Calpain 2-mediated autophagy defect increases susceptibility of fatty livers to ischemia-reperfusion injury

Influenza A Virus Induces Autophagosome by Inhibiting LTCC/Calpain 2/LC3A Signaling to Promote Viral Replication

l-type voltage-gated calcium channels (LTCC), which are accountable for the influx of extracellular Ca2+, have been discovered to play a crucial regulatory role in the process of autophagy. However, the regulatory role of LTCC in autophagy process induced by influenza A virus (IAV) infection remains largely unknown. Here, we found that IAV (H1N1/PR8) induced autophagosome accumulation consistent with previous studies but blocked the fusion of autophagosomes with lysosomes. Meanwhile, viral infection led to a persistent decline of the cytoplasmic calcium signal in A549 cells. Interestingly, activation of LTCC partially restored the cytoplasmic calcium signal, impeded the formation of autophagosomes, and hindered the replication of IAV. Conversely, hindering LTCC or suppressing Cav1.3, the primary isoform of LTCC in A549 cells, significantly enhanced autophagosome formation and IAV replication. Mechanistically, calpain 2, a calcium-dependent cysteine protease, mediated the inhibition of LTCC/Cav1.3 on autophagosome formation and IAV replication by cleaving the carboxyl-terminal (112-118aa) of Microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3A(MAP1LC3A). Our findings reveal that IAV infection inhibits the LTCC/Cav1.3-calpain 2-LC3A axis to induce autophagosome formation, contributing to better understanding of viral infection process and providing potential target for combating IAV infection.

Novel mechanistic insights of the potential role of gasotransmitters and autophagy in the protective effect of metformin against hepatic ischemia/reperfusion injury in rats

Metformin exerts antidiabetic and pleiotropic effects. This study investigated the function and mechanisms of gasotransmitters and autophagy in the metformin-induced protection against ischemia/reperfusion injury (I/RI). According to measurements of serum hepatic function indicators and histopathological evaluation, metformin protected against hepatic I/RI-induced impairment of liver function and structure. In addition, metformin inhibited hepatic I/RI-induced hepatic oxidative stress, nitrosative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis. Also, it suppressed hepatic I/RI-induced decrease in hepatic heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) and hydrogen sulfide (H2S) levels and increase in nitric oxide (NO) production. Furthermore, metformin inhibited hepatic I/RI-induced decrease in protein expressions of endothelial NO synthase (eNOS), HO-1, cystathionine γ-lyase (CSE), and Beclin-1 and increase in the protein expression of inducible NO synthase (iNOS) in the liver tissue. Co-administration of the NO biosynthesis inhibitor, L-NAME, carbon monoxide(CO)-releasing molecule-A1 (CORM-A1), the H2S donor, NaHS, or the autophagy stimulator, rapamycin (RAPA), enhanced all effects of metformin. The NO donor, L-arginine, the CO biosynthesis inhibitor, zinc protoporphyrin, the H2S biosynthesis inhibitor, DL-propargylglycine, or the autophagy inhibitor, chloroquine (CQ), antagonized the effects of metformin. These findings reveal, for the first time, that increasing CO, H2S, and autophagy levels with subsequent decreasing NO level play a critical role in metformin's protective action against hepatic I/RI. The ability of L-NAME, CORM-A1, NaHS, and RAPA to boost metformin's protective effect in hepatic I/RI may positively be attributed to their ability to lower hepatic oxidative stress, nitrosative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis.

Ginsenoside, a potential natural product against liver diseases: a comprehensive review from molecular mechanisms to application

Liver disease constitutes a significant cause of global mortality, with its pathogenesis being multifaceted. Identifying effective pharmacological and preventive strategies is imperative for liver protection. Ginsenosides, the major bioactive compounds found in ginseng, exhibit multiple pharmacological activities including protection against liver-related diseases by mitigating liver fat accumulation and inflammation, preventing hepatic fibrosis, and exerting anti-hepatocarcinogenic effects. However, a comprehensive overview elucidating the regulatory pathways associated with ginsenosides in liver disease remains elusive. This review aims to consolidate the molecular mechanisms through which different ginsenosides ameliorate distinct liver diseases, alongside the pathogenic factors underlying liver ailments. Notably, ginsenosides Rb1 and Rg1 demonstrate significantly effective in treating fatty liver, hepatitis, and liver fibrosis, and ginsenosides CK and Rh2 exhibit potent anti-hepatocellular carcinogenic effects. Their molecular mechanisms underlying these effects primarily involve the modulation of AMPK, NF-κB, TGF-β, NFR2, JNK, and other pathways, thereby attenuating hepatic fat accumulation, inflammation, inhibition of hepatic stellate cell activation, and promoting apoptosis in hepatocellular carcinoma cells. Furthermore, it provides insights into the safety profile and current applications of ginsenosides, thereby facilitating their clinical development. Consequently, ginsenosides present promising prospects for liver disease management, underscoring their potential as valuable therapeutic agents in this context.

The Effect of Quercetin on Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD) and the Role of Beclin1, P62, and LC3: An Experimental Study

Background/Objectives: Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a major metabolic disorder with no established pharmacotherapy. Quercetin, a polyphenolic flavonoid, demonstrates potential hepatoprotective effects but has limited bioavailability. This study evaluates the impact of quercetin on NAFLD and assesses the roles of autophagy-related proteins in disease progression. Methods: Forty-seven male C57BL/6J mice were fed a high-fat diet (HFD) for 12 weeks to induce NAFLD, followed by quercetin treatment for 4 weeks. Mice were divided into baseline, control, and two quercetin groups, receiving low (10 mg/kg) and high (50 mg/kg) doses. Liver histology was scored using the NAFLD Activity Score (NAS). Immunohistochemistry and immunoblotting were performed to analyze autophagy markers. Results: Quercetin-treated groups showed significant reductions in NAS compared to controls (p = 0.011), mainly in steatosis and steatohepatitis. Immunohistochemistry indicated increased expression of autophagy markers LCA and p62 in quercetin groups. Western blot analysis revealed significant elevations in LC3A in the treated groups, suggesting improved autophagic activity and lipid degradation. Conclusions: Quercetin effectively reduces NAFLD severity and modulates autophagy-related proteins. These findings suggest that quercetin enhances autophagic flux, supporting its therapeutic potential for NAFLD. Additional research is needed to clarify the molecular mechanisms of quercetin and to determine the optimal dosing for clinical application.

Quercetin's Potential in MASLD: Investigating the Role of Autophagy and Key Molecular Pathways in Liver Steatosis and Inflammation

Metabolic dysfunction-associated fatty liver disease (MASLD) is a widespread liver disorder characterized by excessive fat accumulation in the liver, commonly associated with metabolic syndrome components such as obesity, diabetes, and dyslipidemia. With a global prevalence of up to 30%, MASLD is projected to affect over 100 million people in the U.S. and 20 million in Europe by 2030. The disease ranges from Steatotic Lived Disease (SLD) to more severe forms like metabolic dysfunction-associated steatohepatitis (MASH), which can progress to cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Autophagy, a cellular process crucial for lipid metabolism and homeostasis, is often impaired in MASLD, leading to increased hepatic lipid accumulation and inflammation. Key autophagy-related proteins, such as Beclin1, LC3A, SQSTM1 (p62), CD36, and Perilipin 3, play significant roles in regulating this process. Disruption in these proteins contributes to the pathogenesis of MASLD. Quercetin, a natural polyphenolic flavonoid with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, has promising results in mitigating MASLD. It may reduce hepatic lipid accumulation, improve mitochondrial function, and enhance autophagy. However, further research is needed to elucidate its mechanisms and validate its therapeutic potential in clinical settings. This underscores the need for continued investigation into autophagy and novel treatments for MASLD.

Environmental endocrine disrupting chemical 4-tert-butylphenol induced calcium overload and subsequent autophagy impairment via miRNA-363/CACNA1D Axis in epithelioma papulosum cyprini cells

Environmental endocrine disrupting chemical 4-tert-butylphenol (4-tBP), a widely-utilized surfactant in various industries, poses potential risks to aquatic organisms. Our previous sequencing results suggested that 4-tBP-induced common carp liver injury might be associated with Ca2+ signaling and autophagy. However, the intricate involvement of these pathways in 4-tBP-induced cytotoxic mechanisms remained unexplored. To bridge these knowledge gaps, this study focused on epithelioma papulosum cyprini (EPC) cells, a significant cell type in fish biology. Initial observations showed that 4-tBP induced a dose-dependent perturbation in Ca2+ levels. Further investigations, with siRNA and L-type Ca2+ channel agonist (BAYK8644), identified L-type calcium channel gene CACNA1D as a critical regulator of 4-tBP-induced Ca2+ overload. Predictive analysis using miRanda platform suggested a potential interaction between miR-363 and CACNA1D, which was subsequently verified through dual-luciferase reporter gene assays. We then established miR-363 mimic/inhibitor models, along with miR-363 and CACNA1D co-suppression models in EPC cells. Through TEM observation, immunofluorescence assay, Ca2+ staining, and qRT-PCR analysis, we evaluated the role of miR-363/CACNA1D axis in modulating the effects of 4-tBP on Ca2+ signaling and autophagy. Results showed that miR-363 inhibitor exacerbated 4-tBP-induced increase in CALM2, CAMKII, Calpain2, and p62 expression and also led to decrease in ATG5, ATG7, and LC3b expression. In contrast, miR-363 mimic notably alleviated these changes. Notably, siRNA CACNA1D effectively modulating miR-363 inhibitor's effect. Our study revealed that 4-tBP induced Ca2+ overload and subsequent autophagy impairment via miR-363/CACNA1D axis. These findings illuminated a profound understanding of molecular mechanisms underlying 4-tBP-induced cytotoxicity and spotlighted a potential therapeutic target.

Autophagy and hepatic lipid metabolism: mechanistic insight and therapeutic potential for MASLD

Metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD) originates from a homeostatic imbalance in hepatic lipid metabolism. Increased fat deposition in the liver of people suffering from MASLD predisposes them to develop further metabolic derangements, including diabetes mellitus, metabolic dysfunction-associated steatohepatitis (MASH), and other end-stage liver diseases. Unfortunately, only limited pharmacological therapies exist for MASLD to date. Autophagy, a cellular catabolic process, has emerged as a primary mechanism of lipid metabolism in mammalian hepatocytes. Furthermore, preclinical studies with autophagy modulators have shown promising results in resolving MASLD and mitigating its progress into deleterious liver pathologies. In this review, we discuss our current understanding of autophagy-mediated hepatic lipid metabolism, its therapeutic modulation for MASLD treatment, and current limitations and scope for clinical translation.

Lipid droplets, autophagy, and ER stress as key (survival) pathways during ischemia-reperfusion of transplanted grafts

Ischemia-reperfusion injury is an event concerning any organ under a procedure of transplantation. The early result of ischemia is hypoxia, which causes malfunction of mitochondria and decrease in cellular ATP. This leads to disruption of cellular metabolism. Reperfusion also results in cell damage due to reoxygenation and increased production of reactive oxygen species, and later by induced inflammation. In damaged and hypoxic cells, the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress pathway is activated by increased amount of damaged or misfolded proteins, accumulation of free fatty acids and other lipids due to inability of their oxidation (lipotoxicity). ER stress is an adaptive response and a survival pathway, however, its prolonged activity eventually lead to induction of apoptosis. Sustaining cell functionality in stress conditions is a great challenge for transplant surgeons as it is crucial for maintaining a desired level of graft vitality. Pathways counteracting negative consequences of ischemia-reperfusion are autophagy and lipid droplets (LD) metabolism. Autophagy remove damaged organelles and molecules driving them to lysosomes, digested simpler compounds are energy source for the cell. Mitophagy and ER-phagy results in improvement of cell energetic balance and alleviation of ER stress. This is important in sustaining metabolic homeostasis and thus cell survival. LD metabolism is connected with autophagy as LD are degraded by lipophagy, a source of free fatty acids and glycerol-thus autophagy and LD can readily remove lipotoxic compounds in the cell. In conclusion, monitoring and pharmaceutic regulation of those pathways during transplantation procedure might result in increased/improved vitality of transplanted organ.

From Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver to Hepatocellular Carcinoma: A Story of (Mal)Adapted Mitochondria

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a global pandemic affecting 25% of the world's population and is a serious health and economic concern worldwide. NAFLD is mainly the result of unhealthy dietary habits combined with sedentary lifestyle, although some genetic contributions to NAFLD have been documented. NAFLD is characterized by the excessive accumulation of triglycerides (TGs) in hepatocytes and encompasses a spectrum of chronic liver abnormalities, ranging from simple steatosis (NAFL) to steatohepatitis (NASH), significant liver fibrosis, cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma. Although the molecular mechanisms that cause the progression of steatosis to severe liver damage are not fully understood, metabolic-dysfunction-associated fatty liver disease is strong evidence that mitochondrial dysfunction plays a significant role in the development and progression of NAFLD. Mitochondria are highly dynamic organelles that undergo functional and structural adaptations to meet the metabolic requirements of the cell. Alterations in nutrient availability or cellular energy needs can modify mitochondria formation through biogenesis or the opposite processes of fission and fusion and fragmentation. In NAFL, simple steatosis can be seen as an adaptive response to storing lipotoxic free fatty acids (FFAs) as inert TGs due to chronic perturbation in lipid metabolism and lipotoxic insults. However, when liver hepatocytes' adaptive mechanisms are overburdened, lipotoxicity occurs, contributing to reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation, mitochondrial dysfunction, and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. Impaired mitochondrial fatty acid oxidation, reduction in mitochondrial quality, and disrupted mitochondrial function are associated with a decrease in the energy levels and impaired redox balance and negatively affect mitochondria hepatocyte tolerance towards damaging hits. However, the sequence of events underlying mitochondrial failure from steatosis to hepatocarcinoma is still yet to be fully clarified. This review provides an overview of our understanding of mitochondrial adaptation in initial NAFLD stages and highlights how hepatic mitochondrial dysfunction and heterogeneity contribute to disease pathophysiology progression, from steatosis to hepatocellular carcinoma. Improving our understanding of different aspects of hepatocytes' mitochondrial physiology in the context of disease development and progression is crucial to improving diagnosis, management, and therapy of NAFLD/NASH.

Calpain-2 Facilitates Autophagic/Lysosomal Defects and Apoptosis in ARPE-19 Cells and Rats Induced by Exosomes from RPE Cells under NaIO3 Stimulation

Although accumulated evidence supports the notion that calpain contributes to eye disease, the mechanisms by which calpain promotes RPE injury are not defined. The present study is aimed at investigating whether the effect of NaIO₃-exos (exosomes derived from RPE cells under NaIO₃ stimulation) on the dysfunction of the autophagy-lysosomal pathway (ALP) and apoptosis is based on its regulation of calpain activation in ARPE-19 cells and rats. The results showed that calpain-2 activation, ALP dysfunction, and apoptosis were induced by NaIO₃-exos in ARPE-19 cells. NaIO₃-exo significantly increased autophagic substrates by activating lysosomal dysfunction. ALP dysfunction and apoptosis in vitro could be eliminated by knocking down calpain-2 (si-C2) or the inhibitor calpain-2-IN-1. Further studies indicated that NaIO₃-exo enhanced calpain-2 expression, ALP dysfunction, apoptosis, and retinal damage in rats. In summary, these results demonstrate for the first time that calpain-2 is one of the key players in the NaIO₃-exo-mediated ALP dysfunction, apoptosis, and retinal damage and identify calpain-2 as a promising target for therapies aimed at age-related macular degeneration (AMD).

Experimental diabetes exacerbates autophagic flux impairment during myocardial I/R injury through calpain-mediated cleavage of Atg5/LAMP2

To explore the role of autophagic flux in the increased susceptibility of the experimental diabetic heart to ischaemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury, we established STZ-induced diabetic mice and performed I/R. In vitro, neonatal mouse cardiomyocytes were subjected to high glucose and hypoxia/reoxygenation challenge to mimic diabetic I/R injury. We found that experimental diabetes aggravated I/R-induced injury than compared with nondiabetic mice. Autophagic flux was impaired in I/R hearts, and the impairment was exacerbated in diabetic mice subjected to I/R with defective autophagosome formation and clearance. Calpains, calcium-dependent thiol proteases, were upregulated and highly activated after I/R of diabetes, while calpain inhibition attenuated cardiac function and cell death and partially restored autophagic flux. The expression levels of Atg5 and LAMP2, two crucial autophagy-related proteins, were significantly degraded in diabetic I/R hearts, alterations that were associated with calpain activation and could be reversed by calpain inhibition. Co-overexpression of Atg5 and LAMP2 reduced myocardial injury and normalized autophagic flux. In conclusion, experimental diabetes exacerbates autophagic flux impairment of cardiomyocytes under I/R stress, resulting in worse I/R-induced injury. Calpain activation and cleavage of Atg5 and LAMP2 at least partially account for the deterioration of autophagic flux impairment.

Calpain-Mediated Mitochondrial Damage: An Emerging Mechanism Contributing to Cardiac Disease

Calpains belong to the family of calcium-dependent cysteine proteases expressed ubiquitously in mammals and many other organisms. Activation of calpain is observed in diseased hearts and is implicated in cardiac cell death, hypertrophy, fibrosis, and inflammation. However, the underlying mechanisms remain incompletely understood. Recent studies have revealed that calpains target and impair mitochondria in cardiac disease. The objective of this review is to discuss the role of calpains in mediating mitochondrial damage and the underlying mechanisms, and to evaluate whether targeted inhibition of mitochondrial calpain is a potential strategy in treating cardiac disease. We expect to describe the wealth of new evidence surrounding calpain-mediated mitochondrial damage to facilitate future mechanistic studies and therapy development for cardiac disease.

Binding Features and Functions of ATG3

Autophagy is an evolutionarily conserved catabolic process that is essential for maintaining cellular, tissue, and organismal homeostasis. Autophagy-related (ATG) genes are indispensable for autophagosome formation. ATG3 is one of the key genes involved in autophagy, and its homologs are common in eukaryotes. During autophagy, ATG3 acts as an E2 ubiquitin-like conjugating enzyme in the ATG8 conjugation system, contributing to phagophore elongation. ATG3 has also been found to participate in many physiological and pathological processes in an autophagy-dependent manner, such as tumor occurrence and progression, ischemia-reperfusion injury, clearance of pathogens, and maintenance of organelle homeostasis. Intriguingly, a few studies have recently discovered the autophagy-independent functions of ATG3, including cell differentiation and mitosis. Here, we summarize the current knowledge of ATG3 in autophagosome formation, highlight its binding partners and binding sites, review its autophagy-dependent functions, and provide a brief introduction into its autophagy-independent functions.

New Insights Into the Role of Autophagy in Liver Surgery in the Setting of Metabolic Syndrome and Related Diseases

Visceral obesity is an important component of metabolic syndrome, a cluster of diseases that also includes diabetes and insulin resistance. A combination of these metabolic disorders damages liver function, which manifests as non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). NAFLD is a common cause of abnormal liver function, and numerous studies have established the enormously deleterious role of hepatic steatosis in ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury that inevitably occurs in both liver resection and transplantation. Thus, steatotic livers exhibit a higher frequency of post-surgical complications after hepatectomy, and using liver grafts from donors with NAFLD is associated with an increased risk of post-surgical morbidity and mortality in the recipient. Diabetes, another MetS-related metabolic disorder, also worsens hepatic I/R injury, and similar to NAFLD, diabetes is associated with a poor prognosis after liver surgery. Due to the large increase in the prevalence of MetS, NAFLD, and diabetes, their association is frequent in the population and therefore, in patients requiring liver resection and in potential liver graft donors. This scenario requires advancement in therapies to improve postoperative results in patients suffering from metabolic diseases and undergoing liver surgery; and in this sense, the bases for designing therapeutic strategies are in-depth knowledge about the molecular signaling pathways underlying the effects of MetS-related diseases and I/R injury on liver tissue. A common denominator in all these diseases is autophagy. In fact, in the context of obesity, autophagy is profoundly diminished in hepatocytes and alters mitochondrial functions in the liver. In insulin resistance conditions, there is a suppression of autophagy in the liver, which is associated with the accumulation of lipids, being this is a risk factor for NAFLD. Also, oxidative stress occurring in hepatic I/R injury promotes autophagy. The present review aims to shed some light on the role of autophagy in livers undergoing surgery and also suffering from metabolic diseases, which may lead to the discovery of effective therapeutic targets that could be translated from laboratory to clinical practice, to improve postoperative results of liver surgeries when performed in the presence of one or more metabolic diseases.

Emerging Roles of Impaired Autophagy in Fatty Liver Disease and Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Autophagy is a conserved catabolic process that eliminates dysfunctional cytosolic biomolecules through vacuole-mediated sequestration and lysosomal degradation. Although the molecular mechanisms that regulate autophagy are not fully understood, recent work indicates that dysfunctional/impaired autophagic functions are associated with the development and progression of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), alcoholic fatty liver disease (AFLD), and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Autophagy prevents NAFLD and AFLD progression through enhanced lipid catabolism and decreasing hepatic steatosis, which is characterized by the accumulation of triglycerides and increased inflammation. However, as both diseases progress, autophagy can become impaired leading to exacerbation of both pathological conditions and progression into HCC. Due to the significance of impaired autophagy in these diseases, there is increased interest in studying pathways and targets involved in maintaining efficient autophagic functions as potential therapeutic targets. In this review, we summarize how impaired autophagy affects liver function and contributes to NAFLD, AFLD, and HCC progression. We will also explore how recent discoveries could provide novel therapeutic opportunities to effectively treat these diseases.

Calpain-1 and Calpain-2 in the Brain: New Evidence for a Critical Role of Calpain-2 in Neuronal Death

Calpains are a family of soluble calcium-dependent proteases that are involved in multiple regulatory pathways. Our laboratory has focused on the understanding of the functions of two ubiquitous calpain isoforms, calpain-1 and calpain-2, in the brain. Results obtained over the last 30 years led to the remarkable conclusion that these two calpain isoforms exhibit opposite functions in the brain. Calpain-1 activation is required for certain forms of synaptic plasticity and corresponding types of learning and memory, while calpain-2 activation limits the extent of plasticity and learning. Calpain-1 is neuroprotective both during postnatal development and in adulthood, while calpain-2 is neurodegenerative. Several key protein targets participating in these opposite functions have been identified and linked to known pathways involved in synaptic plasticity and neuroprotection/neurodegeneration. We have proposed the hypothesis that the existence of different PDZ (PSD-95, DLG and ZO-1) binding domains in the C-terminal of calpain-1 and calpain-2 is responsible for their association with different signaling pathways and thereby their different functions. Results with calpain-2 knock-out mice or with mice treated with a selective calpain-2 inhibitor indicate that calpain-2 is a potential therapeutic target in various forms of neurodegeneration, including traumatic brain injury and repeated concussions.

Repurposing screen identifies Amlodipine as an inducer of PD-L1 degradation and antitumor immunity

Cancer cell expression of PD-L1 leads to T cells exhaustion by transducing co-inhibitory signal, and further understanding the regulation of PD-L1 in cancer cells may provide additional therapeutic strategies. Here by drug repurposing screen, we identified amlodipine as a potent inhibitor of PD-L1 expression in cancer cells. Further survey of calcium-associated pathways revealed calpain-dependent stabilization of the PD-L1 protein. Intracellular calcium delivered an operational signal to calpain-dependent Beclin-1 cleavage, blocking autophagic degradation of PD-L1 accumulated on recycling endosome (RE). Blocking calcium flux by amlodipine depleted PD-L1 expression and increased CD8+ T-cell infiltration in tumor tissues but not in myocardium, causing dose-dependent tumor suppression in vivo. Rescuing PD-L1 expression eliminated the effects of amlodipine, suggesting the PD-L1-dependent effect of amlodipine. These results reveal a calcium-dependent mechanism controlling PD-L1 degradation, and highlight calcium flux blockade as a potential strategy for combinatorial immunotherapy.

Autophagy and Liver Diseases

Autophagy plays an important role in the physiology and pathology of the liver. It is involved in the development of many liver diseases such as α-1-antitrypsin deficiency, chronic hepatitis virus infection, alcoholic liver disease, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, and liver cancer. Autophagy has thus become a new target for the treatment of liver diseases. How to treat liver diseases by regulating autophagy has been a hot topic.

Calpain-2 plays a pivotal role in the inhibitory effects of propofol against TNF-α-induced autophagy in mouse hippocampal neurons

Calpains are calcium‐dependent proteases and play critical roles in neuronal autophagy induced by inflammation. Propofol has been reported to exert anti‐inflammatory effects in neurons. We aimed to identify whether and how propofol‐modulated calpain activity and neuron autophagy in response to tumour necrosis factor‐α (TNF‐α). Mouse hippocampal neurons were pre‐treated with propofol and exposed to TNF‐α. Autophagy was evaluated by fluorescent autophagy assay and by measuring LC3I and LC3II expression. Intracellular calcium concentration was measured by fluorescent assay. Calpain activation was measured by calpain activity assay. The protein expression of intracellular signalling molecules was detected by Western blot analysis. Compared with untreated control neurons, 40 ng/mL TNF‐α treatment for 2 hours induced neuron autophagy, which was attenuated by 25 μmol/L propofol. TNF‐α induced intracellular calcium accumulation, the phosphorylation of calcium/calmodulin‐dependent protein kinase II (CAMK II) and calpain‐2, calpain activation and lysosomal cathepsin B release as well as tyrosine kinase receptor B (TrkB) truncation. These effects were alleviated by propofol, calcium chelator, CAMK II inhibitor, calpain‐2 inhibitor, calpain‐2 siRNA transfection and N‐Methyl‐d‐aspartic acid (NMDA) receptor antagonist. Propofol, via NMDA receptor, inhibited TNF‐α‐mediated hippocampal neuron autophagy. The mechanism may involve calcium and calcium‐dependent signalling pathway, especially CAMK II and calpain‐2.

Protective Role of mTOR in Liver Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury: Involvement of Inflammation and Autophagy

Liver ischemia/reperfusion (IR) injury is a common phenomenon after liver resection and transplantation, which often results in liver graft dysfunction such as delayed graft function and primary nonfunction. The mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) is an evolutionarily highly conserved serine/threonine protein kinase, which coordinates cell growth and metabolism through sensing environmental inputs under physiological or pathological conditions, involved in the pathophysiological process of IR injury. In this review, we mainly present current evidence of the beneficial role of mTOR in modulating inflammation and autophagy under liver IR to provide some evidence for the potential therapies for liver IR injury.

Inhibition of the ubiquitous calpains protects complex I activity and enables improved mitophagy in the heart following ischemia-reperfusion

Activation of calpain 1 (CPN1) and calpain 2 (CPN2) contributes to cardiac injury during ischemia (ISC) and reperfusion (REP). Complex I activity is decreased in heart mitochondria following ISC-REP. CPN1 and CPN2 are ubiquitous calpains that exist in both cytosol (cs)-CPN1 and 2 and mitochondria (mit)-CPN1 and 2. Recent work shows that the complex I subunit (NDUFS7) is a potential substrate of the mit-CPN1. We asked whether ISC-REP led to decreased complex I activity via proteolysis of the NDUFS7 subunit via activation of mit-CPN1 and -2. Activation of cs-CPN1 and -2 decreases mitophagy in hepatocytes following ISC-REP. We asked whether activation of cs-CPN1 and -2 impaired mitophagy in the heart following ISC-REP. Buffer-perfused rat hearts underwent 25 min of global ISC and 30 min of REP. MDL-28170 (MDL; 10 µM) was used to inhibit CPN1 and -2. Cytosol, subsarcolemmal mitochondria (SSM), and interfibrillar mitochondria (IFM) were isolated at the end of heart perfusion. Cardiac ISC-REP led to decreased complex I activity with a decrease in the content of NDUFS7 in both SSM and IFM. ISC-REP also resulted in a decrease in cytosolic beclin-1 content, a key component of the autophagy pathway required to form autophagosomes. MDL treatment protected the contents of cytosolic beclin-1 and mitochondrial NDUFS7 in hearts following ISC-REP. These results support that activation of both cytosolic and mitochondrial calpains impairs mitochondria during cardiac ISC-REP. Mitochondria-localized calpains impair complex I via cleavage of a key subunit. Activation of cytosolic calpains contributes to mitochondrial dysfunction by impairing removal of the impaired mitochondria through depletion of a key component of the mitophagy process.

Hypothermic oxygenated machine perfusion alleviates liver injury in donation after circulatory death through activating autophagy in mice

Hypothermic oxygenated machine perfusion (HOPE) is a safe and reliable method that could alleviate liver injury in donation after circulatory death (DCD). This study focuses on the role of autophagy in HOPE's protective effect on DCD liver injury. A 30-minute warm ischemic liver model was established in mice. After 4 hours of cold storage (CS), 1 hour of hypothermic machine perfusion (HMP) with 100% O₂ or 100% N₂ was employed. During 2 hours of reperfusion, liver tissue and perfusate were collected to evaluate liver function, oxidative stress level, apoptosis, and necrosis. Western blotting was used to explore the level of autophagy. When the liver experienced warm ischemic injury, LC3B-II expression was significantly enhanced. Compared with the CS, HOPE induced lower release of AST and ALT, as well as lower oxidative stress levels, apoptosis, and necrosis cell numbers, and led to higher tissue ATP content. Meanwhile, expression of autophagy-related proteins, such as ULK1, Atg5, and LC3B-II, increased. When oxygen was completely replaced by nitrogen, the washout effect of HMP did not activate autophagy and did not relieve DCD liver injury. When the autophagy inhibitor 3-methyladenine was used in HOPE, the protective effect of HOPE was attenuated. In conclusion, DCD liver injury activated autophagy compared with healthy liver, while HOPE alleviated DCD liver injury by increasing autophagy levels further in this mouse model. However, HMP with 100% of N₂ had no beneficial effect on DCD liver injury or on autophagy levels compared with CS. The research on autophagy may provide a new strategy for alleviating DCD liver injury in clinical practice.

Calpain silencing alleviates myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury through the NLRP3/ASC/Caspase-1 axis in mice

AIMS

Prior to reperfusion, Calpains remain inactive due to the acidic pH and elevated ionic strength in the ischemic myocardium; but Calpain is activated during myocardial reperfusion. The underlying mechanism of Calpain activation in the ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) is yet to be determined. Therefore, the present study aims to investigate the mechanism of Calpain in I/R-induced mice.

MAIN METHODS

In order to detect the function of Calpain and the NLRP3/ASC/Caspase-1 axis in cardiomyocyte pyroptosis, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and myocardial function, the cardiomyocytes were treated with hypoxia-reoxygenation (H/R), and NLRP3 were silenced, Calpain was overexpressed and Caspase-1 inhibitors were used to determine cardiomyocyte pyroptosis. The results obtained from the cell experiments were then verified with an animal experiment in I/R mice.

KEY FINDINGS

There was an overexpression in Calpain, ASC, NLRP3, GRP78 and C/EBP homologous protein (CHOP) in cardiomyocytes following H/R. A significant increase was witnessed in lactic acid dehydrogenase (LDH) activity, cardiomyocyte pyroptosis rate, Calpain activity, reactive oxygen species (ROS) concentration, as well as activation of ER stress in cardiomyocytes after H/R. However, opposing results were observed in H/R cardiomyocytes that received siRNA Calpain, siRNA NLRP3 or Caspase-1 inhibitor treatment. Overall, the results obtained from the animal experiment were consistent with the results from the cell experiment.

SIGNIFICANCE

The silencing of Calpain suppresses the activation of the NLRP3/ASC/Caspase-1 axis, thus inhibiting ER stress in mice and improving myocardial dysfunction induced by I/R, providing a novel therapeutic pathway for I/R.

Killing Two Angry Birds with One Stone: Autophagy Activation by Inhibiting Calpains in Neurodegenerative Diseases and Beyond

Proteolytic machineries execute vital cellular functions and their disturbances are implicated in diverse medical conditions, including neurodegenerative diseases. Interestingly, calpains, a class of Ca²⁺-dependent regulatory proteases, can modulate the degradational system of autophagy by cleaving proteins involved in this pathway. Moreover, both machineries are common players in many molecular pathomechanisms and have been targeted individually or together, as a therapeutic strategy in experimental setups. In this review, we briefly introduce calpains and autophagy, with their roles in health and disease, and focus on their direct pathologically relevant interplay in neurodegeneration and beyond. The modulation of calpain activity may comprise a promising treatment approach to attenuate the deregulation of these two essential mechanisms.

Autophagy in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and alcoholic liver disease

Autophagy is an evolutionarily conserved intracellular degradative function that is important for liver homeostasis. Accumulating evidence suggests that autophagy is deregulated during the progression and development of alcoholic and non-alcoholic liver diseases. Impaired autophagy prevents the clearance of excessive lipid droplets (LDs), damaged mitochondria, and toxic protein aggregates, which can be generated during the progression of various liver diseases, thus contributing to the development of steatosis, injury, steatohepatitis, fibrosis, and tumors. In this review, we look at the status of hepatic autophagy during the pathogenesis of alcoholic and non-alcoholic liver diseases. We also examine the mechanisms of defects in autophagy, and the hepato-protective roles of autophagy in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and alcoholic liver disease (ALD), focusing mainly on steatosis and liver injury. Finally, we discuss the therapeutic potential of autophagy modulating agents for the treatment of these two common liver diseases.

BM‑MSCs protect against liver ischemia/reperfusion injury via HO‑1 mediated autophagy

Ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury is considered to be a contributing factor in liver injury following major hepatic resection or liver transplantation. Bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BM‑MSCs) have the potential to protect against liver I/R injury; however, the precise mechanisms have not been completely elucidated. Autophagy serves an important role in protecting against various injuries, including I/R injury. The present study aimed to determine the role of autophagy and its potential regulatory mechanism in BM‑MSC‑mediated protection against liver I/R injury in rats. The results demonstrated that BM‑MSCs mitigated I/R injury and enhanced autophagy in vivo. In addition, inhibition of autophagy by 3‑methyladenine reversed the positive effects of BM‑MSCs. Furthermore, heme oxygenase‑1 (HO‑1) expression was promoted by BM‑MSCs. Using zinc protoporphyrin IX to inhibit HO‑1 demonstrated that HO‑1 was important for the promotion of autophagy. In conclusion, the present study revealed that BM‑MSCs protected against liver I/R injury via the promotion of HO‑1‑mediated autophagy.

Complement Activation in Liver Transplantation: Role of Donor Macrosteatosis and Implications in Delayed Graft Function

The complement system anchors the innate inflammatory response by triggering both cell-mediated and antibody-mediated immune responses against pathogens. The complement system also plays a critical role in sterile tissue injury by responding to damage-associated molecular patterns. The degree and duration of complement activation may be a critical variable controlling the balance between regenerative and destructive inflammation following sterile injury. Recent studies in kidney transplantation suggest that aberrant complement activation may play a significant role in delayed graft function following transplantation, confirming results obtained from rodent models of renal ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury. Deactivating the complement cascade through targeting anaphylatoxins (C3a/C5a) might be an effective clinical strategy to dampen reperfusion injury and reduce delayed graft function in liver transplantation. Targeting the complement cascade may be critical in donor livers with mild to moderate steatosis, where elevated lipid burden amplifies stress responses and increases hepatocyte turnover. Steatosis-driven complement activation in the donor liver may also have implications in rejection and thrombolytic complications following transplantation. This review focuses on the roles of complement activation in liver I/R injury, strategies to target complement activation in liver I/R, and potential opportunities to translate these strategies to transplanting donor livers with mild to moderate steatosis.

Ischemic preconditioning attenuates ischemia/reperfusion injury in rat steatotic liver: role of heme oxygenase-1-mediated autophagy

Steatotic livers are more susceptible to ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury, which is ameliorated by ischemic preconditioning (IPC). Autophagy possesses protective action on liver I/R injury and declines in steatotic livers. The aim of this study was to test the hypothesis that the increased susceptibility of steatotic livers to I/R injury was associated with defective hepatic autophagy, which could be restored by IPC via heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) signaling. Obesity and hepatic steatosis was induced using a high fat diet. Obesity impaired hepatic autophagy activity and decreased hepatic HO-1 expression. Induction of HO-1 restored autophagy activity and inhibited calpain 2 activity. Additionally, suppression of calpain 2 activity also restored autophagy activity. Mitochondrial dysfunction and hepatocellular injury were significantly increased in steatotic livers compared to lean livers in response to I/R injury. This increase in sensitivity to I/R injury was associated with defective hepatic autophagy activity in steatotic livers. IPC increased autophagy and reduced mitochondrial dysfunction and hepatocellular damage in steatotic livers following I/R injury. Furthermore, IPC increased HO-1 expression. Inhibition of HO-1 decreased the IPC-induced autophagy, increased calpain 2 activity and diminished the protective effect of IPC against I/R injury. Inhibition of calpain 2 restored autophagic defect and attenuated mitochondrial dysfunction in steatotic livers after I/R. Collectively, IPC might ameliorate steatotic liver damage and restore mitochondrial function via HO-1-mediated autophagy.

Neutralization of CD95 ligand protects the liver against ischemia-reperfusion injury and prevents acute liver failure

Ischemia-reperfusion injury is a common pathological process in liver surgery and transplantation, and has considerable impact on the patient outcome and survival. Death receptors are important mediators of ischemia-reperfusion injury, notably the signaling pathways of the death receptor CD95 (Apo-1/Fas) and its corresponding ligand CD95L. This study investigates, for the first time, whether the inhibition of CD95L protects the liver against ischemia-reperfusion injury. Warm ischemia was induced in the median and left liver lobes of C57BL/6 mice for 45 min. CD95Fc, a specific inhibitor of CD95L, was applied prior to ischemia. Hepatic injury was assessed via consecutive measurements of liver serum enzymes, histopathological assessment of apoptosis and necrosis and caspase assays at 3, 6, 12, 18 and 24 h after reperfusion. Serum levels of liver enzymes, as well as characteristic histopathological changes and caspase assays indicated pronounced features of apoptotic and necrotic liver damage 12 and 24 h after ischemia-reperfusion injury. Animals treated with the CD95L-blocker CD95Fc, exhibited a significant reduction in the level of serum liver enzymes and showed both decreased histopathological signs of parenchymal damage and decreased caspase activation. This study demonstrates that inhibition of CD95L with the CD95L-blocker CD95Fc, is effective in protecting mice from liver failure due to ischemia-reperfusion injury of the liver. CD95Fc could therefore emerge as a new pharmacological therapy for liver resection, transplantation surgery and acute liver failure.

Calpain-2 as a therapeutic target for acute neuronal injury

INTRODUCTION

Calpains represent a family of neutral, calcium-dependent proteases, which modify the function of their target proteins by partial truncation. These proteases have been implicated in numerous cell functions, including cell division, proliferation, migration, and death. In the CNS, where calpain-1 and calpain-2 are the main calpain isoforms, their activation has been linked to synaptic plasticity as well as to neurodegeneration. This review will focus on the role of calpain-2 in acute neuronal injury and discuss the possibility of developing selective calpain-2 inhibitors for therapeutic purposes. Areas covered: This review covers the literature showing how calpain-2 is implicated in neuronal death in a number of pathological conditions. The possibility of developing new selective calpain-2 inhibitors for treating these conditions is discussed. Expert opinion: As evidence accumulates that calpain-2 activation participates in acute neuronal injury, there is interest in developing therapeutic approaches using selective calpain-2 inhibitors. Recent data indicate the potential use of such inhibitors in various pathologies associated with acute neuronal death. The possibility of extending the use of such inhibitors to more chronic forms of neurodegeneration is discussed.

Role of autophagy in hepatic ischemia-reperfusion injury

Hepatic ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI) is a crucial cause of liver damage occurring in some surgical procedures including hepatic resection and liver transplantation, and it remains the key potential cause of hepatic failure after liver transplantation. The mechanism of hepatic IRI is diverse and complicated, and involves various stages. Autophagy, an evolutionarily conserved process responsible for the degradation of damaged and dysfunctional cytoplasmic contents such as mitochondrion and lipids, regulates cellular homeostasis and survival during hepatic IRI. This review summarizes the molecular mechanisms underlying hepatic IRI, epitomizes the functions of autophagy, and describes the prospects of using autophagy as a therapeutic target for hepatic IRI.

Reciprocal Crosstalk Between Autophagic and Endocrine Signaling in Metabolic Homeostasis

Autophagy is a cellular quality control and energy-providing process that is under strict control by intra- and extracellular stimuli. Recently, there has been an exponential increase in autophagy research and its implications for mammalian physiology. Autophagy deregulation is now being implicated in many human diseases, and its modulation has shown promising results in several preclinical studies. However, despite the initial discovery of autophagy as a hormone-regulated process by De Duve in the early 1960s, endocrine regulation of autophagy still remains poorly understood. In this review, we provide a critical summary of our present understanding of the basic mechanism of autophagy, its regulation by endocrine hormones, and its contribution to endocrine and metabolic homeostasis under physiological and pathological settings. Understanding the cross-regulation of hormones and autophagy on endocrine cell signaling and function will provide new insight into mammalian physiology as well as promote the development of new therapeutic strategies involving modulation of autophagy in endocrine and metabolic disorders.