirectional effects are relatively scarce. Additionally, most studies have focused on people from Western societies. In the current 3-year, multi-informant, longitudinal study of Chinese adolescents and their parents, we investigated prospective bidirectional effects between parental positive ES practices and adolescents' psychosocial adjustment (i.e., self-esteem and depressive symptoms). Adolescents (N = 710 at T1, 50% boys, Mage = 12.41, SD = 0.59) reported on parental positive ES practices and their own depressive symptoms and self-esteem when they were in 7th, 8th, and 9th grade. Mothers and fathers reported on their own use of positive ES practices at all three time points. We utilized a random intercept cross-lagged panel model to examine between- and within-family effects. Overall results showed robust effects of adolescent depressive symptoms on parental positive ES practices and bidirectional effects between parental ES and adolescent self-esteem. Effects differed by informants whether using adolescent-perceived data, or mother- or father-reported data. However, these child effects and bidirectional effects did not differ by adolescent sex. Our findings add to the understanding of parental ES and adolescent psychosocial adjustment.

Offspring irritability: associations with parental psychopathology and personality

Although there are well-established correlates and outcomes of irritability, there are fewer studies reporting on predictors of the longitudinal course of irritability in youth. The current report examined parent internalizing and externalizing psychopathology and dimensions of personality as predictors of the developmental course of irritability in youth. Offspring irritability was assessed between ages 2 and 10 years using the Irritability Factor from the parent-reported Child Behavior Checklist (N = 570, 53.51% female). Parental psychopathology was assessed with a clinical interview; parents also completed the General Temperament Survey as a measure of personality. Results demonstrated that offspring irritability decreased with age. Offspring irritability was associated with parental depressive and anxiety disorders, higher levels of negative emotionality/neuroticism (NE) and disinhibition, and lower levels of positive emotionality; parental NE and disinhibition remained unique predictors of offspring irritability in a multivariate model. Finally, parental externalizing disorders were associated with more stable trajectories of offspring irritability, whereas offspring of parents without a history of externalizing disorders showed decreasing irritability across time. Findings demonstrate that different aspects of parental personality and psychopathology have differential impacts on levels and course of offspring irritability.

Predictors and outcomes associated with the growth curves of self-efficacy beliefs in regard to anger and sadness regulation during adolescence: a longitudinal cross-cultural study

Introduction

This longitudinal study examined unique and joint effects of parenting and negative emotionality in predicting the growth curves of adolescents' self-efficacy beliefs about regulating two discrete negative emotions (anger and sadness) and the association of these growth curves with later maladjustment (i.e., internalizing and externalizing problems).

Methods

Participants were 285 children (T1: M age = 10.57, SD = 0.68; 53.3% girls) and their parents (mothers N = 286; fathers N = 276) from Colombia and Italy. Parental warmth, harsh parenting, and internalizing and externalizing problems were measured in late childhood at T1, whereas early adolescents' anger and sadness were measured at T2 (T2: M age = 12.10, SD = 1.09). Adolescent self-efficacy beliefs about anger and sadness regulation were measured at five time-points from T2 to T6 (T6: M age = 18.45, SD = 0.71), and internalizing and externalizing problems were measured again at T6.

Results

Multi-group latent growth curve models (with country as the grouping variable) demonstrated that in both countries there was on average a linear increase in self-efficacy about anger regulation and no change or variation in self-efficacy about sadness regulation. In both countries, for self-efficacy about anger regulation (a) T1 harsh parenting and T1 externalizing problems were negatively associated with the intercept, (b) T2 anger was negatively associated with the slope, and (c) the intercept and the slope were associated with lower T6 internalizing and externalizing problems, controlling for T1 problems. For self-efficacy about sadness regulation, (a) T1 internalizing problems were negatively associated with the intercept only in Italy, (b) T2 sadness was negatively associated with the intercept only in Colombia, and (c) the intercept negatively predicted T6 internalizing problems.

Discussion

This study advances knowledge of the normative development of self-efficacy beliefs about anger and sadness regulation during adolescence across two countries, highlighting the predictive value of pre-existing family and individual characteristics on this development and prediction by the development of self-efficacy beliefs on later adjustment.

The role of socio-cultural background and child age for parental regulation strategies and children's self-regulation: A comparison between Germany, Chile, and El Salvador

This study compared parental regulation strategies and children's self-regulation in three different countries (Germany, Chile, El Salvador). N = 300 primary caregivers of 1- to 3-year-olds filled out a parental questionnaire (IMpulse-MAnagement in the caregiver-child dyad, IMMA; Pauen et al., 2019) assessing (a) socio-demographic variables, (b) parental ideas and goals regarding children's self-regulation skills, (c) children's self-regulation strategies in dealing with internal challenges or demands, and (d) caregiver's regulation strategies. Age-group comparisons revealed that (1) children increased compliance and verbal negotiation with their caregivers as they grow older, and (2) parents adapted their regulation strategies to the age of the child. Country-group comparisons further indicated substantial similarities and differences between countries with respect to (3) how parents expected children to deal with requests and prohibitions, as well as with their own needs, feelings, and impulses, (4) how children responded to goal-frustration and parental demands, and (5) which regulatory strategies parents used to support their offspring. These exploratory findings are discussed in the light of current models on cultural learning, parent-child interactions, and child self-regulation development.

Parent-Child Discrepancies in Perceived Parental Emotion Socialization: Associations with Children's Internalizing and Externalizing Problems in Chinese Families

Parental emotion socialization is highly associated with children's internalizing and externalizing problems. However, research on parent-child discrepancies in parental emotion socialization perceptions and their relationship with children's developmental outcomes remains limited. This study explores the relationship between parent-child discrepancies in their reports of parental emotion socialization and children's internalizing/externalizing problems in Chinese families. The participants were 390 children (55% girls, M_age = 11.70 years, SD_age = 1.17) and their primary caregivers (68% mother, M_age = 39.52 years, SD_age = 5.23). A latent profile analysis identified three profiles of parent-child discrepancies in supportive parental emotion socialization and four profiles in non-supportive parental emotion socialization. Children with more negative perceptions of parental emotion socialization than their parents exhibited the most internalizing and externalizing problems. The parent-child perception difference of the supportive dimension connected to internalizing and externalizing problems, while the perception difference of the non-supportive dimension connected only to internalizing problems. These findings advocate for the conceptualization of perceptions of parent-child discrepancies within family dynamics, which may predict children's developmental outcomes.

Warm and Harsh Parenting, Self-Kindness and Self-Judgment, and Well-Being: An Examination of Developmental Differences in a Large Sample of Adolescents

Objectives: This study aimed to examine the associations between warm and harsh parenting and adolescent well-being, and the mediating effects of self-kindness and self-judgment, in relationships. Moreover, this study investigated developmental differences across three adolescence stages (early, middle, and late). Methods: In total, 14,776 Chinese adolescents (mean age = 13.53 ± 2.08, 52.3% males), including individuals in early (10-12 years old, N = 5055), middle (13-15 years old, N = 6714), and late adolescence (16-18 years old, N = 3007) participated in this study. All the adolescents rated their levels of warm and harsh parenting, self-kindness and self-judgment, and well-being. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was adopted to examine the mediation model. Multi-group analysis was conducted to investigate differences in the mediation model across the different developmental stages. Results: Both warm and harsh parenting were related to adolescent well-being through the mediating effects of self-kindness and self-judgment. However, warm parenting exerted a more substantial impact on adolescent well-being. Self-kindness had a more robust mediating effect than self-judgment in relationships. Moreover, harsh parenting had a weaker impact on adolescent well-being in late adolescence than in early and middle adolescence. Warm parenting had a more significant impact on adolescent well-being in early adolescence than in middle and late adolescence. Conclusions: Overall, warm parenting had a more substantial effect than harsh parenting on adolescent well-being. The findings also highlighted the crucial mediating effect of self-kindness in the relationships between parenting and well-being. Moreover, this study also indicated the importance of warm parenting in early adolescence. Intervention programs should focus on enhancing the level of warm parenting to promote self-kindness in adolescents, in order to improve their well-being.

Parental Happiness Socialization and Youth Adjustment in Italy and Azerbaijan in the COVID-19 Pandemic Era

This study aims to cross-culturally identify the parental socialization strategies in response to a child's happiness and their associations with youth academic and socio-emotional adjustment, controlling for the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. Participants were a convenient sample of Italian (N = 606, 81.9% mothers) and Azerbaijanis (N = 227, 61.4% mothers) parents of youths (Mage = 12.89, SD = 4.06; 51% girls). Parents filled out an online survey to assess their socialization strategies in response to their children's happiness, their children's negative emotion regulation and dysregulation, academic performance, and prosocial behavior. Exploratory factorial analysis showed the presence of two factors that enclosed supportive and unsupportive parental socialization strategies. A multiple-group path analysis model showed that similarly across countries, supportive parental strategies were positively related to youths' prosocial behavior and that unsupportive parental strategies were positively related to youths' negative emotion dysregulation, and negatively related to youths' academic performance and negative emotion regulation. Those results emerged controlling for parents' and adolescents' gender and age, parents' educational level, social desirability, and Covid-related problems. This study advances cross-cultural knowledge about the impact of the strategies that parents use to socialize their children's happiness in the unique context of the COVID-19 pandemic.

Mothers' Emotion Regulation and Negative Affect in Infants: The Role of Self-Efficacy and Knowledge of Parenting Practices

Early in development, children rely heavily on caregivers for assistance with the regulation of negative emotion. As such, it is important to understand parent characteristics that influence caregiver ability to attenuate infant negative affect and mediating factors by which this process may unfold. This study examined the relationship between parental emotional regulation strategies (ERs) and infants' negative affect and tested the mediating effects of parenting self-efficacy and knowledge of this association. Results indicated that higher maternal reappraisal was related to higher maternal self-efficacy whereas higher maternal suppression was related to lower knowledge of parenting practices. Maternal suppression was negatively related to infant frustration; maternal self-efficacy was positively related to infant falling reactivity and negatively related to sadness. There was a significant indirect effect between maternal reappraisal and infant falling reactivity through maternal self-efficacy. The mediation result suggests that mothers with higher use of reappraisal show higher self-efficacy and have infants with higher falling reactivity. Maternal knowledge about parenting practices was related to lower infant fear. Maternal knowledge of parenting practices did not mediate any associations between maternal emotion regulation strategies and infant negative affect. These findings contribute to the understanding early protective parenting mechanisms for supporting the external regulation of negative affect in infants and also in designing and implementing preventive parenting programs focused on the emotional needs of parents and children.

Negative internal working models as mechanisms that link mothers' and fathers' personality with their parenting: A short-term longitudinal study

OBJECTIVE

Research on associations between parents' personality and parenting has a long history, but mechanisms that explain them remain unsettled. We examined parents' explicit and implicit negative internal working models (IWMs) of the child, assessed at toddler age, as linking parental personality and parenting.

METHOD

Mothers and fathers from 200 community families provided personality self-reports (Neuroticism, Agreeableness, Empathy, and Anger/Hostility) when their children were infants. When children were toddlers, the explicit negative IWMs included self-reported low-mentalizing reflective functioning and resentment regarding the child. The implicit negative IWMs were coded as negative relational schemas from parental interviews. Parental positive affect, responsiveness, and power-assertive control were observed in lengthy interactions. Measures were parallel for mother- and father-child dyads.

RESULTS

Mothers' implicit IWMs linked the association between low Empathy and more power-assertive control. Fathers' explicit IWMs linked the associations between high Neuroticism and low Agreeableness and lower responsiveness. Additionally, fathers' Agreeableness and Empathy directly predicted their parenting. Two paths (Agreeableness → implicit IWMs, and explicit IWMs → responsiveness) significantly differed between mothers and fathers.

CONCLUSIONS

IWMs may link parental personality with parenting. The findings integrate and inform several bodies of literature in personality, social cognition, and developmental psychology.

Do Parents' Internal Processes and Feelings Contribute to the way they Report Their Children's Mental Difficulties on the Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ)?

The way parents report their child's emotional and behavioral difficulties is important both for identifying the child's needs, diagnosis, and prevention. This study examined to what extent parents' internal processes predict the way in which parents report their child's emotional and behavioral difficulties on the SDQ, as mediated by parental feelings. Parents of children who were referred to a community mental health clinic completed a self-report questionnaire including the following scales: adulthood attachment style, self-regulation difficulty, personal well-being, self-compassion parental feelings, and their child's emotional-behavioral difficulties. Study findings indicated that parents' internal processes do not directly predict parents' report of their children's mental difficulties on the SDQ, only when mediated by parental feelings. These findings highlight the significance of parental feelings in reporting children's behavioral and emotional difficulties. It also contributes to the body of knowledge concerning the importance of caring for parents' needs and feelings and overall parenthood.

Pathways from Maternal Harsh Discipline Through Rumination to Anxiety and Depression Symptoms: Gender and Normativeness of Harsh Discipline as Moderators

This study examined gender-specific longitudinal pathways from harsh parenting through rumination to anxiety and depression symptoms among early adolescents from three countries and six subgroups. Participants were 567 mothers, 428 fathers, and 566 children (T1: Mage = 10.89; 50% girls) from Medellín, Colombia (n = 100); Naples, Italy (n = 95); Rome, Italy (n = 99); Durham, North Carolina, United States (Black n = 92, Latinx n = 80, and White n = 100). Parent reported maternal and paternal harsh parenting were measured at T1. Adolescent reported rumination was measured at T2 (Mage = 12.58) and anxiety and depression symptoms were measured at T1 and T3 (Mage = 13.71). Rumination mediated the pathway from maternal harsh discipline to girls' anxiety and depression symptoms, controlling for baseline anxiety and depression symptoms. The more harsh discipline mothers used, the more their daughters ruminated, which in turn was associated with increased anxiety and depression symptoms. Exploratory moderated mediation analyses indicated that the strength of the mediational pathway from maternal harsh discipline through girls' rumination to anxiety and depression symptoms decreased as the normativeness of harsh parenting increased. Mediational pathways for boys and for paternal harsh discipline were not significant. Our findings expand knowledge on specific contexts in which rumination is a mechanism for understanding pathways to anxiety and depression symptoms.

Spare the rod, spoil the child?--Predictive effects of parental adult attachment on adolescent anxiety: The mediating role of harsh parenting

Based on family system theory, this study explores the relationship between parental adult attachment and adolescent anxiety, and the mediating effect of harsh parenting. A total of 997 families participated in the survey. The Experiences in Close Relationships Scale, Harsh Parenting Scale, and Trait Anxiety Scale were used to investigate students and their parents. The results showed that: (1) both paternal and maternal adult attachment avoidance positively predicted adolescent anxiety. (2) Parental harsh parenting mediates the relationship between parental attachment and adolescent anxiety. The results show that adult attachment and harsh parenting have important effects on adolescents' anxiety and family harmony.

We Know Even More Things: A Decade Review of Parenting Research

In this article, we highlight the important ideas that have emerged from research on parenting and adolescent development over the past decade. Beginning with research on authoritative parenting, we examine key elements of this parenting style and its influence across diverse contexts and populations. We turn our attention to four topics that have generated much research in the past decade: (1) how parenting contributes to adolescent peer and romantic relationships; (2) the impact of parenting on adolescent brain development; (3) gene-environment interactions in parenting research; and (4) parents' involvement in adolescents' social media use. We discuss contemporary challenges and ways parents can promote healthy development. We consider the integration of research, practice, and policy that best supports parents and adolescents.

The influence of youth and parent reports of parental knowledge and monitoring and reporting discrepancy on high risk youth offending

INTRODUCTION

Positive parenting practices are known to be related to lower levels of youth offending. Questions remain as to the overlap between youth and parent perceptions of parenting practices, and the relationship of perception discrepancies with youth offending. This study examines the concordance of parenting behaviors reports, the relationship between parent and youth perceptions of parenting measures with youth offending, and whether discordant youth and parent reports are related to heterogeneity in youth offending.

METHODS

Survey data from 818 high risk U.S. youth averaging 16 years old who participated in the Pathways to Desistance study and his or her parent form the basis of this analysis.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

Results demonstrate youth and parent reports of parental knowledge and parental monitoring are correlated, yet independent predictors of youth offending variety scores. Youth and parent reports about parenting measures demonstrate youth offending is highest when youth perceive parents as uninvolved, and lowest when youth estimates of parental knowledge and monitoring are higher than parent estimates. Parenting matters for high-risk youth, especially in reducing the likelihood of property offending. Using multiple perspectives to assess parenting practices is important in studying these dyadic relationships.

COVID-19 Impact on Parental Emotion Socialization and Youth Socioemotional Adjustment in Italy

This study examines the change and associations in parental emotion socialization strategies in response to children's negative emotions and youths' adjustment, comparing before the Covid-19 pandemic hit Italy and since the pandemic began. Participants were convenient cross-sectional/normative (Study 1) and clinical/longitudinal (Study 2) samples of Italian parents whose children were in middle childhood and adolescence. In Study 1, self-reported socialization strategies, youths' maladjustment, and emotion dysregulation increased since the pandemic began. Whereas, in Study 2, socialization strategies and youths' maladjustment decreased since the pandemic started. In both studies, unsupportive parental emotion socialization predicted youths' maladjustment and emotion dysregulation, while supportive parental emotion socialization predicted adaptive emotion regulation. This study advances knowledge about the impact of the Covid-19 pandemic on the family context.

A Dyadic Analysis of Depressive Symptoms, Harsh Parenting, and Rejection in Filipino Mothers and Fathers

This study examines within-person and cross-person relations between depressive symptoms, harsh parenting, and parental rejection in low-income Filipino mothers and fathers of adolescents using an actor-partner interdependence model (APIM). Mother and father dyads (N = 81, M_age  = 43.48, SD = 8.66) recruited from urban neighborhoods in the Philippines completed orally administered questionnaires on depressive symptoms, harsh parenting, and rejection. Results showed that mothers' scores and fathers' scores on depressive symptoms did not significantly differ and that mothers scored significantly higher than fathers on harsh parenting and rejection. Dyadic analyses using the APIM showed that the actor effect of depressive symptoms on harsh parenting was statistically significant for fathers only and that the actor effects of depressive symptoms on rejection were statistically significant for both mothers and fathers. No partner effects on harsh parenting and rejection were statistically significant. These findings contribute to the robust evidence linking parental depressive symptoms to negative parenting behaviors and highlight the need to attend to both fathers' psychological health and mothers' psychological health in efforts to reduce harsh and rejecting parenting behaviors among Filipino parents.

The Interplay of Parental Response to Anger, Adolescent Anger Regulation, and Externalizing and Internalizing Problems: A Longitudinal Study

Numerous studies have reported substantive correlations between anger socialization, children’s anger regulation, and internalizing/externalizing problems. However, substantially less is known about the interplay among these constructs during the developmental stage of adolescence, and longitudinal studies on causal relations (i.e., parent-directed, adolescent-directed, or reciprocal effects) are rare. It is also unclear whether the development of internalizing and externalizing problems have similar causal relations. We collected three waves of longitudinal data (Grade 6, Grade 7, Grade 9) from multiple informants. A sample of N = 634 adolescents (mostly 11–12 years at Time 1; 50.6% male) and their parents (predominantly Caucasian with German nationality) completed questionnaires assessing parents’ responses to anger, adolescents’ anger regulation, and adolescents’ internalizing/externalizing problems at each wave. Comparisons of different cross-lagged models revealed reciprocal rather than unidirectional effects. However, we found more parent-directed effects with respect to the development of internalizing problems, whereas relations regarding externalizing problems were more adolescent-directed, i.e., adolescents’ externalizing problems and their anger regulation predicted changes in their parents’ responses to anger across time. Adolescent anger regulation was an important maintaining factor of parents’ responses to anger in later adolescence. Our findings suggest that assumptions regarding bidirectional relations should be emphasized much more in emotion socialization frameworks, particularly for the period of adolescence. Moreover, our study emphasizes the transdiagnostic importance of parents’ responses to anger for both externalizing and internalizing problems and also suggests different underlying mechanisms.

A Family Socialization Model of Transdiagnostic Risk for Psychopathology in Preschool Children

This longitudinal study examined the presence of general (P) and specific internalizing (INT) and externalizing (EXT) psychopathology factors in a community sample of preschool children. We assessed child and contextual correlates of P, INT, and EXT, and tested a model connecting socioeconomic risk to these factors through family socialization processes and child cognitive abilities. Participants were 501 children recruited at birth and followed up at 18 months and 3 years. Child and family functioning were measured using parental reports, observation, and standardized assessments. Both mothers and their partners reported on children's mental health, permitting the estimation of a trifactor model of psychopathology that captured caregivers' shared and unique perspectives with respect to P, INT, and EXT. Results revealed several transdiagnostic correlates of the common-perspective P factor, including family income, maternal education, maternal depression, and maternal responsiveness, as well as marginal associations with sibling negativity and children's language and theory of mind abilities. Several shared and unique correlates of INT and EXT were also observed. Structural equation modelling revealed that the effects of family income and maternal education on P operated indirectly through maternal responsiveness, while the effects of maternal education on INT and EXT operated through maternal reflective capacity, albeit in opposite directions. Together, these results suggest that the effects of socioeconomic disadvantage on general psychopathology are organized in a temporal cascade from distal to proximal risk.

Rural Chinese youth during the transition into adulthood: Family dynamics and psychological adjustment

Rural youth in China experience numerous challenges during their transition into adulthood. Yet, research on this transition and its relevant influential factors is rare. Through the lens of family systems theory, this study examined the impacts of family dynamics (i.e., interparental and parent-adolescent interactions) in adolescence on the psychological adjustment of youth as they transition into adulthood. Participants were 1330 youth and their mothers in rural Gansu. In 2004, mothers completed questionnaires of interparental and parent-adolescent interactions when youth were adolescents (M_age  = 15.03, SD = 1.15). In 2009, youth completed questionnaires of depression and self-esteem when they were emerging adults (M_age  = 20.03, SD = 1.15). Results of structural equation modelling suggested that while interparental interactions in adolescence were not associated with the psychological adjustment of youth in emerging adulthood, positive parent-adolescent interactions in adolescence predicted better psychological adjustment of youth in emerging adulthood. Furthermore, mediation analysis showed that although interparental interactions did not directly affect the psychological adjustment of youth, they were positively associated with parent-adolescent interactions, which in turn contributed to the psychological adjustment of youth. The results reveal an enduring influence of family dynamics on psychological adjustment among rural Chinese youth during the transition into adulthood.

Parenting practices, aggressive response evaluation and decision, and social difficulties in kindergarten children: The role of fathers

The association between fathers' parenting characteristics and their preschool children's social information processing (SIP) patterns is an understudied research topic. Hence, the current study aims to bridge this gap by examining whether there are differences between mothers' and fathers' parenting characteristics and their children's SIP patterns as well as their social functioning in school, with a specific focus on children's aggressive response evaluation and decision (RED) and social difficulties in kindergarten. Using a multimethod (self-reports and direct assessments) multi-informant (mother, father, child, and teacher) design, we collected data from 115 kindergarten children, their mothers, and their fathers, tapping the parents' perceptions of the relationships with the child and parenting style; the child's aggressively biased RED, and the child's social difficulties in kindergarten. We found that fathers' parenting capacities are associated with children's aggressively biased RED, whereas no such associations were found for mothers. In addition, aggressively biased RED mediated the association between fathers' authoritative parenting style and the child's maladaptive behavior in kindergarten. There were no differences between fathers and mothers in relation to social difficulties in kindergarten, with both parents' authoritative parenting style associated with less social difficulties. However, sex moderated this association in mothers as their authoritative style was associated with social difficulties in boys but not in girls. This difference was not found in fathers. On the other hand, fathers' authoritarian parenting style was associated with aggressive RED in boys but not in girls. The tentative nature of these findings and the need for replications are discussed.

Findings, issues, and new directions for research on emotion socialization

This special issue consists of 20 articles that focus on issues related to Eisenberg and colleagues' (Eisenberg, Cumberland, & Spinrad, 1998; Eisenberg, Spinrad, & Cumberland, 1998) model of emotion socialization processes and its relevance for understanding a range of aspects of children's socioemotional functioning. The various papers have addressed a variety of issues including key mediating pathways, predictions of emotion-related socialization behaviors, moderators of pathways, and various potential outcomes of emotion-related socialization behaviors. Methods used in the articles include experimental interventions and nonexperimental longitudinal studies. The goals for this commentary include organizing the findings in this special issue to better highlight their relevance for the 1998 heuristic model and suggesting issues to consider in future research. Moreover, some gaps in the literature are noted. Finally, several minor changes to the model are suggested. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).