Use of fluorescence-detected sedimentation velocity to study high-affinity protein interactions

Mutational interference with oligomerization properties of OCP-related apo- and holoproteins studied by analytical ultracentrifugation

In this study, the oligomerization pattern of apo- and holoforms of the Orange Carotenoid Protein (OCP) was examined under different conditions such as photoactivation state, concentration, and carotenoid embedment using analytical ultracentrifugation. Furthermore, studies were conducted on OCP constructs carrying point mutations of amino acid residues affecting OCP oligomerization. Our findings reveal that the concentration-dependent dimerization of dark-adapted OCP holoprotein from Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 can be effectively prevented by the R27L mutation in the OCP-NTD. By introducing the E258R mutation (also in conjunction with R27L) into the OCP-CTD, monomeric OCP apoprotein can be obtained. Additionally, the holoprotein of the dark-adapted OCP-R27L/E258R variant was monomeric, and, supported by size-exclusion chromatography experiments, the photoactivated form of the OCP-R27L/E258R variant was monomeric as well. This variant, which does not oligomerize in either photocycle state, returns from the photoactivated to the dark-adapted state at a significantly faster rate than the OCP wild-type and the R27L mutant thereof. These observations also highlight the crucial interdependence between OCP dimerization in both photocycle states, the lifetime of the photoactive state of OCP, and the kinetics of the OCP photocycle.

Development of an advanced multiwavelength emission detector for the analytical ultracentrifuge

An advanced design of the analytical ultracentrifuge with multiwavelength emission detection (MWE-AUC) is presented which offers outstanding performance concerning the spectral resolution and range flexibility as well as the quality of the data acquired. The excitation by a 520 nm laser is complemented with a 405 nm laser. An external spectrograph with three switchable tunable gratings permits optimisation of the spectral resolution in an order of magnitude range while keeping the spectral region broad. The new system design leads also to a significant reduction of systematic signal noise and allows the assessment and control of inner filter effects. Details regarding the very large signal dynamic range are presented, an important aspect when studying samples in a broad concentration range of up to five orders of magnitude. Our system is validated by complementary studies on two biological systems, fluorescent BSA and GFP, using the commercial Optima AUC with absorbance detection for comparison. Finally, we demonstrate the capabilities of our second generation MWE-AUC with respect to multiwavelength characterisation of gold nanoclusters, which exhibit specific fluorescence depending on their structure. Overall, this work depicts an important stepping stone for the concept of multiwavelength emission detection in AUC. The MWE-AUC developed, being to our knowledge the first and sole one of its kind, has reached the development level suitable for the future in-depth studies of size-, shape- and composition-dependent emission properties of colloids.

The IRE1β-mediated unfolded protein response is repressed by the chaperone AGR2 in mucin producing cells

Effector mechanisms of the unfolded protein response (UPR) in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) are well-characterised, but how ER proteostasis is sensed is less well understood. Here, we exploited the beta isoform of the UPR transducer IRE1, that is specific to mucin-producing cells in order to gauge the relative regulatory roles of activating ligands and repressing chaperones of the specialised ER of goblet cells. Replacement of the stress-sensing luminal domain of endogenous IRE1α in CHO cells (normally expressing neither mucin nor IRE1β) with the luminal domain of IRE1β deregulated basal IRE1 activity. The mucin-specific chaperone AGR2 repressed IRE1 activity in cells expressing the domain-swapped IRE1β/α chimera, but had no effect on IRE1α. Introduction of the goblet cell-specific client MUC2 reversed AGR2-mediated repression of the IRE1β/α chimera. In vitro, AGR2 actively de-stabilised the IRE1β luminal domain dimer and formed a reversible complex with the inactive monomer. These features of the IRE1β-AGR2 couple suggest that active repression of IRE1β by a specialised mucin chaperone subordinates IRE1 activity to a proteostatic challenge unique to goblet cells, a challenge that is otherwise poorly recognised by the pervasive UPR transducers.

Antifouling strategies for electrochemical sensing in complex biological media

Surface fouling poses a significant challenge that restricts the analytical performance of electrochemical sensors in both in vitro and in vivo applications. Biofouling resistance is paramount to guarantee the reliable operation of electrochemical sensors in complex biofluids (e.g., blood, serum, and urine). Seeking efficient strategies for surface fouling and establishing highly sensitive sensing platforms for applications in complex media have received increasing attention in the past. In this review, we provide a comprehensive overview of recent research efforts focused on antifouling electrochemical sensors. Initially, we present a detailed illustration of the concept about biofouling along with an exploration of four key antifouling mechanisms. Subsequently, we delve into the commonly employed antifouling strategies in the fabrication of electrochemical sensors. These encompass physical surface topography (micro/nanostructure coatings and filtration membranes) and chemical surface modifications (PEG and its derivatives, zwitterionic polymers, peptides, proteins, and various other antifouling materials). The progress in antifouling electrochemical sensors is proposed concerning the antifouling mechanisms as well as sensing capability assessments (e.g., sensitivity, stability, and practical application ability). Finally, we summarize the evolving trends in the field and highlight some key remaining limitations.

The Thermodynamic Fingerprints of Ultra-Tight Nanobody-Antigen Binding Probed via Two-Color Single-Molecule Coincidence Detection

Life on the molecular scale is based on a versatile interplay of biomolecules, a feature that is relevant for the formation of macromolecular complexes. Fluorescence-based two-color coincidence detection is widely used to characterize molecular binding and was recently improved by a brightness-gated version which gives more accurate results. We developed and established protocols which make use of coincidence detection to quantify binding fractions between interaction partners labeled with fluorescence dyes of different colors. Since the applied technique is intrinsically related to single-molecule detection, the concentration of diffusing molecules for confocal detection is typically in the low picomolar regime. This makes the approach a powerful tool for determining bi-molecular binding affinities, in terms of KD values, in this regime. We demonstrated the reliability of our approach by analyzing very strong nanobody-EGFP binding. By measuring the affinity at different temperatures, we were able to determine the thermodynamic parameters of the binding interaction. The results show that the ultra-tight binding is dominated by entropic contributions.

E3 ligase autoinhibition by C-degron mimicry maintains C-degron substrate fidelity

E3 ligase recruitment of proteins containing terminal destabilizing motifs (degrons) is emerging as a major form of regulation. How those E3s discriminate bona fide substrates from other proteins with terminal degron-like sequences remains unclear. Here, we report that human KLHDC2, a CRL2 substrate receptor targeting C-terminal Gly-Gly degrons, is regulated through interconversion between two assemblies. In the self-inactivated homotetramer, KLHDC2's C-terminal Gly-Ser motif mimics a degron and engages the substrate-binding domain of another protomer. True substrates capture the monomeric CRL2KLHDC2, driving E3 activation by neddylation and subsequent substrate ubiquitylation. Non-substrates such as NEDD8 bind KLHDC2 with high affinity, but its slow on rate prevents productive association with CRL2KLHDC2. Without substrate, neddylated CRL2KLHDC2 assemblies are deactivated via distinct mechanisms: the monomer by deneddylation and the tetramer by auto-ubiquitylation. Thus, substrate specificity is amplified by KLHDC2 self-assembly acting like a molecular timer, where only bona fide substrates may bind before E3 ligase inactivation.

Hierarchical assembly of the MLL1 core complex regulates H3K4 methylation and is dependent on temperature and component concentration

Enzymes of the mixed lineage leukemia (MLL) family of histone H3 lysine 4 (H3K4) methyltransferases are critical for cellular differentiation and development and are regulated by interaction with a conserved subcomplex consisting of WDR5, RbBP5, Ash2L, and DPY30. While pairwise interactions between complex subunits have been determined, the mechanisms regulating holocomplex assembly are unknown. In this investigation, we systematically characterized the biophysical properties of a reconstituted human MLL1 core complex and found that the MLL1-WDR5 heterodimer interacts with the RbBP5-Ash2L-DPY30 subcomplex in a hierarchical assembly pathway that is highly dependent on concentration and temperature. Surprisingly, we found that the disassembled state is favored at physiological temperature, where the enzyme rapidly becomes irreversibly inactivated, likely because of complex components becoming trapped in nonproductive conformations. Increased protein concentration partially overcomes this thermodynamic barrier for complex assembly, suggesting a potential regulatory mechanism for spatiotemporal control of H3K4 methylation. Together, these results are consistent with the hypothesis that regulated assembly of the MLL1 core complex underlies an important mechanism for establishing different H3K4 methylation states in mammalian genomes.

Bacterial divisome protein FtsA forms curved antiparallel double filaments when binding to FtsN

During bacterial cell division, filaments of tubulin-like FtsZ form the Z-ring, which is the cytoplasmic scaffold for divisome assembly. In Escherichia coli, the actin homologue FtsA anchors the Z-ring to the membrane and recruits divisome components, including bitopic FtsN. FtsN regulates the periplasmic peptidoglycan synthase FtsWI. To characterize how FtsA regulates FtsN, we applied electron microscopy to show that E. coli FtsA forms antiparallel double filaments on lipid monolayers when bound to the cytoplasmic tail of FtsN. Using X-ray crystallography, we demonstrate that Vibrio maritimus FtsA crystallizes as an equivalent double filament. We identified an FtsA-FtsN interaction site in the IA-IC interdomain cleft of FtsA using X-ray crystallography and confirmed that FtsA forms double filaments in vivo by site-specific cysteine cross-linking. FtsA-FtsN double filaments reconstituted in or on liposomes prefer negative Gaussian curvature, like those of MreB, the actin-like protein of the elongasome. We propose that curved antiparallel FtsA double filaments together with treadmilling FtsZ filaments organize septal peptidoglycan synthesis in the division plane.

A complete Protocadherin-19 ectodomain model for evaluating epilepsy-causing mutations and potential protein interaction sites

Cadherin superfamily members play a critical role in differential adhesion during neurodevelopment, and their disruption has been linked to several neurodevelopmental disorders. Mutations in protocadherin-19 (PCDH19), a member of the δ-protocadherin subfamily of cadherins, cause a unique form of epilepsy called PCDH19 clustering epilepsy. While PCDH19 and other non-clustered δ-protocadherins form multimers with other members of the cadherin superfamily to alter adhesiveness, the specific protein surfaces responsible for these interactions are unknown. Only portions of the PCDH19 extracellular domain structure had been solved previously. Here, we present a structure of the missing segment from zebrafish Protocadherin-19 (Pcdh19) and create a complete ectodomain model. This model shows the structural environment for 97% of disease-causing missense mutations and reveals two potential surfaces for intermolecular interactions that could modify Pcdh19's adhesive strength and specificity.

Label-free methods for optical in vitro characterization of protein-protein interactions

Protein-protein interactions are involved in the regulation and function of the majority of cellular processes. As a result, much effort has been aimed at the development of methodologies capable of quantifying protein-protein interactions, with label-free methods being of particular interest due to the associated simplified workflows and minimisation of label-induced perturbations. Here, we review recent advances in optical technologies providing label-free in vitro measurements of affinities and kinetics. We provide an overview and comparison of existing techniques and their principles, discussing advantages, limitations, and recent applications.

Characterization of DNA-protein complexes by nanoparticle tracking analysis and their association with systemic lupus erythematosus

Nanotechnology enables investigations of single biomacromolecules, but technical challenges have limited the application in liquid biopsies, for example, blood plasma. Nonetheless, tools to characterize single molecular species in such samples represent a significant unmet need with the increasing appreciation of the physiological importance of protein structural changes at nanometer scale. Mannose-binding lectin (MBL) is an oligomeric plasma protein and part of the innate immune system through its ability to activate complement. MBL also serves a role as a scavenger for cellular debris, especially DNA. This may link functions of MBL with several inflammatory diseases in which cell-free DNA now appears to play a role, but mechanistic insight has been lacking. By making nanoparticle tracking analysis possible in human plasma, we now show that superoligomeric structures of MBL form nanoparticles with DNA. These oligomers correlate with disease activity in systemic lupus erythematosus patients. With the direct quantification of the hydrodynamic radius, calculations following the principles of Taylor dispersion in the blood stream connect the size of these complexes to endothelial inflammation, which is among the most important morbidities in lupus. Mechanistic insight from an animal model of lupus supported that DNA-stabilized superoligomers stimulate the formation of germinal center B cells and drive loss of immunological tolerance. The formation involves an inverse relationship between the concentration of MBL superoligomers and antibodies to double-stranded DNA. Our approach implicates the structure of DNA-protein nanoparticulates in the pathobiology of autoimmune diseases.

Measuring aggregates, self-association, and weak interactions in concentrated therapeutic antibody solutions

Monoclonal antibodies are a class of biotherapeutics used for an increasing variety of disorders, including cancer, autoimmune, neurodegenerative, and viral diseases. Besides their antigen specificity, therapeutic use also mandates control of their solution interactions and colloidal properties in order to achieve a stable, efficacious, non-immunogenic, and low viscosity antibody solution at concentrations in the range of 50–150 mg/mL. This requires characterization of their reversible self-association, aggregation, and weak attractive and repulsive interactions governing macromolecular distance distributions in solution. Simultaneous measurement of these properties, however, has been hampered by solution nonideality. Based on a recently introduced sedimentation velocity method for measuring macromolecular size distributions in a mean-field approximation for hydrodynamic interactions, we demonstrate simultaneous measurement of polydispersity and weak and strong solution interactions in a panel of antibodies with concentrations up to 45 mg/mL. By allowing approximately an order of magnitude higher concentrations than previously possible in sedimentation velocity size distribution analysis, this approach can substantially improve efficiency and sensitivity for characterizing polydispersity and interactions of therapeutic antibodies at or close to formulation conditions.

An essential role of the autophagy activating kinase ULK1 in snRNP biogenesis

The biogenesis of small uridine-rich nuclear ribonucleoproteins (UsnRNPs) depends on the methylation of Sm proteins catalyzed by the methylosome and the subsequent action of the SMN complex, which assembles the heptameric Sm protein ring onto small nuclear RNAs (snRNAs). In this sophisticated process, the methylosome subunit pICln (chloride conductance regulatory protein) is attributed to an exceptional key position as an 'assembly chaperone' by building up a stable precursor Sm protein ring structure. Here, we show that-apart from its autophagic role-the Ser/Thr kinase ULK1 (Uncoordinated [unc-51] Like Kinase 1) functions as a novel key regulator in UsnRNP biogenesis by phosphorylation of the C-terminus of pICln. As a consequence, phosphorylated pICln is no longer capable to hold up the precursor Sm ring structure. Consequently, inhibition of ULK1 results in a reduction of efficient UsnRNP core assembly. Thus ULK1, depending on its complex formation, exerts different functions in autophagy or snRNP biosynthesis.

Experimental Approaches to Identify Selective Picomolar Inhibitors for Carbonic Anhydrase IX

BACKGROUND

Carbonic anhydrases (CAs) regulate pH homeostasis via the reversible hydration of CO₂, thereby emerging as essential enzymes for many vital functions. Among 12 catalytically active CA isoforms in humans, CA IX has become a relevant therapeutic target because of its role in cancer progression. Only two CA IX inhibitors have entered clinical trials, mostly due to low affinity and selectivity properties.

OBJECTIVE

The current review presents the design, development, and identification of the selective nano- to picomolar CA IX inhibitors VD11-4-2, VR16-09, and VD12-09.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Compounds were selected from our database, composed of over 400 benzensulfonamides, synthesized at our laboratory, and tested for their binding to 12 human CAs. Here we discuss the CA CO₂ hydratase activity/inhibition assay and several biophysical techniques, such as fluorescent thermal shift assay and isothermal titration calorimetry, highlighting their contribution to the analysis of compound affinity and structure- activity relationships. To obtain sufficient amounts of recombinant CAs for inhibitor screening, several gene cloning and protein purification strategies are presented, including site-directed CA mutants, heterologous CAs from Xenopus oocytes, and native endogenous CAs. The cancer cell-based methods, such as clonogenicity, extracellular acidification, and mass spectrometric gas-analysis are reviewed, confirming nanomolar activities of lead inhibitors in intact cancer cells.

CONCLUSIONS

Novel CA IX inhibitors are promising derivatives for in vivo explorations. Furthermore, the simultaneous targeting of several proteins involved in proton flux upon tumor acidosis and the disruption of transport metabolons might improve cancer management.

Quantitative Analysis of Protein Self-Association by Sedimentation Velocity

Sedimentation velocity analytical ultracentrifugation is a powerful classical method to study protein self-association processes in solution based on the size-dependent macromolecular migration in the centrifugal field. This technique can elucidate the assembly scheme, measure affinities ranging from picomolar to millimolar K_d , and in favorable cases provide information on oligomer lifetimes and hydrodynamic shape. The present step-by-step protocols detail the essential steps of instrument calibration, experimental setup, and data analysis. Using a widely available commercial protein as a model system, the protocols invite replication and comparison with our results. A commentary discusses principles for modifications in the protocols that may be necessary to optimize application of sedimentation velocity analysis to other self-associating proteins. ©2020 Wiley Periodicals LLC. Basic Protocol 1: Measurement of external calibration factors Basic Protocol 2: Sedimentation velocity experiment for protein self-association Basic Protocol 3: Sedimentation coefficient distribution analysis in SEDFIT and isotherm analysis in SEDPHAT.

Analytical Ultracentrifugation (AUC): An Overview of the Application of Fluorescence and Absorbance AUC to the Study of Biological Macromolecules

The biochemical and biophysical investigation of proteins, nucleic acids, and the assemblies that they form yields essential information to understand complex systems. Analytical ultracentrifugation (AUC) represents a broadly applicable and information-rich method for investigating macromolecular characteristics such as size, shape, stoichiometry, and binding properties, all in the true solution-state environment that is lacking in most orthogonal methods. Despite this, AUC remains underutilized relative to its capabilities and potential in the fields of biochemistry and molecular biology. Although there has been a rapid development of computing power and AUC analysis tools in this millennium, fewer advancements have occurred in development of new applications of the technique, leaving these powerful instruments underappreciated and underused in many research institutes. With AUC previously limited to absorbance and Rayleigh interference optics, the addition of fluorescence detection systems has greatly enhanced the applicability of AUC to macromolecular systems that are traditionally difficult to characterize. This overview provides a resource for novices, highlighting the potential of AUC and encouraging its use in their research, as well as for current users, who may benefit from our experience. We discuss the strengths of fluorescence-detected AUC and demonstrate the power of even simple AUC experiments to answer practical and fundamental questions about biophysical properties of macromolecular assemblies. We address the development and utility of AUC, explore experimental design considerations, present case studies investigating properties of biological macromolecules that are of common interest to researchers, and review popular analysis approaches. © 2020 The Authors.

On the utility of fluorescence-detection analytical ultracentrifugation in probing biomolecular interactions in complex solutions: a case study in milk

β-Lactoglobulin is the most abundant protein in the whey fraction of ruminant milks, yet is absent in human milk. It has been studied intensively due to its impact on the processing and allergenic properties of ruminant milk products. However, the physiological function of β-lactoglobulin remains unclear. Using the fluorescence-detection system within the analytical ultracentrifuge, we observed an interaction involving fluorescently labelled β-lactoglobulin in its native environment, i.e. cow and goat milk, for the first time. Co-elution experiments support that these β-lactoglobulin interactions occur naturally in milk and provide evidence that the interacting partners are immunoglobulins, while further sedimentation velocity experiments confirm that an interaction occurs between these molecules. The identification of these interactions, made possible through the use of fluorescence-detected analytical ultracentrifugation, provides possible clues to the long debated physiological function of this abundant milk protein.

Visualizing the functional 3D shape and topography of long noncoding RNAs by single-particle atomic force microscopy and in-solution hydrodynamic techniques

Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) are recently discovered transcripts that regulate vital cellular processes, such as cellular differentiation and DNA replication, and are crucially connected to diseases. Although the 3D structures of lncRNAs are key determinants of their function, the unprecedented molecular complexity of lncRNAs has so far precluded their 3D structural characterization at high resolution. It is thus paramount to develop novel approaches for biochemical and biophysical characterization of these challenging targets. Here, we present a protocol that integrates non-denaturing lncRNA purification with in-solution hydrodynamic analysis and single-particle atomic force microscopy (AFM) imaging to produce highly homogeneous lncRNA preparations and visualize their 3D topology at ~15-Å resolution. Our protocol is suitable for imaging lncRNAs in biologically active conformations and for measuring structural defects of functionally inactive mutants that have been identified by cell-based functional assays. Once optimized for the specific target lncRNA of choice, our protocol leads from cloning to AFM imaging within 3-4 weeks and can be implemented using state-of-the-art biochemical and biophysical instrumentation by trained researchers familiar with RNA handling and supported by AFM and small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) experts.

Identification of the periplasmic DNA receptor for natural transformation of Helicobacter pylori

Horizontal gene transfer through natural transformation is a major driver of antibiotic resistance spreading in many pathogenic bacterial species. In the case of Gram-negative bacteria, and in particular of Helicobacter pylori, the mechanisms underlying the handling of the incoming DNA within the periplasm are poorly understood. Here we identify the protein ComH as the periplasmic receptor for the transforming DNA during natural transformation in H. pylori. ComH is a DNA-binding protein required for the import of DNA into the periplasm. Its C-terminal domain displays strong affinity for double-stranded DNA and is sufficient for the accumulation of DNA in the periplasm, but not for DNA internalisation into the cytoplasm. The N-terminal region of the protein allows the interaction of ComH with a periplasmic domain of the inner-membrane channel ComEC, which is known to mediate the translocation of DNA into the cytoplasm. Our results indicate that ComH is involved in the import of DNA into the periplasm and its delivery to the inner membrane translocator ComEC.

Some bacteria can take up DNA molecules from the environment. Here, Damke et al. identify a DNA-binding protein in Helicobacter pylori that is required for DNA import into the periplasm and that interacts with an inner-membrane channel that translocates the DNA into the cytoplasm.

Nucleic acid-induced dimerization of HIV-1 Gag protein

HIV-1 Gag is a highly flexible multidomain protein that forms the protein lattice of the immature HIV-1 virion. In vitro, it reversibly dimerizes, but in the presence of nucleic acids (NAs), it spontaneously assembles into virus-like particles (VLPs). High-resolution structures have revealed intricate details of the interactions of the capsid (CA) domain of Gag and the flanking spacer peptide SP1 that stabilize VLPs, but much less is known about the assembly pathway and the interactions of the highly flexible NA-binding nucleocapsid (NC) domain. Here, using a novel hybrid fluorescence proximity/sedimentation velocity method in combination with calorimetric analyses, we studied initial binding events by monitoring the sizes and conformations of complexes of Gag with very short oligonucleotides. We observed that high-affinity binding of oligonucleotides induces conformational changes in Gag accompanied by the formation of complexes with a 2:1 Gag/NA stoichiometry. This NA-liganded dimerization mode is distinct from the widely studied dimer interface in the CA domain and from protein interactions arising in the SP1 region and may be mediated by protein-protein interactions localized in the NC domain. The formation of the liganded dimer is strongly enthalpically driven, resulting in higher dimerization affinity than the CA-domain dimer. Both detailed energetic and conformational analyses of different Gag constructs revealed modulatory contributions to NA-induced dimerization from both matrix and CA domains. We hypothesize that allosterically controlled self-association represents the first step of VLP assembly and, in concert with scaffolding along the NA, can seed the formation of two-dimensional arrays near the NA.

Structural characterization of the RH1-LZI tandem of JIP3/4 highlights RH1 domains as a cytoskeletal motor-binding motif

JIP3 and JIP4 (JNK-interacting proteins 3 and 4) are adaptors for cargo recruitment by dynein/dynactin and kinesin1 motors. Both are dimers that are stabilised by two sections of leucine zipper coiled coils. The N-terminal Leucine Zipper I (LZI) belongs to a section that binds dynein-DLIC and kinesin1-KHC, whilst the medial Leucine Zipper II (LZII) binds dynactin-p150glued and kinesin1-KLC. Structural data is available for the LZII, but the LZI section is still uncharacterized. Here we characterize the N-terminal part of JIP3/4 which consists of an RH1 (RILP homology 1) domain followed by the LZI coiled coil using bioinformatical, biophysical and structural approaches. The RH1-LZI tandem of JIP3 associates as a high affinity homodimer exhibiting elongated alpha-helical fold. 3D homology modelling of the RH1-LZI tandem reveals that the kinesin1-KHC binding site mainly overlaps with the RH1 domain. A sequence comparison search indicates that only one other protein family has RH1 domains similar to those of JIP3/4, the RILP (Rab-interacting lysosomal protein) family which consists of adaptor proteins linking Rab GTPases to cytoskeletal motors. RILPL2 is recruited through its RH1 domain by the myosin 5a motor. Here, we showed that the RH1 domain of JIP3 also interacts with myosin 5 A in vitro, highlighting JIP3/4 as possible myosin 5a adaptors. Finally, we propose that JIP3/4 and RILP family members define a unique RH1/RH2-architecture adaptor superfamily linking cytoskeletal motors and Rab GTPases.

An oligomeric state-dependent switch in the ER enzyme FICD regulates AMPylation and deAMPylation of BiP

AMPylation is an inactivating modification that alters the activity of the major endoplasmic reticulum (ER) chaperone BiP to match the burden of unfolded proteins. A single ER-localised Fic protein, FICD (HYPE), catalyses both AMPylation and deAMPylation of BiP. However, the basis for the switch in FICD's activity is unknown. We report on the transition of FICD from a dimeric enzyme, that deAMPylates BiP, to a monomer with potent AMPylation activity. Mutations in the dimer interface, or of residues along an inhibitory pathway linking the dimer interface to the enzyme's active site, favour BiP AMPylation in vitro and in cells. Mechanistically, monomerisation relieves a repressive effect allosterically propagated from the dimer interface to the inhibitory Glu234, thereby permitting AMPylation-competent binding of MgATP. Moreover, a reciprocal signal, propagated from the nucleotide-binding site, provides a mechanism for coupling the oligomeric state and enzymatic activity of FICD to the energy status of the ER.

Efficient data acquisition with three-channel centerpieces in sedimentation velocity

Three-channel 3D printed centerpieces with two sample sectors next to a joint solvent reference sector were recently described as a strategy to double the throughput of sedimentation velocity analytical ultracentrifugation experiments [Anal. Chem. 91 (2019) 5866-5873]. They are compatible with Rayleigh interference optical detection in commercial analytical ultracentrifuges, but require the rotor angles of data acquisition to be repeatedly adjusted during the experiment to record data from the two sample sectors. Here we present an approach to automate this data acquisition mode through the use of a secondary, general-purpose automation software, and an accompanying data pre-processing software for scan sorting.

Viroid research and its significance for RNA technology and basic biochemistry

Viroids were described 47 years ago as the smallest RNA molecules capable of infecting plants and autonomously self-replicating without an encoded protein. Work on viroids initiated the development of a number of innovative methods. Novel chromatographic and gelelectrophoretic methods were developed for the purification and characterization of viroids; these methods were later used in molecular biology, gene technology and in prion research. Theoretical and experimental studies of RNA folding demonstrated the general biological importance of metastable structures, and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy of viroid RNA showed the partially covalent nature of hydrogen bonds in biological macromolecules. RNA biochemistry and molecular biology profited from viroid research, such as in the detection of RNA as template of DNA-dependent polymerases and in mechanisms of gene silencing. Viroids, the first circular RNA detected in nature, are important for studies on the much wider spectrum of circular RNAs and other non-coding RNAs.

Solution-Based Determination of Dissociation Constants for the Binding of Aβ42 to Antibodies

Amyloid β-peptides (Aβ) play a major role in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. Therefore, numerous monoclonal antibodies against Aβ have been developed for basic and clinical research. The present study applied fluorescence based analytical ultracentrifugation and microscale thermophoresis to characterize the interaction between Aβ42 monomers and three popular, commercially available antibodies, namely 6E10, 4G8 and 12F4. Both methods allowed us to analyze the interactions at low nanomolar concentrations of analytes close to their dissociation constants (K D) as required for the study of high affinity interactions. Furthermore, the low concentrations minimized the unwanted self-aggregation of Aβ. Our study demonstrates that all three antibodies bind to Aβ42 monomers with comparable affinities in the low nanomolar range. K D values for Aβ42 binding to 6E10 and 4G8 are in good agreement with formerly reported values from SPR studies, while the K D for 12F4 binding to Aβ42 monomer is reported for the first time.

Interference with Amyloid-β Nucleation by Transient Ligand Interaction

Amyloid-β peptide (Aβ) is an intrinsically disordered protein (IDP) associated with Alzheimer's disease. The structural flexibility and aggregation propensity of Aβ pose major challenges for elucidating the interaction between Aβ monomers and ligands. All-D-peptides consisting solely of D-enantiomeric amino acid residues are interesting drug candidates that combine high binding specificity with high metabolic stability. Here we characterized the interaction between the 12-residue all-D-peptide D3 and Aβ42 monomers, and how the interaction influences Aβ42 aggregation. We demonstrate for the first time that D3 binds to Aβ42 monomers with submicromolar affinities. These two highly unstructured molecules are able to form complexes with 1:1 and other stoichiometries. Further, D3 at substoichiometric concentrations effectively slows down the β-sheet formation and Aβ42 fibrillation by modulating the nucleation process. The study provides new insights into the molecular mechanism of how D3 affects Aβ assemblies and contributes to our knowledge on the interaction between two IDPs.

All tubulins are not alike: Heterodimer dissociation differs among different biological sources

Tubulin, the subunit of microtubules, is a noncovalent heterodimer composed of one α- and one β-tubulin monomer. Both tubulins are encoded by multiple genes or composed of different isotypes, which are differentially expressed in different tissues and in development. Tubulin αβ dimers are found throughout the eukaryotes and, although very similar, are known to differ among organisms. We seek to investigate tubulins from different tissues and different organisms for a basic physical characteristic: heterodimer stability and monomer exchange between heterodimers. We previously showed that mammalian brain tubulin heterodimers reversibly dissociate, following the mass action law. Dissociation yields native monomers that can exchange with added tubulin to form new heterodimers. Here, we compared the dissociation of tubulins from multiple sources, including mammalian (rat) brain, cultured human cells (HeLa cells), chicken brain, chicken erythrocytes, and the protozoan Leishmania We used fluorescence-detected analytical ultracentrifugation to measure tubulin dissociation over a >1000-fold range in concentration and found that tubulin heterodimers from different biological sources differ in K_d by as much as 150-fold under the same conditions. Furthermore, when fluorescent tracer tubulins from various sources were titrated with unlabeled tubulin from a single source (rat brain tubulin), heterologous dimerization occurred, exhibiting similar affinities, in some cases binding even more strongly than with autologous tubulin. These results provide additional insight into the regulation of heterodimer formation of tubulin from different biological sources, revealing that monomer exchange appears to contribute to the sorting of α- and β-tubulin monomers that associate following tubulin folding.

Enhanced Sample Handling for Analytical Ultracentrifugation with 3D-Printed Centerpieces

The centerpiece of the sample cell assembly in analytical ultracentrifugation holds the sample solution between windows, sealed against high vacuum, and is shaped such that macromolecular migration in centrifugal fields exceeding 200 000g can proceed undisturbed by walls or convection while concentration profiles are imaged with optical detection systems aligned perpendicular to the plane of rotation. We have recently shown that 3D printing using various materials allows inexpensive and rapid manufacturing of centerpieces. In the present work, we expand this endeavor to examine the accuracy of the measured sedimentation process, as well as short-term durability of the centerpieces. We find that 3D-printed centerpieces can be used many times and can provide data equivalent in quality to commonly used commercial epoxy resin centerpieces. Furthermore, 3D printing enables novel designs adapted to particular experimental objectives because they offer unique opportunities, for example, to create well-defined curved surfaces, narrow channels, and embossed features. We present examples of centerpiece designs exploiting these capabilities for improved AUC experiments. This includes narrow sector centerpieces that substantially reduce the required sample volume while maintaining the standard optical path length; thin centerpieces with integrated window holders to provide very short optical pathlengths that reduce optical aberrations at high macromolecular concentrations; long-column centerpieces that increase the observable distance of macromolecular migration for higher-precision sedimentation coefficients; and three-sector centerpieces that allow doubling the number of samples in a single run while reducing the sample volumes. We find each of these designs allows unimpeded macromolecular sedimentation and can provide high-quality sedimentation data.

Ligand-induced conformational switch in an artificial bidomain protein scaffold

Artificial proteins binding any predefined “target” protein can now be efficiently generated using combinatorial libraries based on robust protein scaffolds. αRep is such a family of artificial proteins, based on an α-solenoid protein repeat scaffold. The low aggregation propensity of the specific “binders” generated from this library opens new protein engineering opportunities such as the creation of biosensors within multidomain constructions. Here, we have explored the properties of two new types of artificial bidomain proteins based on αRep structures. Their structural and functional properties are characterized in detail using biophysical methods. The results clearly show that both bidomain proteins adopt a closed bivalve shell-like conformation, in the ligand free form. However, the presence of ligands induces a conformational transition, and the proteins adopt an open form in which each domain can bind its cognate protein partner. The open/closed equilibria alter the affinities of each domain and induce new cooperative effects. The binding-induced relative domain motion was monitored by FRET. Crystal structures of the chimeric proteins indicate that the conformation of each constituting domain is conserved but that their mutual interactions explain the emergent properties of these artificial bidomain proteins. The ligand-induced structural transition observed in these bidomain proteins should be transferable to other αRep proteins with different specificity and could provide the basis of a new generic biosensor design.

Cooperative assembly of a four-molecule signaling complex formed upon T cell antigen receptor activation

The T cell antigen receptor encounters foreign antigen during the immune response. Receptor engagement leads to activation of specific protein tyrosine kinases, which then phosphorylate multiple enzymes and adapter proteins. One such enzyme, phospholipase-Cγ1, is responsible for cleavage of a plasma membrane lipid substrate, a phosphoinositide, into two second messengers, diacylglycerol, which activates several enzymes including protein kinase C, and an inositol phosphate, which induces intracellular calcium elevation. In T cells, phospholipase-Cγ1 is recruited to the plasma membrane as part of a four-protein complex containing three adapter molecules. We have used recombinant proteins and synthetic phosphopeptides to reconstitute this quaternary complex in vitro. Extending biophysical tools to study concurrent interactions of the four protein components, we demonstrated the formation and determined the composition of the quaternary complex using multisignal analytical ultracentrifugation, and we characterized the thermodynamic driving forces of assembly by isothermal calorimetry. We demonstrate that the four proteins reversibly associate in a circular arrangement of binding interfaces, each protein interacting with two others. Three interactions are of high affinity, and the fourth is of low affinity, with the assembly of the quaternary complex exhibiting significant enthalpy-entropy compensation as in an entropic switch. Formation of this protein complex enables subsequent recruitment of additional molecules needed to activate phospholipase-Cγ1. Understanding the formation of this complex is fundamental to full characterization of a central pathway in T cell activation. Such knowledge is critical to developing ways in which this pathway can be selectively inhibited.

Sedimentation velocity analytical ultracentrifugation for characterization of therapeutic antibodies

Sedimentation velocity analytical ultracentrifugation (SV-AUC) coupled with direct computational fitting of the observed concentration profiles (sedimentating boundary) have been developed and widely used for the characterization of macromolecules and nanoparticles in solution. In particular, size distribution analysis by SV-AUC has become a reliable and essential approach for the characterization of biopharmaceuticals including therapeutic antibodies. In this review, we describe the importance and advantages of SV-AUC for studying biopharmaceuticals, with an emphasis on strategies for sample preparation, data acquisition, and data analysis. Recent discoveries enabled by AUC with a fluorescence detection system and potential future applications are also discussed.

Preferential assembly of heteromeric kainate and AMPA receptor amino terminal domains

Ion conductivity and the gating characteristics of tetrameric glutamate receptor ion channels are determined by their subunit composition. Competitive homo- and hetero-dimerization of their amino-terminal domains (ATDs) is a key step controlling assembly. Here we measured systematically the thermodynamic stabilities of homodimers and heterodimers of kainate and AMPA receptors using fluorescence-detected sedimentation velocity analytical ultracentrifugation. Measured affinities span many orders of magnitude, and complexes show large differences in kinetic stabilities. The association of kainate receptor ATD dimers is generally weaker than the association of AMPA receptor ATD dimers, but both show a general pattern of increased heterodimer stability as compared to the homodimers of their constituents, matching well physiologically observed receptor combinations. The free energy maps of AMPA and kainate receptor ATD dimers provide a framework for the interpretation of observed receptor subtype combinations and possible assembly pathways.