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Loeffler DA. Antibody-Mediated Clearance of Brain Amyloid-β: Mechanisms of Action, Effects of Natural and Monoclonal Anti-Aβ Antibodies, and Downstream Effects. J Alzheimers Dis Rep 2023; 7:873-899. [PMID: 37662616 PMCID: PMC10473157 DOI: 10.3233/adr-230025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2023] [Accepted: 07/05/2023] [Indexed: 09/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Immunotherapeutic efforts to slow the clinical progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD) by lowering brain amyloid-β (Aβ) have included Aβ vaccination, intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) products, and anti-Aβ monoclonal antibodies. Neither Aβ vaccination nor IVIG slowed disease progression. Despite conflicting phase III results, the monoclonal antibody Aducanumab received Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval for treatment of AD in June 2021. The only treatments unequivocally demonstrated to slow AD progression to date are the monoclonal antibodies Lecanemab and Donanemab. Lecanemab received FDA approval in January 2023 based on phase II results showing lowering of PET-detectable Aβ; phase III results released at that time indicated slowing of disease progression. Topline results released in May 2023 for Donanemab's phase III trial revealed that primary and secondary end points had been met. Antibody binding to Aβ facilitates its clearance from the brain via multiple mechanisms including promoting its microglial phagocytosis, activating complement, dissolving fibrillar Aβ, and binding of antibody-Aβ complexes to blood-brain barrier receptors. Antibody binding to Aβ in peripheral blood may also promote cerebral efflux of Aβ by a peripheral sink mechanism. According to the amyloid hypothesis, for Aβ targeting to slow AD progression, it must decrease downstream neuropathological processes including tau aggregation and phosphorylation and (possibly) inflammation and oxidative stress. This review discusses antibody-mediated mechanisms of Aβ clearance, findings in AD trials involving Aβ vaccination, IVIG, and anti-Aβ monoclonal antibodies, downstream effects reported in those trials, and approaches which might improve the Aβ-clearing ability of monoclonal antibodies.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A. Loeffler
- Beaumont Research Institute, Department of Neurology, Corewell Health, Royal Oak, MI, USA
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A Novel Apolipoprotein E Antagonist Functionally Blocks Apolipoprotein E Interaction With N-terminal Amyloid Precursor Protein, Reduces β-Amyloid-Associated Pathology, and Improves Cognition. Biol Psychiatry 2019; 86:208-220. [PMID: 31208706 PMCID: PMC6642011 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2019.04.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2018] [Revised: 03/21/2019] [Accepted: 04/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The ɛ4 isoform of apolipoprotein E (apoE4) is a major genetic risk factor for the development of sporadic Alzheimer's disease (AD), and its modification has been an intense focus for treatment of AD during recent years. METHODS We investigated the binding of apoE, a peptide corresponding to its low-density lipoprotein receptor binding domain (amino acids 133-152; ApoEp), and modified ApoEp to amyloid precursor protein (APP) and their effects on amyloid-β (Aβ) production in cultured cells. Having discovered a peptide (6KApoEp) that blocks the interaction of apoE with N-terminal APP, we investigated the effects of this peptide and ApoEp on AD-like pathology and behavioral impairment in 3XTg-AD and 5XFAD transgenic mice. RESULTS ApoE and ApoEp, but not truncated apoE lacking the low-density lipoprotein receptor binding domain, physically interacted with N-terminal APP and thereby mediated Aβ production. Interestingly, the addition of 6 lysine residues to the N-terminus of ApoEp (6KApoEp) directly inhibited apoE binding to N-terminal APP and markedly limited apoE- and ApoEp-mediated Aβ generation, presumably through decreasing APP cellular membrane trafficking and p44/42 mitogen-activated protein kinase phosphorylation. Moreover, while promoting apoE interaction with APP by ApoEp exacerbated Aβ and tau brain pathologies in 3XTg-AD mice, disrupting this interaction by 6KApoEp ameliorated cerebral Aβ and tau pathologies, neuronal apoptosis, synaptic loss, and hippocampal-dependent learning and memory impairment in 5XFAD mice without altering cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein receptor, and apoE expression levels. CONCLUSIONS These data suggest that disrupting apoE interaction with N-terminal APP may be a novel disease-modifying therapeutic strategy for AD.
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Godoy MDCL, Fornazieri MA, Doty RL, Pinna FDR, Farfel JM, Santos GBD, Molina M, Ferretti-Rebustini REL, Leite REP, Suemoto CK, Grinberg LT, Pasqualucci CAG, Voegels RL, Nitrini R, Jacob Filho W. Is Olfactory Epithelium Biopsy Useful for Confirming Alzheimer's Disease? Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol 2018; 128:184-192. [PMID: 30501500 DOI: 10.1177/0003489418814865] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The clinical symptoms of Alzheimer's disease (AD) are preceded by a long asymptomatic period associated with "silent" deposition of aberrant paired helical filament (PHF)-tau and amyloid-beta proteins in brain tissue. Similar depositions have been reported within the olfactory epithelium (OE), a tissue that can be biopsied in vivo. The degree to which such biopsies are useful in identifying AD is controversial. This postmortem study had 3 main goals: first, to quantify the relative densities of AD-related proteins in 3 regions of the olfactory neuroepithelium, namely, the nasal septum, middle turbinate, and superior turbinate; second, to establish whether such densities are correlated among these epithelial regions as well as with semi-quantitative ratings of general brain cortex pathology; and third, to evaluate correlations between the protein densities and measures of antemortem cognitive function. METHODS Postmortem blocks of olfactory mucosa were obtained from 12 AD cadavers and 24 controls and subjected to amyloid-beta and PHF-tau immunohistochemistry. RESULTS We observed marked heterogeneity in the presence of the biomarkers of tau and amyloid-beta among the targeted olfactory epithelial regions. No significant difference was observed between the cadavers with AD and the controls regarding the concentration of these proteins in any of these epithelial regions. Only one correlation significant was evident, namely, that between the tau protein densities of the middle and the upper turbinate (r = .58, P = .002). CONCLUSION AD-related biomarker heterogeneity, which has not been previously demonstrated, makes comparisons across studies difficult and throws into question the usefulness of OE amyloid-beta and PHF-tau biopsies in detecting AD.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Marco Aurélio Fornazieri
- Department of Surgery, Londrina State University, Londrina, Brazil, and Pontifical Catholic University of Paraná, Londrina, PR, Brazil
| | - Richard L Doty
- Smell and Taste Center, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Lea T Grinberg
- Memory and Aging Center, Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
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Mendiola-Precoma J, Berumen LC, Padilla K, Garcia-Alcocer G. Therapies for Prevention and Treatment of Alzheimer's Disease. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2016; 2016:2589276. [PMID: 27547756 PMCID: PMC4980501 DOI: 10.1155/2016/2589276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2016] [Revised: 05/31/2016] [Accepted: 06/05/2016] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common cause of dementia associated with a progressive neurodegenerative disorder, with a prevalence of 44 million people throughout the world in 2015, and this figure is estimated to double by 2050. This disease is characterized by blood-brain barrier disruption, oxidative stress, mitochondrial impairment, neuroinflammation, and hypometabolism; it is related to amyloid-β peptide accumulation and tau hyperphosphorylation as well as a decrease in acetylcholine levels and a reduction of cerebral blood flow. Obesity is a major risk factor for AD, because it induces adipokine dysregulation, which consists of the release of the proinflammatory adipokines and decreased anti-inflammatory adipokines, among other processes. The pharmacological treatments for AD can be divided into two categories: symptomatic treatments such as acetylcholinesterase inhibitors and N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonists and etiology-based treatments such as secretase inhibitors, amyloid binders, and tau therapies. Strategies for prevention of AD through nonpharmacological treatments are associated with lifestyle interventions such as exercise, mental challenges, and socialization as well as caloric restriction and a healthy diet. AD is an important health issue on which all people should be informed so that prevention strategies that minimize the risk of its development may be implemented.
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Affiliation(s)
- J. Mendiola-Precoma
- Laboratorio de Investigación Genética, Facultad de Química, Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro, Cerro de las Campanas S/N, Centro Universitario, 76010 Santiago de Querétaro, QRO, Mexico
| | - L. C. Berumen
- Laboratorio de Investigación Genética, Facultad de Química, Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro, Cerro de las Campanas S/N, Centro Universitario, 76010 Santiago de Querétaro, QRO, Mexico
| | - K. Padilla
- Laboratorio de Investigación Genética, Facultad de Química, Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro, Cerro de las Campanas S/N, Centro Universitario, 76010 Santiago de Querétaro, QRO, Mexico
| | - G. Garcia-Alcocer
- Laboratorio de Investigación Genética, Facultad de Química, Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro, Cerro de las Campanas S/N, Centro Universitario, 76010 Santiago de Querétaro, QRO, Mexico
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Shi ZM, Han YW, Han XH, Zhang K, Chang YN, Hu ZM, Qi HX, Ting C, Zhen Z, Hong W. Upstream regulators and downstream effectors of NF-κB in Alzheimer's disease. J Neurol Sci 2016; 366:127-134. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jns.2016.05.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2016] [Revised: 05/11/2016] [Accepted: 05/11/2016] [Indexed: 12/09/2022]
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Noce A, Canale MP, Capria A, Rovella V, Tesauro M, Splendiani G, Annicchiarico-Petruzzelli M, Manzuoli M, Simonetti G, Di Daniele N. Coronary artery calcifications predict long term cardiovascular events in non diabetic Caucasian hemodialysis patients. Aging (Albany NY) 2016; 7:269-79. [PMID: 26131456 PMCID: PMC4429091 DOI: 10.18632/aging.100740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Vascular calcifications are frequent in chronic renal disease and are associated to significant cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. The long term predictive value of coronary artery calcifications detected by multi-layer spiral computed tomography for major cardiovascular events was evaluated in non-diabetic Caucasian patients on maintenance hemodialysis free of clinical cardiovascular disease. Two-hundred and five patients on maintenance hemodialysis were enrolled into this observational, prospective cohort study. Patients underwent a single cardiac multi-layer spiral computed tomography. Calcium load was quantified and patients grouped according to the Agatston score: group 1 (Agatston score: 0), group 2 (Agatston score 1-400), group 3 (Agatston score 401-1000) and group 4 (Agatston score >1000). Follow-up was longer than seven years. Primary endpoint was death from a major cardiovascular event. Actuarial survival was calculated separately in the four groups with Kaplan-Meier method. Patients who died from causes other than cardiovascular disease and transplanted patients were censored. The “log rank” test was employed to compare survival curves. One-hundred two patients (49.7%) died for a major cardiovascular event during the follow-up period. Seven-year actuarial survival was more than 90% for groups 1 and 2, but failed to about 50% for group 3 and to <10% for group 4. Hence, Agatston score >400 predicts a significantly higher cardiovascular mortality compared with Agatston score <400 (p<0.0001); furthermore, serum Parathyroid hormone levels > 300 pg/l were associated to a lower survival (p < 0.05). Extended coronary artery calcifications detected by cardiac multi-layer spiral computed tomography, strongly predicted long term cardiovascular mortality in non-diabetic Caucasian patients on maintenance hemodialysis. Moreover, it was not related to conventional indices of atherosclerosis, but to other non-traditional risk factors, as serum Parathyroid hormone levels. A full cost-benefit analysis is however necessary to justify a widespread use of cardiac multi-layer spiral computed tomography in clinical practice.
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Bahety P, Van Nguyen TH, Hong Y, Zhang L, Chan ECY, Ee PLR. Understanding the cholesterol metabolism-perturbing effects of docosahexaenoic acid by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry targeted metabonomic profiling. Eur J Nutr 2015; 56:29-43. [PMID: 26428672 DOI: 10.1007/s00394-015-1053-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2015] [Accepted: 09/17/2015] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Over the past few decades, docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) has gained special attention for management of cholesterol-associated metabolic disorders and neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease (AD) owing to its neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory and hypolipidemic properties. Several epidemiological studies have reported the effect of DHA in reducing the risk of developing AD by lowering cholesterol. Hypercholesterolemia is a pro-amyloidogenic factor influencing the enzymatic processing of amyloid-β precursor protein (AβPP) to toxic β-amyloid. However, the mechanism by which DHA modulates the cholesterol pathway has not been established. Thus, the objective of this study was to investigate the mechanism of regulation of cholesterol metabolism by DHA in an AβPP695 overexpressing AD cell model. METHODS A gas chromatography/mass spectrometry method was developed and validated for the targeted profiling of 11 cholesterol metabolites in DHA-treated Chinese hamster ovary wild-type (CHO-wt) and AβPP695 overexpressing (CHO-AβPP695) cells. The differential metabolite profiles between DHA- and vehicle-treated groups were further analyzed using fold change values of the ratio of concentration of metabolites in CHO-AβPP695 to CHO-wt cells. Effect of DHA on key rate-limiting enzymatic activities within the cholesterol pathway was established using biochemical assays. RESULTS Our results showed that DHA reduced the levels of key cholesterol anabolites and catabolites in CHO-AβPP695 cells as compared to CHO-wt cells. Further enzymatic studies revealed that the cholesterol-lowering effect of DHA was mediated by regulating HMG-CoA reductase and squalene epoxidase enzyme activities. CONCLUSION We demonstrate for the first time the dual effects of DHA in inhibiting HMG-CoA reductase and squalene epoxidase and modulating the sterol biosynthesis axis of the cholesterol pathway in AβPP695 overexpressing AD. Our novel findings underscore the potential of DHA as a multi-target hypocholesterolemic agent for the prophylaxis of AD and other cholesterol-associated diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priti Bahety
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, 18 Science Drive 4, Singapore, 117543, Republic of Singapore
| | - Thi Hai Van Nguyen
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, 18 Science Drive 4, Singapore, 117543, Republic of Singapore
| | - Yanjun Hong
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, 18 Science Drive 4, Singapore, 117543, Republic of Singapore
| | - Luqi Zhang
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, 18 Science Drive 4, Singapore, 117543, Republic of Singapore
| | - Eric Chun Yong Chan
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, 18 Science Drive 4, Singapore, 117543, Republic of Singapore.
| | - Pui Lai Rachel Ee
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, 18 Science Drive 4, Singapore, 117543, Republic of Singapore.
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Xiang Y, Bu XL, Liu YH, Zhu C, Shen LL, Jiao SS, Zhu XY, Giunta B, Tan J, Song WH, Zhou HD, Zhou XF, Wang YJ. Physiological amyloid-beta clearance in the periphery and its therapeutic potential for Alzheimer's disease. Acta Neuropathol 2015; 130:487-99. [PMID: 26363791 PMCID: PMC4575389 DOI: 10.1007/s00401-015-1477-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 162] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2015] [Revised: 08/27/2015] [Accepted: 09/05/2015] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Amyloid-beta (Aβ) plays a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). The physiological capacity of peripheral tissues and organs in clearing brain-derived Aβ and its therapeutic potential for AD remains largely unknown. Here, we measured blood Aβ levels in different locations of the circulation in humans and mice, and used a parabiosis model to investigate the effect of peripheral Aβ catabolism on AD pathogenesis. We found that blood Aβ levels in the inferior/posterior vena cava were lower than that in the superior vena cava in both humans and mice. In addition, injected 125I labeled Aβ40 was located mostly in the liver, kidney, gastrointestinal tract, and skin but very little in the brain; suggesting that Aβ derived from the brain can be cleared in the periphery. Parabiosis before and after Aβ deposition in the brain significantly reduced brain Aβ burden without alterations in the expression of amyloid precursor protein, Aβ generating and degrading enzymes, Aβ transport receptors, and AD-type pathologies including hyperphosphorylated tau, neuroinflammation, as well as neuronal degeneration and loss in the brains of parabiotic AD mice. Our study revealed that the peripheral system is potent in clearing brain Aβ and preventing AD pathogenesis. The present work suggests that peripheral Aβ clearance is a valid therapeutic approach for AD, and implies that deficits in the Aβ clearance in the periphery might also contribute to AD pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Xiang
- Department of Neurology and Centre for Clinical Neuroscience, Daping Hospital, Third Military Medical University, 10 Changjiang Branch Road, Yuzhong District, Chongqing, China
| | - Xian-Le Bu
- Department of Neurology and Centre for Clinical Neuroscience, Daping Hospital, Third Military Medical University, 10 Changjiang Branch Road, Yuzhong District, Chongqing, China
| | - Yu-Hui Liu
- Department of Neurology and Centre for Clinical Neuroscience, Daping Hospital, Third Military Medical University, 10 Changjiang Branch Road, Yuzhong District, Chongqing, China
| | - Chi Zhu
- Department of Neurology and Centre for Clinical Neuroscience, Daping Hospital, Third Military Medical University, 10 Changjiang Branch Road, Yuzhong District, Chongqing, China
| | - Lin-Lin Shen
- Department of Neurology and Centre for Clinical Neuroscience, Daping Hospital, Third Military Medical University, 10 Changjiang Branch Road, Yuzhong District, Chongqing, China
| | - Shu-Sheng Jiao
- Department of Neurology and Centre for Clinical Neuroscience, Daping Hospital, Third Military Medical University, 10 Changjiang Branch Road, Yuzhong District, Chongqing, China
| | - Xiao-Yan Zhu
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Brian Giunta
- Neuroimmunology Laboratory, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Jun Tan
- Rashid Laboratory for Developmental Neurobiology, Silver Child Development Center, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Wei-Hong Song
- Townsend Family Laboratories, Department of Psychiatry, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Hua-Dong Zhou
- Department of Neurology and Centre for Clinical Neuroscience, Daping Hospital, Third Military Medical University, 10 Changjiang Branch Road, Yuzhong District, Chongqing, China
| | - Xin-Fu Zhou
- School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences and Sansom Institute, University of South Australia, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - Yan-Jiang Wang
- Department of Neurology and Centre for Clinical Neuroscience, Daping Hospital, Third Military Medical University, 10 Changjiang Branch Road, Yuzhong District, Chongqing, China.
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Liu YH, Bu XL, Liang CR, Wang YR, Zhang T, Jiao SS, Zeng F, Yao XQ, Zhou HD, Deng J, Wang YJ. An N-terminal antibody promotes the transformation of amyloid fibrils into oligomers and enhances the neurotoxicity of amyloid-beta: the dust-raising effect. J Neuroinflammation 2015; 12:153. [PMID: 26311039 PMCID: PMC4551765 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-015-0379-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2015] [Accepted: 08/17/2015] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Senile plaques consisting of amyloid-beta (Aβ) are the major pathological hallmark of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and have been the primary therapeutic target. Immunotherapies, which are designed to remove brain Aβ deposits, increased levels of soluble Aβ and accelerated brain atrophy in some clinical trials, suggesting that the solubilization of Aβ deposition might facilitate the formation of more toxic Aβ oligomers and enhance neurotoxicity. Methods The capacity of antibodies against different epitopes of Aβ to disaggregate preformed Aβ fibrils was investigated. The co-incubation of antibodies and Aβ fibrils was then tested for neurotoxicity both in vitro and in vivo. Results After the incubation of preformed Aβ fibrils with the N-terminal antibody 6E10, the fibrils were decreased, while the oligomers, mostly dimers and trimers, were significantly increased. However, no such effects were observed for antibodies targeting the middle domain (4G8) and C-terminus of Aβ (8G7). The co-incubates of preformed Aβ fibrils with 6E10 were more neurotoxic, both in vitro and in vivo, than the co-incubates with 4G8 and 8G7. Conclusions Our results indicate that the antibody targeting the N-terminus of Aβ promoted the transformation of Aβ from fibrils into oligomers and increased neurotoxicity. Immunotherapies should take into consideration the enhanced neurotoxicity associated with the solubilization of Aβ deposits by antibodies against the Nterminus of Aβ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Hui Liu
- Department of Neurology and Centre for Clinical Neuroscience, Daping Hospital and Research Institute of Surgery, Third Military Medical University, 10 Changjiang Branch Road, Yuzhong District, Chongqing, 400042, China.
| | - Xian-Le Bu
- Department of Neurology and Centre for Clinical Neuroscience, Daping Hospital and Research Institute of Surgery, Third Military Medical University, 10 Changjiang Branch Road, Yuzhong District, Chongqing, 400042, China.
| | - Chun-Rong Liang
- Department of Neurology and Centre for Clinical Neuroscience, Daping Hospital and Research Institute of Surgery, Third Military Medical University, 10 Changjiang Branch Road, Yuzhong District, Chongqing, 400042, China.
| | - Ye-Ran Wang
- Department of Neurology and Centre for Clinical Neuroscience, Daping Hospital and Research Institute of Surgery, Third Military Medical University, 10 Changjiang Branch Road, Yuzhong District, Chongqing, 400042, China.
| | - Tao Zhang
- Department of Neurology and Centre for Clinical Neuroscience, Daping Hospital and Research Institute of Surgery, Third Military Medical University, 10 Changjiang Branch Road, Yuzhong District, Chongqing, 400042, China.
| | - Shu-Sheng Jiao
- Department of Neurology and Centre for Clinical Neuroscience, Daping Hospital and Research Institute of Surgery, Third Military Medical University, 10 Changjiang Branch Road, Yuzhong District, Chongqing, 400042, China.
| | - Fan Zeng
- Department of Neurology and Centre for Clinical Neuroscience, Daping Hospital and Research Institute of Surgery, Third Military Medical University, 10 Changjiang Branch Road, Yuzhong District, Chongqing, 400042, China.
| | - Xiu-Qing Yao
- Department of Neurology and Centre for Clinical Neuroscience, Daping Hospital and Research Institute of Surgery, Third Military Medical University, 10 Changjiang Branch Road, Yuzhong District, Chongqing, 400042, China.
| | - Hua-Dong Zhou
- Department of Neurology and Centre for Clinical Neuroscience, Daping Hospital and Research Institute of Surgery, Third Military Medical University, 10 Changjiang Branch Road, Yuzhong District, Chongqing, 400042, China.
| | - Juan Deng
- Department of Neurology and Centre for Clinical Neuroscience, Daping Hospital and Research Institute of Surgery, Third Military Medical University, 10 Changjiang Branch Road, Yuzhong District, Chongqing, 400042, China.
| | - Yan-Jiang Wang
- Department of Neurology and Centre for Clinical Neuroscience, Daping Hospital and Research Institute of Surgery, Third Military Medical University, 10 Changjiang Branch Road, Yuzhong District, Chongqing, 400042, China.
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