Suppression of the activity of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi by the soil microbiota

Structure and composition of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal community associated with mango

Mango (Mangifera indica L.) is an important fruit crop with significant economic value in tropical and subtropical areas globally. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal (AMF) symbiosis is vital for mango trees growth, and the detailed understanding of various (a)biotic factors that influence AMF community composition is crucial for sustainable crop production. To date, there is little information available on how do different seasons and plant age influence the AMF community composition associated with mango. Using high-throughput amplicon sequencing, we examined AMF community diversity and composition in the rhizosphere of mango from two distinct orchards during spring (C_BY and C_YL) and autumn (Q_BY and Q_YL), which differed in age (10 and 28 years). The results revealed a notable variation in the number of observed species between two 28-years-old mango orchards (C_BY28 vs C_YL28 and Q_BY28 vs Q_YL28) during both the spring and autumn seasons. However, the comparison of 10-years-old and 28-years-old mangoes showed no significant shift in the diversity and richness of AMF. At the taxonomic level, Glomus was the absolute dominant genus in AMF community. The correlation analysis between species abundance and soil nutrients showed that the level of phosphorus, potassium and their available forms (AP, AK) significantly affect AMF community. Furthermore, the P, AP, and AK contents were found positively correlated with the dominant AMF molecular virtual species Sclerocystis sinuosa. These findings indicate the response characteristics of mango rhizosphere AMF community to soil nutrients, providing scientific basis for precise regulation of soil environment to improve mango tree growth and production.

The Effect of the Application of Chemical Fertilizer and Arbuscular MyCorrhizal Fungi on Maize Yield and Soil Microbiota in Saline Agricultural Soil

The overuse of chemical fertilizers not only leads to resource wastage but also causes problems such as environmental pollution and soil degradation. In particular, crop growth in saline-sodic soils is severely restricted due to high salinity and alkalinity, further exacerbating challenges in agricultural production. The aim of this study was to investigate different fertilization strategies that combine chemical fertilizer reduction with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) for improving saline-sodic soils and to assess the effects of these protocols on crop yield, soil properties, and microbial communities. Field experiments across two sites (BeiWuLao and XuJiaZhen) demonstrated that integrating AMF with CF reduction (AHCF treatment) significantly enhanced maize yield by 23.5% at BeiWuLao (from 11,475 to 14,175 kg/ha) and 81.2% at XuJiaZhen (from 7245 to 13,125 kg/ha) compared to conventional fertilization (CK) (p < 0.01). Soil nutrient analysis revealed substantial improvements: available potassium (AK) increased by 77.7% (61.35 vs. 39.33 mg/kg), available phosphorus (AP) by 33.9% (20.50 vs. 15.50 mg/kg), ammonium nitrogen (AN) by 57.3% (64.17 vs. 40.83 mg/kg), and soil organic matter (SOM) by 96.4% (46.98 vs. 23.91 mg/kg) under AHCF treatment (p < 0.05). Although pH and electrical conductivity (ECe) remained unaffected, AMF inoculation shifted microbial composition, elevating salinity-tolerant taxa such as Actinobacteria (+24.7%) and Anabaena. Beta diversity analysis (PCoA) confirmed distinct microbial community structures between treatments, with ECe and AN identified as primary drivers of bacterial (RDA variance: 74.08%) and fungal (RDA variance: 54.63%) communities, respectively. Overall, the combination of chemical fertilizer reduction and AMF effectively improved soil fertility, microbial community structure, and crop yield. These findings have important implications for improving saline soils and promoting environmental sustainability.

The Composition and Function of Bacterial Communities Associated with the Northern Root-Knot Nematode (Meloidogyne hapla) Populations Showing Parasitic Variability

The co-existence of microbial communities and Meloidogyne hapla populations showing high, medium, and low levels of parasitic variability (PV) in mineral and muck soils with different soil health conditions in Michigan vegetable production fields is established. However, if PV relates or not to bacterial communities is unknown. This study characterized bacterial communities present on and in the body of nine M. hapla field and greenhouse sub-populations isolated from the mineral and muck fields. We utilized a high throughput sequencing of 16S rDNA. Results showed a variable composition (or abundance) of 65 genera in the field and 61 genera in the greenhouse isolates, with 12 genera of unknown and the rest belonging to 14 known functional groups. The medium- and low-PV populations shared more bacterial composition than either one with the high-PV population. Thus, laying a foundation for an in-depth understanding of if the observed associations have any role in cause-and-effect relationships with M. hapla PV.

Utilizing FRET-based Biosensors to Measure Cellular Phosphate Levels in Mycorrhizal Roots of Brachypodium distachyon

Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi engage in symbiotic relationships with plants, influencing their phosphate (Pi) uptake pathways, metabolism, and root cell physiology. Despite the significant role of Pi, its distribution and response dynamics in mycorrhizal roots remain largely unexplored. While traditional techniques for Pi measurement have shed some light on this, real-time cellular-level monitoring has been a challenge. With the evolution of quantitative imaging with confocal microscopy, particularly the use of genetically encoded fluorescent sensors, live imaging of intracellular Pi concentrations is now achievable. Among these sensors, fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET)-based biosensors stand out for their accuracy. In this study, we employ the Pi-specific biosensor (cpFLIPPi-5.3m) targeted to the cytosol or plastids of Brachypodium distachyon plants, enabling us to monitor intracellular Pi dynamics during AM symbiosis. A complementary control sensor, cpFLIPPi-Null, is introduced to monitor non-Pi-specific changes. Leveraging a semi-automated ImageJ macro for sensitized FRET analysis, this method provides a precise and efficient way to determine relative intracellular Pi levels at the level of individual cells or organelles. Key features • This protocol describes the use of FRET biosensors for in vivo visualization of spatiotemporal phosphate levels with cellular and subcellular resolution in Brachypodium distachyon. • An optimized growth system can allow tracing of Pi transfer between AM fungi and host root. This protocol is used in: New Phytol (2022), DOI: 10.1111/nph.18081.

Fungal community characteristics of the last remaining habitat of three paphiopedilum species in China

Paphiopedilum armeniacum, Paphiopedilum wenshanense and Paphiopedilum emersonii are critically endangered wild orchids. Their populations are under severe threat, with a dramatic decline in the number of their natural distribution sites. Ex situ conservation and artificial breeding are the keys to maintaining the population to ensure the success of ex situ conservation and field return in the future. The habitat characteristics and soil nutrient information of the last remaining wild distribution sites of the three species were studied. ITS high-throughput sequencing was used to reveal the composition and structure of the soil fungal community, analyze its diversity and functional characteristics, and reveal its relationship with soil nutrients. The three species preferred to grow on low-lying, ventilated and shaded declivities with good water drainage. There were significant differences in soil alkali-hydrolyzed nitrogen and available phosphorus among the three species. There were 336 fungal species detected in the samples. On average, there were different dominant groups in the soil fungal communities of the three species. The functional groups of soil fungi within their habitats were dominated by saprophytic fungi and ectomycorrhizae, with significant differences in diversity and structure. The co-occurrence network of habitat soil fungi was mainly positive. Soil pH significantly affected soil fungal diversity within their habitats of the three paphiopedilum species. The study confirmed that the dominant groups of soil fungi were significantly correlated with soil nutrients. The three species exhibit comparable habitat inclinations, yet they display substantial variations in the composition, structure, and diversity of soil fungi. The fungal functional group is characterized by a rich presence of saprophytic fungi, a proliferation of ectomycorrhizae, and a modest occurrence of orchid mycorrhizae. The symbiotic interactions among the soil fungi associated with these three species are well-coordinated, enhancing their resilience against challenging environmental conditions. There is a significant correlation between soil environmental factors and the composition of soil fungal communities, with pH emerging as a pivotal factor regulating fungal diversity. Our research into the habitat traits and soil fungal ecosystems of the three wild Paphiopedilum species has established a cornerstone for prospective ex situ conservation measures and the eventual reestablishment of these species in their native landscapes.

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and Streptomyces: brothers in arms to shape the structure and function of the hyphosphere microbiome in the early stage of interaction

BACKGROUND

Fungi and bacteria coexist in a wide variety of environments, and their interactions are now recognized as the norm in most agroecosystems. These microbial communities harbor keystone taxa, which facilitate connectivity between fungal and bacterial communities, influencing their composition and functions. The roots of most plants are associated with arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi, which develop dense networks of hyphae in the soil. The surface of these hyphae (called the hyphosphere) is the region where multiple interactions with microbial communities can occur, e.g., exchanging or responding to each other's metabolites. However, the presence and importance of keystone taxa in the AM fungal hyphosphere remain largely unknown.

RESULTS

Here, we used in vitro and pot cultivation systems of AM fungi to investigate whether certain keystone bacteria were able to shape the microbial communities growing in the hyphosphere and potentially improved the fitness of the AM fungal host. Based on various AM fungi, soil leachates, and synthetic microbial communities, we found that under organic phosphorus (P) conditions, AM fungi could selectively recruit bacteria that enhanced their P nutrition and competed with less P-mobilizing bacteria. Specifically, we observed a privileged interaction between the isolate Streptomyces sp. D1 and AM fungi of the genus Rhizophagus, where (1) the carbon compounds exuded by the fungus were acquired by the bacterium which could mineralize organic P and (2) the in vitro culturable bacterial community residing on the surface of hyphae was in part regulated by Streptomyces sp. D1, primarily by inhibiting the bacteria with weak P-mineralizing ability, thereby enhancing AM fungi to acquire P.

CONCLUSIONS

This work highlights the multi-functionality of the keystone bacteria Streptomyces sp. D1 in fungal-bacteria and bacterial-bacterial interactions at the hyphal surface of AM fungi. Video Abstract.

The mycorrhizal symbiosis: research frontiers in genomics, ecology, and agricultural application

Mycorrhizal symbioses between plants and fungi are vital for the soil structure, nutrient cycling, plant diversity, and ecosystem sustainability. More than 250 000 plant species are associated with mycorrhizal fungi. Recent advances in genomics and related approaches have revolutionized our understanding of the biology and ecology of mycorrhizal associations. The genomes of 250+ mycorrhizal fungi have been released and hundreds of genes that play pivotal roles in regulating symbiosis development and metabolism have been characterized. rDNA metabarcoding and metatranscriptomics provide novel insights into the ecological cues driving mycorrhizal communities and functions expressed by these associations, linking genes to ecological traits such as nutrient acquisition and soil organic matter decomposition. Here, we review genomic studies that have revealed genes involved in nutrient uptake and symbiosis development, and discuss adaptations that are fundamental to the evolution of mycorrhizal lifestyles. We also evaluated the ecosystem services provided by mycorrhizal networks and discuss how mycorrhizal symbioses hold promise for sustainable agriculture and forestry by enhancing nutrient acquisition and stress tolerance. Overall, unraveling the intricate dynamics of mycorrhizal symbioses is paramount for promoting ecological sustainability and addressing current pressing environmental concerns. This review ends with major frontiers for further research.

Interplay of biotic and abiotic factors shapes tree seedling growth and root-associated microbial communities

Root-associated microbes can alleviate plant abiotic stresses, thus potentially supporting adaptation to a changing climate or to novel environments during range expansion. While climate change is extending plant species fundamental niches northward, the distribution and colonization of mutualists (e.g., arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi) and pathogens may constrain plant growth and regeneration. Yet, the degree to which biotic and abiotic factors impact plant performance and associated microbial communities at the edge of their distribution remains unclear. Here, we use root microscopy, coupled with amplicon sequencing, to study bacterial, fungal, and mycorrhizal root-associated microbial communities from sugar maple seedlings distributed across two temperate-to-boreal elevational gradients in southern Québec, Canada. Our findings demonstrate that soil pH, soil Ca, and distance to sugar maple trees are key drivers of root-associated microbial communities, overshadowing the influence of elevation. Interestingly, changes in root fungal community composition mediate an indirect effect of soil pH on seedling growth, a pattern consistent at both sites. Overall, our findings highlight a complex role of biotic and abiotic factors in shaping tree-microbe interactions, which are in turn correlated with seedling growth. These findings have important ramifications for tree range expansion in response to shifting climatic niches.

A tripartite bacterial-fungal-plant symbiosis in the mycorrhiza-shaped microbiome drives plant growth and mycorrhization

BACKGROUND

Plant microbiomes play crucial roles in nutrient cycling and plant growth, and are shaped by a complex interplay between plants, microbes, and the environment. The role of bacteria as mediators of the 400-million-year-old partnership between the majority of land plants and, arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi is still poorly understood. Here, we test whether AM hyphae-associated bacteria influence the success of the AM symbiosis.

RESULTS

Using partitioned microcosms containing field soil, we discovered that AM hyphae and roots selectively assemble their own microbiome from the surrounding soil. In two independent experiments, we identified several bacterial genera, including Devosia, that are consistently enriched on AM hyphae. Subsequently, we isolated 144 pure bacterial isolates from a mycorrhiza-rich sample of extraradical hyphae and isolated Devosia sp. ZB163 as root and hyphal colonizer. We show that this AM-associated bacterium synergistically acts with mycorrhiza on the plant root to strongly promote plant growth, nitrogen uptake, and mycorrhization.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results highlight that AM fungi do not function in  isolation and that the plant-mycorrhiza symbiont can recruit beneficial bacteria that support the symbiosis. Video Abstract.

Nutrient-dependent cross-kingdom interactions in the hyphosphere of an arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus

Introduction

The hyphosphere of arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi is teeming with microbial life. Yet, the influence of nutrient availability or nutrient forms on the hyphosphere microbiomes is still poorly understood.

Methods

Here, we examined how the microbial community (prokaryotic, fungal, protistan) was affected by the presence of the AM fungus Rhizophagus irregularis in the rhizosphere and the root-free zone, and how different nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) supplements into the root-free compartment influenced the communities.

Results

The presence of AM fungus greatly affected microbial communities both in the rhizosphere and the root-free zone, with prokaryotic communities being affected the most. Protists were the only group of microbes whose richness and diversity were significantly reduced by the presence of the AM fungus. Our results showed that the type of nutrients AM fungi encounter in localized patches modulate the structure of hyphosphere microbial communities. In contrast we did not observe any effects of the AM fungus on (non-mycorrhizal) fungal community composition. Compared to the non-mycorrhizal control, the root-free zone with the AM fungus (i.e., the AM fungal hyphosphere) was enriched with Alphaproteobacteria, some micropredatory and copiotroph bacterial taxa (e.g., Xanthomonadaceae and Bacteroidota), and the poorly characterized and not yet cultured Acidobacteriota subgroup GP17, especially when phytate was added. Ammonia-oxidizing Nitrosomonas and nitrite-oxidizing Nitrospira were significantly suppressed in the presence of the AM fungus in the root-free compartment, especially upon addition of inorganic N. Co-occurrence network analyses revealed that microbial communities in the root-free compartment were complex and interconnected with more keystone species when AM fungus was present, especially when the root-free compartment was amended with phytate.

Conclusion

Our study showed that the form of nutrients is an important driver of prokaryotic and eukaryotic community assembly in the AM fungal hyphosphere, despite the assumed presence of a stable and specific AM fungal hyphoplane microbiome. Predictable responses of specific microbial taxa will open the possibility of using them as co-inoculants with AM fungi, e.g., to improve crop performance.

Soil microbiome indicators can predict crop growth response to large-scale inoculation with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi

Alternative solutions to mineral fertilizers and pesticides that reduce the environmental impact of agriculture are urgently needed. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) can enhance plant nutrient uptake and reduce plant stress; yet, large-scale field inoculation trials with AMF are missing, and so far, results remain unpredictable. We conducted on-farm experiments in 54 fields in Switzerland and quantified the effects on maize growth. Growth response to AMF inoculation was highly variable, ranging from -12% to +40%. With few soil parameters and mainly soil microbiome indicators, we could successfully predict 86% of the variation in plant growth response to inoculation. The abundance of pathogenic fungi, rather than nutrient availability, best predicted (33%) AMF inoculation success. Our results indicate that soil microbiome indicators offer a sustainable biotechnological perspective to predict inoculation success at the beginning of the growing season. This predictability increases the profitability of microbiome engineering as a tool for sustainable agricultural management.

Root diameter, host specificity and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal community composition among native and exotic plant species

Plant root systems rely on a functionally diverse range of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi to, among other benefits, extend their nutrient foraging. Extended nutrient foraging is likely of greatest importance to coarse-rooted plants, yet few studies have examined the link between root traits and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal community composition. Here, we examine the relationship between root diameter and the composition of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal communities in a range of native and exotic plant species. We characterized the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal communities of 30 co-occurring native and exotic montane grassland/shrubland plant species in New Zealand. We found that plant root diameter and native/exotic status both strongly correlated with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal community composition. Coarse-rooted plants had a lower diversity of mycorrhizal fungi compared with fine-rooted plants and associated less with generalist fungal partners. Exotic plants had a lower diversity of fungi and fewer associations with nondominant families of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi compared with native plants. These observational patterns suggest that plants may differentially associate with fungal partners based on their root traits, with coarse-rooted plants being more specific in their associations. Furthermore, exotic plants may associate with dominant arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal taxa as a strategy in invasion.

Cooperation of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and bacteria to facilitate the host plant growth dependent on soil pH

Almost all plants grow well in their native soils. We hypothesized that soil microbes promote the growth of their hosts in native soils by the example of soil pH. Here, bahiagrass (Paspalum notatum Flugge) indigenous to subtropical soils was grown in the native soil (the original pH = 4.85) or in pH-adjusted soils with sulfur (pH = 3.14 or 3.34) or calcium hydroxide (pH = 6.85, 8.34, 8.52 or 8.59). Plant growth, soil chemical property, and microbial community composition were characterized to reveal the microbial taxa promoting plant growth in the native soil. Results showed that shoot biomass was the highest in the native soil, while both the decrease and increase in the soil pH reduced the biomass. Compared with other soil chemical properties, soil pH was the top edaphic factor contributing to the differentiation in arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungal and bacterial communities. The top 3 most abundant AM fungal OTUs belonged to Glomus, Claroideoglomus, and Gigaspora, while the top 3 most abundant bacterial OTUs belonged to Clostridiales, Sphingomonas, and Acidothermus, respectively. Regression analyses between microbial abundances and shoot biomass revealed that the most abundant Gigaspora sp. and Sphingomonas sp. were the most promotive fungal and bacterial OTUs, respectively. The application of these two isolates to bahiagrass solely or in combination indicated that Gigaspora sp. was more promotive than Sphingomonas sp. across the soil pH gradient, and they positively interacted to enhance biomass only in the native soil. We demonstrate that microbes cooperate to facilitate host plants to grow well in their native soils with the original pH. Meanwhile, a high-throughput sequencing-guided pipeline to efficiently screen for beneficial microbes is established.

Soil microbiomes and one health

The concept of one health highlights that human health is not isolated but connected to the health of animals, plants and environments. In this Review, we demonstrate that soils are a cornerstone of one health and serve as a source and reservoir of pathogens, beneficial microorganisms and the overall microbial diversity in a wide range of organisms and ecosystems. We list more than 40 soil microbiome functions that either directly or indirectly contribute to soil, plant, animal and human health. We identify microorganisms that are shared between different one health compartments and show that soil, plant and human microbiomes are perhaps more interconnected than previously thought. Our Review further evaluates soil microbial contributions to one health in the light of dysbiosis and global change and demonstrates that microbial diversity is generally positively associated with one health. Finally, we present future challenges in one health research and formulate recommendations for practice and evaluation.

Cell-free microbial culture filtrates as candidate biostimulants to enhance plant growth and yield and activate soil- and plant-associated beneficial microbiota

In this work we compiled information on current and emerging microbial-based fertilization practices, especially the use of cell-free microbial culture filtrates (CFs), to promote plant growth, yield and stress tolerance, and their effects on plant-associated beneficial microbiota. In addition, we identified limitations to bring microbial CFs to the market as biostimulants. In nature, plants act as metaorganisms, hosting microorganisms that communicate with the plants by exchanging semiochemicals through the phytosphere. Such symbiotic interactions are of high importance not only for plant yield and quality, but also for functioning of the soil microbiota. One environmentally sustainable practice to increasing crop productivity and/or protecting plants from (a)biotic stresses while reducing the excessive and inappropriate application of agrochemicals is based on the use of inoculants of beneficial microorganisms. However, this technology has a number of limitations, including inconsistencies in the field, specific growth requirements and host compatibility. Beneficial microorganisms release diffusible substances that promote plant growth and enhance yield and stress tolerance. Recently, evidence has been provided that this capacity also extends to phytopathogens. Consistently, soil application of microbial cell-free culture filtrates (CFs) has been found to promote growth and enhance the yield of horticultural crops. Recent studies have shown that the response of plants to soil application of microbial CFs is associated with strong proliferation of the resident beneficial soil microbiota. Therefore, the use of microbial CFs to enhance both crop yield and stress tolerance, and to activate beneficial soil microbiota could be a safe, efficient and environmentally friendly approach to minimize shortfalls related to the technology of microbial inoculation. In this review, we compile information on microbial CFs and the main constituents (especially volatile compounds) that promote plant growth, yield and stress tolerance, and their effects on plant-associated beneficial microbiota. In addition, we identify challenges and limitations for their use as biostimulants to bring them to the market and we propose remedial actions and give suggestions for future work.

Defining Composition and Function of the Rhizosphere Microbiota of Barley Genotypes Exposed to Growth-Limiting Nitrogen Supplies

The microbiota populating the rhizosphere, the interface between roots and soil, can modulate plant growth, development, and health. These microbial communities are not stochastically assembled from the surrounding soil, but their composition and putative function are controlled, at least partially, by the host plant. Here, we use the staple cereal barley as a model to gain novel insights into the impact of differential applications of nitrogen, a rate-limiting step for global crop production, on the host genetic control of the rhizosphere microbiota. Using a high-throughput amplicon sequencing survey, we determined that nitrogen availability for plant uptake is a factor promoting the selective enrichment of individual taxa in the rhizosphere of wild and domesticated barley genotypes. Shotgun sequencing and metagenome-assembled genomes revealed that this taxonomic diversification is mirrored by a functional specialization, manifested by the differential enrichment of multiple Gene Ontology terms, of the microbiota of plants exposed to nitrogen conditions limiting barley growth. Finally, a plant soil feedback experiment revealed that host control of the barley microbiota underpins the assembly of a phylogenetically diverse group of bacteria putatively required to sustain plant performance under nitrogen-limiting supplies. Taken together, our observations indicate that under nitrogen conditions limiting plant growth, host-microbe and microbe-microbe interactions fine-tune the host genetic selection of the barley microbiota at both taxonomic and functional levels. The disruption of these recruitment cues negatively impacts plant growth. IMPORTANCE The microbiota inhabiting the rhizosphere, the thin layer of soil surrounding plant roots, can promote the growth, development, and health of their host plants. Previous research indicated that differences in the genetic composition of the host plant coincide with variations in the composition of the rhizosphere microbiota. This is particularly evident when looking at the microbiota associated with input-demanding modern cultivated varieties and their wild relatives, which have evolved under marginal conditions. However, the functional significance of these differences remains to be fully elucidated. We investigated the rhizosphere microbiota of wild and cultivated genotypes of the global crop barley and determined that nutrient conditions limiting plant growth amplify the host control on microbes at the root-soil interface. This is reflected in a plant- and genotype-dependent functional specialization of the rhizosphere microbiota, which appears to be required for optimal plant growth. These findings provide novel insights into the significance of the rhizosphere microbiota for plant growth and sustainable agriculture.

Plant-associated fungi support bacterial resilience following water limitation

Drought disrupts soil microbial activity and many biogeochemical processes. Although plant-associated fungi can support plant performance and nutrient cycling during drought, their effects on nearby drought-exposed soil microbial communities are not well resolved. We used H218O quantitative stable isotope probing (qSIP) and 16S rRNA gene profiling to investigate bacterial community dynamics following water limitation in the hyphospheres of two distinct fungal lineages (Rhizophagus irregularis and Serendipita bescii) grown with the bioenergy model grass Panicum hallii. In uninoculated soil, a history of water limitation resulted in significantly lower bacterial growth potential and growth efficiency, as well as lower diversity in the actively growing bacterial community. In contrast, both fungal lineages had a protective effect on hyphosphere bacterial communities exposed to water limitation: bacterial growth potential, growth efficiency, and the diversity of the actively growing bacterial community were not suppressed by a history of water limitation in soils inoculated with either fungus. Despite their similar effects at the community level, the two fungal lineages did elicit different taxon-specific responses, and bacterial growth potential was greater in R. irregularis compared to S. bescii-inoculated soils. Several of the bacterial taxa that responded positively to fungal inocula belong to lineages that are considered drought susceptible. Overall, H218O qSIP highlighted treatment effects on bacterial community structure that were less pronounced using traditional 16S rRNA gene profiling. Together, these results indicate that fungal-bacterial synergies may support bacterial resilience to moisture limitation.

Short-Term Evaluation of the Spatial Distribution of Trophic Groups of Amoebae in the Rhizosphere of Zea mays Inoculated with Rhizophagus intraradices

Primary production in terrestrial ecosystems is sustained by plants, microbiota, and fungi, which are the major organic matter providers in the root zone, setting in motion the soil food webs. Predators like soil amoebae voraciously feed on bacteria, fungi, and microbial eukaryotes releasing the nutrients sequestered in their biomass. Early food web setting up is crucial for seedling nutrition and its further development after establishment. Mycorrhizal fungi are more than phosphorus providers, and we wonder what their role is in structuring the predators' trophic groups in the root zone. We evaluated the effect of Rhizophagus intraradices inoculated in Zea mays (mycorrhizosphere), on the structuration of amoebae trophic groups along vertical and horizontal (3, 6, and 9 cm) soil distribution when compared to un-inoculated plants, after 20 days in microcosms. Amoebae species richness was highest in non-mycorrhizal seedlings in the root zone at 6- to 9-cm depth, and 3 cm away from plants. More bacterial species are needed when plants are devoid of mycorrhiza, and their influence is constrained 3 cm away from roots. Higher diversity of trophic groups was recorded at mycorrhizal seedlings and at the compartment influenced by the mycelium at 6- to 9-cm depth. The highest bacterivorous diversity, higher number of rare species and protozoa-eating amoebae, and the absence of fungivorous group recorded at the mycorrhizosphere of Z. mays, indicate that the community was very different from the non-mycorrhizal plants. We conclude that the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus exerts significant changes on the community of trophic groups of amoebae.

The Potential Applications of Commercial Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungal Inoculants and Their Ecological Consequences

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal (AMF) inoculants are sustainable biological materials that can provide several benefits to plants, especially in disturbed agroecosystems and in the context of phytomanagement interventions. However, it is difficult to predict the effectiveness of AMF inoculants and their impacts on indigenous AMF communities under field conditions. In this review, we examined the literature on the possible outcomes following the introduction of AMF-based inoculants in the field, including their establishment in soil and plant roots, persistence, and effects on the indigenous AMF community. Most studies indicate that introduced AMF can persist in the target field from a few months to several years but with declining abundance (60%) or complete exclusion (30%). Further analysis shows that AMF inoculation exerts both positive and negative impacts on native AMF species, including suppression (33%), stimulation (38%), exclusion (19%), and neutral impacts (10% of examined cases). The factors influencing the ecological fates of AMF inoculants, such as the inherent properties of the inoculum, dosage and frequency of inoculation, and soil physical and biological factors, are further discussed. While it is important to monitor the success and downstream impacts of commercial inoculants in the field, the sampling method and the molecular tools employed to resolve and quantify AMF taxa need to be improved and standardized to eliminate bias towards certain AMF strains and reduce discrepancies among studies. Lastly, inoculant producers must focus on selecting strains with a higher chance of success in the field, and having little or negligible downstream impacts.

Agricultural management and pesticide use reduce the functioning of beneficial plant symbionts

Phosphorus (P) acquisition is key for plant growth. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) help plants acquire P from soil. Understanding which factors drive AMF-supported nutrient uptake is essential to develop more sustainable agroecosystems. Here we collected soils from 150 cereal fields and 60 non-cropped grassland sites across a 3,000 km trans-European gradient. In a greenhouse experiment, we tested the ability of AMF in these soils to forage for the radioisotope 33P from a hyphal compartment. AMF communities in grassland soils were much more efficient in acquiring 33P and transferred 64% more 33P to plants compared with AMF in cropland soils. Fungicide application best explained hyphal 33P transfer in cropland soils. The use of fungicides and subsequent decline in AMF richness in croplands reduced 33P uptake by 43%. Our results suggest that land-use intensity and fungicide use are major deterrents to the functioning and natural nutrient uptake capacity of AMF in agroecosystems.

Track and trace: how soil labelling techniques have revealed the secrets of resource transport in the arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis

Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi colonise plant roots, and by doing so forge the 'mycorrhizal uptake pathway(s)' (MUP) that provide passageways for the trade of resources across a specialised membrane at the plant-fungus interface. The transport of nutrients such as phosphorus (P), nitrogen and zinc from the fungus, and carbon from the plant, via the MUP have mostly been quantified using stable or radioactive isotope labelling of soil in a specialised hyphae-only compartment. Recent advances in the study of AM fungi have used tracing studies to better understand how the AM association will function in a changing climate, the extent to which the MUP can contribute to P uptake by important crops, and how AM fungi trade resources in interaction with plants, other AM fungi, and friend and foe in the soil microbiome. The existing work together with well-designed future experiments will provide a valuable assessment of the potential for AM fungi to play a role in the sustainability of managed and natural systems in a changing climate.

The Costs and Benefits of Plant-Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungal Interactions

The symbiotic interaction between plants and arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi is often perceived as beneficial for both partners, though a large ecological literature highlights the context dependency of this interaction. Changes in abiotic variables, such as nutrient availability, can drive the interaction along the mutualism-parasitism continuum with variable outcomes for plant growth and fitness. However, AM fungi can benefit plants in more ways than improved phosphorus nutrition and plant growth. For example, AM fungi can promote abiotic and biotic stress tolerance even when considered parasitic from a nutrient provision perspective. Other than being obligate biotrophs, very little is known about the benefits AM fungi gain from plants. In this review, we utilize both molecular biology and ecological approaches to expand our understanding of the plant-AM fungal interaction across disciplines.

Arbuscular mycorrhizas increased tomato biomass and nutrition but did not affect local soil P availability or 16S bacterial community in the field

While interest in arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungal effects on soil phosphorus (P) have recently increased, field experiments on this topic are lacking. While microcosm studies provided valuable insights, the lack of field studies represents a knowledge gap. Here, we present a field study in which we grew a mycorrhiza-defective tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) genotype (named rmc) and its mycorrhizal wild-type progenitor (named 76R) with and without additional fertiliser, using a drip-irrigation system to examine the impacts of the AM symbiosis on soil P availability and plant growth and nutrition. AM effects on fruit biomass and nutrients, soil nutrient availability, soil moisture and the soil bacterial community were examined. At the time of harvest, the AM tomato plants without fertiliser had the same early season fruit biomass and fruit nutrient concentrations as plants that received fertiliser. The presence of roots reduced the concentration of available soil P, ammonium and soil moisture in the top 10 cm soil layer. Arbuscular mycorrhizas did not significantly affect soil P availability, soil moisture, or 16S bacterial community composition. These findings suggest an indirect role for AM fungi in tomato production but not necessarily a direct role in determining soil physicochemical traits, during the one season that this experiment was conducted. While longer-term field studies may be required in the future, the present study provides new insights into impacts of AM fungi on P availability and uptake in a field soil system.

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi conducting the hyphosphere bacterial orchestra

More than two-thirds of terrestrial plants acquire nutrients by forming a symbiosis with arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi. AM fungal hyphae recruit distinct microbes into their hyphosphere, the narrow region of soil influenced by hyphal exudates. They thereby shape this so-called second genome of AM fungi, which significantly contributes to nutrient mobilization and turnover. We summarize current insights into characteristics of the hyphosphere microbiome and the role of hyphal exudates on orchestrating its composition. The hyphal exudates not only contain carbon-rich compounds but also promote bacterial growth and activity and influence the microbial community structure. These effects lead to shifts in function and cause changes in organic nutrient cycling, making the hyphosphere a unique and largely overlooked functional zone in ecosystems.

Intercropping Walnut and Tea: Effects on Soil Nutrients, Enzyme Activity, and Microbial Communities

The practice of intercropping, which involves growing more than one crop simultaneously during the same growing season, is becoming more important for increasing soil quality, land-use efficiency, and subsequently crop productivity. The present study examined changes in soil physicochemical properties, enzymatic activity, and microbial community composition when walnut (Juglans spp.) was intercropped with tea (Camellia sinensis L.) plants in a forest and compared with a walnut and tea monocropping system. The results showed that walnut-tea intercropping improved the soil nutrient profile and enzymatic activity. The soil available nitrogen (AN), available phosphorus (AP), available potassium (AK), organic matter (OM) content, and sucrase activity were significantly boosted in intercropped walnut and tea than in monocropping forests. The interaction between crops further increased bacterial and fungal diversity when compared to monoculture tea forests. Proteobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes, Chlamydiae, Rozellomycota, and Zoopagomycota were found in greater abundance in an intercropping pattern than in monoculture walnut and tea forest plantations. The walnut-tea intercropping system also markedly impacted the abundance of several bacterial and fungal operational taxonomic units (OTUs), which were previously shown to support nutrient cycling, prevent diseases, and ameliorate abiotic stress. The results of this study suggest that intercropping walnut with tea increased host fitness and growth by positively influencing soil microbial populations.

Changes in the phyllosphere and rhizosphere microbial communities of soybean in the presence of pathogens

Soybean (Glycine max L.) is host to an array of foliar- and root-infecting pathogens that can cause significant yield losses. To provide insights into the roles of microorganisms in disease development, we evaluated the bacterial and fungal communities associated with the soybean rhizosphere and phyllosphere. For this, leaf and soil samples of healthy, Phytophthora sojae-infected and Septoria glycines-infected plants were sampled at three stages during the production cycle, and then subjected to 16S and Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS) amplicon sequencing. The results indicated that biotic stresses did not have a significant impact on species richness and evenness regardless of growth stage. However, the structure and composition of soybean microbial communities were dramatically altered by biotic stresses, particularly for the fungal phyllosphere. Additionally, we cataloged a variety of microbial genera that were altered by biotic stresses and their associations with other genera, which could serve as biological indicators for disease development. In terms of soybean development, the rhizosphere and phyllosphere had distinct microbial communities, with the fungal phyllosphere most influenced by growth stage. Overall, this study characterized the phyllosphere and rhizosphere microbial communities of soybean, and described the impact of pathogen infection and plant development in shaping these bacterial and fungal communities.

Does a decrease in microbial biomass alter mycorrhizal attributes and soil quality indicators in coal mining areas under revegetation process?

Losses of microbial diversity in degraded ecosystems still have obscure consequences, especially when considering the interaction between arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and soil bacteria. This study investigates the effect of decreasing microbial biomass on mycorrhizal attributes and soil quality indicators. The dilution-to-extinction approach was applied in microcosms to search for associations among bacterial diversity, mycorrhizal attributes, and soil quality indicators. The experiment was conducted with four soil treatments (undiluted control 10⁰ = D0, 10^-3 = D3, 10^-6 = D6, and 10^-9 = D9) from a short-term (two years = 2Y) and a long-term (15 years = 15Y) coal mine revegetation area. Microcosms were inoculated with 300 spores of Acaulospora colombiana, Gigaspora albida, and Claroideoglomus etunicatum with millet as the host plant. Results included the total number of AMF spores, mycorrhizal colonization, soil aggregation, glomalin, fluorescein diacetate hydrolysis (FDA), basal soil respiration, microbial biomass, and soil bacterial microbiome. Larger differences were observed between areas than between dilution treatments within the sampling area. Attributes that presented differences in the dilutions compared to D0 2Y samples were mycorrhizal colonization (D0 = 85% and D9 = 43.3%), FDA (D0 = 77.2% and D9 = 55.5%), extractable glomalin-related soil protein (D0 = 0.09 and D9 = 0.11) and bacterial diversity (D0 = 7.3 and D6 = 5.3). D0 15Y samples presented differences in microbial biomass nitrogen (D0: 232.0) and bacterial diversity (D0: 7.9, D9: 5.6) compared to the dilutions. Bacterial microbiome present in the D0 samples formed distinct clusters as to other samples and correlated with soil aggregation and basal respiration attributes. Results suggest that AMF inoculation and dilution-to-extinction did not affect soil quality indicators preeminently, but the bacterial community is affected and can influence the process of environmental revegetation. A long-term revegetation period is substantial to improve quality indicators and establish the diversity of microorganisms and consequently revegetation in areas impacted by coal mining.

Organic amendments alleviate early defoliation and increase fruit yield by altering assembly patterns and of microbial communities and enzymatic activities in sandy pear (Pyrus pyrifolia)

Severe early defoliation has become an important factor restricting the development of the pear industry in southern China. However, the assembly patterns of microbial communities and their functional activities in response to the application of bioorganic fertilizer (BIO) or humic acid (HA) in southern China’s pear orchards remain poorly understood, particularly the impact on the early defoliation of the trees. We conducted a 3-year field experiment (2017–2019) in an 18-year-old ‘Cuiguan’ pear orchard. Four fertilization schemes were tested: local custom fertilization as control (CK), CK plus HA (CK-HA), BIO, and BIO plus HA (BIO-HA). Results showed that BIO and BIO-HA application decreased the early defoliation rate by 50–60%, and increased pear yield by 40% compared with the CK and CK-HA treatments. The BIO and BIO-HA application significantly improved soil pH, available nutrient content, total enzyme activity and ecosystem multifunctionality, and also changed the structure of soil bacterial and fungal communities. The genus Acidothermus was positively correlated with the early defoliation rate, while the genus Rhodanobacter was negatively correlated. Additionally, random forest models revealed that the early defoliation rate could be best explained by soil pH, ammonium content, available phosphorus, and total enzyme activity. In conclusion, application of BIO or BIO mixed with HA could have assembled distinct microbial communities and increased total enzyme activity, leading to significant improvement of soil physicochemical traits. The increased availability of soil nutrient thus changed leaf nutrient concentrations and alleviated the early defoliation rate of pear trees in acid red soil in southern China.

Manipulation of the soil microbiome regulates the colonization of plants by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are important symbionts of many plant species, facilitating the acquisition of soil nutrients by roots. We hypothesized that AMF root colonization is strongly influenced by the composition of the soil microbiome. Here, we evaluated mycorrhizal colonization of two plants, the grass Urochloa brizantha (Brachiaria) and the legume Crotalaria juncea (Crotalaria). These were cultivated in the same soil but hosting eight distinct microbiomes: natural soil (i); soil exposed to heat treatments for 1 h at 50 ºC (ii), 80 ºC (iii), or 100 ºC (iv); sterilized soil by autoclaving (AS) followed by re-inoculation of dilutions of the natural soil community at 10^-1 (v), 10^-3 (vi), and 10^-6 (vii); and AS without re-inoculation (viii). Microbial diversity (bacteria and fungi) was assessed through 16S rDNA and ITS1 metabarcoding, respectively, and the soil acid phosphatase activity (AP_ASE) was measured. Sequencing results showed the formation of distinct microbial communities according to the soil manipulations, which also correlated with the decline of AP_ASE. Subsequently, seedlings of Brachiaria and Crotalaria were grown in those soils inoculated separately with three AMF (Acaulospora colombiana, Rhizophagus clarus, and Dentiscutata heterogama) which were compared to an AMF-free control treatment. Brachiaria showed higher colonization in natural soil when compared to the microbial community manipulations, regardless of the AMF species inoculated. In contrast, two mycorrhiza species were able to colonize Crotalaria under modified microbial communities at similar rates to natural soil. Furthermore, Brachiaria showed a possible inverse relationship between AP_ASE and mycorrhization, but this trend was absent for Crotalaria. We conclude that mycorrhizal root colonization and soil acid phosphatase activity were associated with the structure of the soil microbiome, depending on the plant species evaluated.

Evaluation of commercial composts and potting mixes and their ability to support arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi with maize (Zea mays) as host plant

The use of composts and potting mixes in food production systems is a promising way to counteract the effects of soil degradation and allows crop growth in soilless culture systems. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are a well-studied group of beneficial plant symbionts that have been shown to provide important ecosystem services. This study analysed the properties of nine commercial Australian potting mixes and composts and investigated whether they support colonization of maize plants with AMF in a plant growth bioassay. Physicochemical analyses showed highly variable properties between the substrates, with some extreme values that limited plant growth. DNA-based analysis revealed the presence of various plant pathogens, which was linked to inhibited plant growth in one substrate. Some substrates did not meet national quality standards, due to the concentrations of plant nutrients, heavy metals, or substrate maturity. Plant growth was mostly limited due to nitrogen immobilization, which required weekly fertilizer applications. Solid state ¹³C nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy gave insight into the decomposition state of the substrates. Plant roots in most substrates were well colonized with AMF (>60% root length), regardless of most substrate properties. Root colonization was negatively affected in only one substrate, likely due to ammonium toxicity. Results of this study show that not all commercial substrates adhered to national quality standards. Potting mixes and composts can support high mycorrhizal root colonization when plant growth is otherwise not limited.

A commercial arbuscular mycorrhizal inoculum increases root colonization across wheat cultivars but does not increase assimilation of mycorrhiza-acquired nutrients

Production and heavy application of chemical-based fertilizers to maintain crop yields is unsustainable due to pollution from run-off, high CO2 emissions, and diminishing yield returns. Access to fertilizers will be limited in the future due to rising energy costs and dwindling rock phosphate resources. A growing number of companies produce and sell arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal (AMF) inoculants, intended to help reduce fertilizer usage by facilitating crop nutrient uptake through arbuscular mycorrhizas. However, their success has been variable. Here, we present information about the efficacy of a commercially available AMF inoculant in increasing AMF root colonization and fungal contribution to plant nutrient uptake, which are critical considerations within the growing AMF inoculant industry. Summary Arable agriculture needs sustainable solutions to reduce reliance on large inputs of nutrient fertilizers while continuing to improve crop yields. By harnessing arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis, there is potential to improve crop nutrient assimilation and growth without additional inputs, although the efficacy of commercially available mycorrhizal inocula in agricultural systems remains controversial.Using stable and radioisotope tracing, carbon-for-nutrient exchange between arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and three modern cultivars of wheat was quantified in a non-sterile, agricultural soil, with or without the addition of a commercial mycorrhizal inoculant.While there was no effect of inoculum addition on above-ground plant biomass, there was increased root colonization by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and changes in community structure. Inoculation increased phosphorus uptake across all wheat cultivars by up to 30%, although this increase was not directly attributable to mycorrhizal fungi. Carbon-for-nutrient exchange between symbionts varied substantially between the wheat cultivars.Plant tissue phosphorus increased in inoculated plants potentially because of changes induced by inoculation in microbial community composition and/or nutrient cycling within the rhizosphere. Our data contribute to the growing consensus that mycorrhizal inoculants could play a role in sustainable food production systems of the future.

Conserved and reproducible bacterial communities associate with extraradical hyphae of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi

Extraradical hyphae (ERH) of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) extend from plant roots into the soil environment and interact with soil microbial communities. Evidence of positive and negative interactions between AMF and soil bacteria point to functionally important ERH-associated communities. To characterize communities associated with ERH and test controls on their establishment and composition, we utilized an in-growth core system containing a live soil-sand mixture that allowed manual extraction of ERH for 16S rRNA gene amplicon profiling. Across experiments and soils, consistent enrichment of members of the Betaproteobacteriales, Myxococcales, Fibrobacterales, Cytophagales, Chloroflexales, and Cellvibrionales was observed on ERH samples, while variation among samples from different soils was observed primarily at lower taxonomic ranks. The ERH-associated community was conserved between two fungal species assayed, Glomus versiforme and Rhizophagus irregularis, though R. irregularis exerted a stronger selection and showed greater enrichment for taxa in the Alphaproteobacteria and Gammaproteobacteria. A distinct community established within 14 days of hyphal access to the soil, while temporal patterns of establishment and turnover varied between taxonomic groups. Identification of a conserved ERH-associated community is consistent with the concept of an AMF microbiome and can aid the characterization of facilitative and antagonistic interactions influencing the plant-fungal symbiosis.

The Tripartite Rhizobacteria-AM Fungal-Host Plant Relationship in Winter Wheat: Impact of Multi-Species Inoculation, Tillage Regime and Naturally Occurring Rhizobacteria Species

Soils and plant root rhizospheres have diverse microorganism profiles. Components of this naturally occurring microbiome, arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi and plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR), may be beneficial to plant growth. Supplementary application to host plants of AM fungi and PGPR either as single species or multiple species inoculants has the potential to enhance this symbiotic relationship further. Single species interactions have been described; the nature of multi-species tripartite relationships between AM fungi, PGPR and the host plant require further scrutiny. The impact of select Bacilli spp. rhizobacteria and the AM fungus Rhizophagus intraradices as both single and combined inoculations (PGPR[i] and AMF[i]) within field extracted arable soils of two tillage treatments, conventional soil inversion (CT) and zero tillage (ZT) at winter wheat growth stages GS30 and GS39 have been conducted. The naturally occurring soil borne species (PGPR[s] and AMF[s]) have been determined by qPCR analysis. Significant differences (p < 0.05) were evident between inocula treatments and the method of seedbed preparation. A positive impact on wheat plant growth was noted for B. amyloliquefaciens applied as both a single inoculant (PGPR[i]) and in combination with R. intraradices (PGPR[i] + AMF[i]); however, the two treatments did not differ significantly from each other. The findings are discussed in the context of the inocula applied and the naturally occurring soil borne PGPR[s] present in the field extracted soil under each method of tillage.

Mycorrhizal-Bacterial Amelioration of Plant Abiotic and Biotic Stress

Soil microbiota plays an important role in the sustainable production of the different types of agrosystems. Among the members of the plant microbiota, mycorrhizal fungi (MF) and plant growth-promoting bacteria (PGPB) interact in rhizospheric environments leading to additive and/or synergistic effects on plant growth and heath. In this manuscript, the main mechanisms used by MF and PGPB to facilitate plant growth are reviewed, including the improvement of nutrient uptake, and the reduction of ethylene levels or biocontrol of potential pathogens, under both normal and stressful conditions due to abiotic or biotic factors. Finally, it is necessary to expand both research and field use of bioinoculants based on these components and take advantage of their beneficial interactions with plants to alleviate plant stress and improve plant growth and production to satisfy the demand for food for an ever-increasing human population.

The hierarchy of root branching order determines bacterial composition, microbial carrying capacity and microbial filtering

Fine roots vary dramatically in their functions, which range from resource absorption to within-plant resource transport. These differences should alter resource availability to root-associated microorganisms, yet most root microbiome studies involve fine root homogenization. We hypothesized that microbial filtering would be greatest in the most distal roots. To test this, we sampled roots of six temperate tree species from a 23-year-old common garden planting, separating by branching order. Rhizoplane bacterial composition was characterized with 16S rRNA gene sequencing, while bacterial abundance was determined on a subset of trees through flow cytometry. Root order strongly impacted composition across tree species, with absorptive lower order roots exerting the greatest selective pressure. Microbial carrying capacity was higher in absorptive roots in two of three tested tree species. This study indicates lower order roots as the main point of microbial interaction with fine roots, suggesting that root homogenization could mask microbial recruitment signatures.

Factors affecting plant responsiveness to arbuscular mycorrhiza

Arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) is an ancient, widespread symbiosis between most land plants and fungi of the Glomeromycotina, which receives increasing interest for agricultural application because it can promote plant growth and yield. The ability of plants to react to AM with changes in morphology and/or performance in terms of yield is called 'AM responsiveness'. Its amplitude depends on the plant- fungal genotype combination and the abiotic and biotic environment. A molecular understanding of AM responsiveness is key for enabling rational application of AM in agriculture, for example through targeted breeding of AM-optimised crops. However, the genetic and mechanistic underpinnings of AM responsiveness variation remain still unknown. Here, we review current knowledge on AM responsiveness, with a focus on agricultural crops, and speculate on mechanisms that may contribute to the variation in AM response.

Arbuscular Mycrorrhizal Fungi Inoculation and Applied Water Amounts Modulate the Response of Young Grapevines to Mild Water Stress in a Hyper-Arid Season

Several factors may affect the success of a replanting vineyard. Given the current environmental conditions, an optimized irrigation schedule would still be one of the most desirable tools to improve crop productivity and fruit quality. On the other hand, the symbiosis of grapevines with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) is a key component of the vineyard production systems improving the vine growth, nutrient uptake, and berry quality. The aim of this study was to characterize the response of Merlot grapevines to AMF inoculation and two different irrigation amounts in their first productive year. The experiment was conducted on 2-year Merlot grapevines inoculated with AMF (I) or not-inoculated (NI) and subjected to two irrigation amounts, full irrigated (FI), where the amount of water was enough to maintain expansive growth and half irrigated (HI) where plants received the half of the amount of water of FI plants. Water status, gas exchange parameters, growth, mineral content, berry composition, and mycorrhizal colonization were monitored through the season. AMF inoculation improved the grapevine vegetative growth, water status, and photosynthetic activity, especially when vines were subjected to HI irrigation; however, no effect was observed on the leaf mineral content, must pH, total soluble solids, or total acidity. The main effects were observed on the flavonoid composition of berry skins at harvest. Irrigation amounts and mycorrhizal inoculation modified cyanidin and peonidin derivatives whereas flavonol composition was mainly affected by irrigation treatments. A strong relationship between the mycorrhizal colonization rate of roots and total quercetins, cyanidins, and peonidins was found. Findings support the use of a mycorrhizal inoculum and a better water management in a hyper-arid growing season; however, these results may be affected by edaphoclimatic characteristics and living microbiota in vineyard soils, which should be taken into account before making the decision of inoculating the vineyard.

Intrinsic root morphology determines the phosphorus acquisition efficiency of five annual pasture legumes irrespective of mycorrhizal colonisation

Mycorrhizal fungi are ubiquitous in agroecosystems and form symbiotic associations that contribute to the phosphorus (P) acquisition of many plants. The impact of mycorrhizas is most pronounced in P-deficient soil and commonly involves modifications to the root morphology of colonised plants. However, the consequences of mycorrhizal colonisation on root acclimation responses to P stress are not well described. Five annual pasture legumes, with differing root morphologies, were grown to determine the effect of mycorrhizal colonisation on shoot yield, root morphology and P uptake. Micro-swards of each legume were established in pots filled with a topsoil layer that had been amended with five rates of P fertiliser. The topsoil overlaid a low-P subsoil that mimicked the stratification of P that occurs under pasture. Mycorrhizal colonisation improved P acquisition and shoot yield in the low-P soil treatments, but did not reduce the critical external P requirement of the legumes for near-maximum yield. The yield responses of the mycorrhizal plants were associated with reduced dry matter allocation to topsoil roots, which meant that the P acquisition benefit associated with mycorrhizal colonisation was not additive in the P-deficient soil. The contribution of the mycorrhizal association to P acquisition was consistent among the legumes when they were compared at an equivalent level of plant P stress, and was most pronounced below a P stress index of ~0.5. The intrinsic root morphology of the legumes determined their differences in P-acquisition efficiency irrespective of mycorrhizal colonisation.

Microbe to Microbiome: A Paradigm Shift in the Application of Microorganisms for Sustainable Agriculture

Light, water and healthy soil are three essential natural resources required for agricultural productivity. Industrialization of agriculture has resulted in intensification of cropping practices using enormous amounts of chemical pesticides and fertilizers that damage these natural resources. Therefore, there is a need to embrace agriculture practices that do not depend on greater use of fertilizers and water to meet the growing demand of global food requirements. Plants and soil harbor millions of microorganisms, which collectively form a microbial community known as the microbiome. An effective microbiome can offer benefits to its host, including plant growth promotion, nutrient use efficiency, and control of pests and phytopathogens. Therefore, there is an immediate need to bring functional potential of plant-associated microbiome and its innovation into crop production. In addition to that, new scientific methodologies that can track the nutrient flux through the plant, its resident microbiome and surrounding soil, will offer new opportunities for the design of more efficient microbial consortia design. It is now increasingly acknowledged that the diversity of a microbial inoculum is as important as its plant growth promoting ability. Not surprisingly, outcomes from such plant and soil microbiome studies have resulted in a paradigm shift away from single, specific soil microbes to a more holistic microbiome approach for enhancing crop productivity and the restoration of soil health. Herein, we have reviewed this paradigm shift and discussed various aspects of benign microbiome-based approaches for sustainable agriculture.

Rhizobacteria and Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi of Oil Crops (Physic Nut and Sacha Inchi): A Cultivable-Based Assessment for Abundance, Diversity, and Plant Growth-Promoting Potentials

Nowadays, oil crops are very attractive both for human consumption and biodiesel production; however, little is known about their commensal rhizosphere microbes. In this study, rhizosphere samples were collected from physic nut and sacha inchi plants grown in several areas of Thailand. Rhizobacteria, cultivable in nitrogen-free media, and arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi were isolated and examined for abundance, diversity, and plant growth-promoting activities (indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) and siderophore production, nitrogen fixation, and phosphate solubilization). Results showed that only the AM spore amount was affected by plant species and soil features. Considering rhizobacterial diversity, two classes—Alphaproteobacteria (Ensifer sp. and Agrobacterium sp.) and Gammaproteobacteria (Raoultella sp. and Pseudomonas spp.)—were identified in physic nut rhizosphere, and three classes; Actinobacteria (Microbacterium sp.), Betaproteobacteria (Burkholderia sp.) and Gammaproteobacteria (Pantoea sp.) were identified in the sacha inchi rhizosphere. Considering AM fungal diversity, four genera were identified (Acaulospora, Claroideoglomus, Glomus, and Funneliformis) in sacha inchi rhizospheres and two genera (Acaulospora and Glomus) in physic nut rhizospheres. The rhizobacteria with the highest IAA production and AM spores with the highest root-colonizing ability were identified, and the best ones (Ensifer sp. CM1-RB003 and Acaulospora sp. CM2-AMA3 for physic nut, and Pantoea sp. CR1-RB056 and Funneliformis sp. CR2-AMF1 for sacha inchi) were evaluated in pot experiments alone and in a consortium in comparison with a non-inoculated control. The microbial treatments increased the length and the diameter of stems and the chlorophyll content in both the crops. CM1-RB003 and CR1-RB056 also increased the number of leaves in sacha inchi. Interestingly, in physic nut, the consortium increased AM fungal root colonization and the numbers of offspring AM spores in comparison with those observed in sacha inchi. Our findings proved that AM fungal abundance and diversity likely rely on plant species and soil features. In addition, pot experiments showed that rhizosphere microorganisms were the key players in the development and growth of physic nut and sacha inchi.

Determining Soil Microbial Communities and Their Influence on Ganoderma Disease Incidences in Oil Palm (Elaeis guineensis) via High-Throughput Sequencing

Simple Summary

Biological and physicochemical soil factors involved in the incidence of the basal stem rot (BSR) disease in an oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) plantation in Malaysia were characterized. Blenheim soil with a low BSR disease incidence and Bernam soil with high BSR disease incidence were analyzed and observed to have differences in composition and diversity of soil prokaryotic and eukaryotic communities. Blenheim soil with a high pH and calcium was shown to have higher prokaryotic and eukaryotic diversity compared to Bernam soil. High abundances of rare metabolically diverse and versatile bacterial taxa, bacterial taxa that increased with the introduction of biocontrol agents, potential disease-suppressive bacteria, and bacterivorous flagellates were observed in Blenheim soil. In contrast, Bernam soil was predominantly characterized by potential disease-inducible bacterial taxa. A combination of both abiotic and biotic elements might be essential in driving disease-suppressive soil microbiome toward Ganoderma BSR in Blenheim soil.

Abstract

Basal stem rot (BSR), caused by Ganoderma boninense, is the most devastating oil palm disease in South East Asia, costing US$500 million annually. Various soil physicochemical parameters have been associated with an increase in BSR incidences. However, very little attention has been directed to understanding the relationship between soil microbiome and BSR incidence in oil palm fields. The prokaryotic and eukaryotic microbial diversities of two coastal soils, Blenheim soil (Typic Quartzipsamment—calcareous shell deposits, light texture) with low disease incidence (1.9%) and Bernam soil (Typic Endoaquept—non-acid sulfate) with high disease incidence (33.1%), were determined using the 16S (V3–V4 region) and 18S (V9 region) rRNA amplicon sequencing. Soil physicochemical properties (pH, electrical conductivity, soil organic matter, nitrogen, phosphorus, cation exchange capacity, exchangeable cations, micronutrients, and soil physical parameters) were also analyzed for the two coastal soils. Results revealed that Blenheim soil comprises higher prokaryotic and eukaryotic diversities, accompanied by higher pH and calcium content. Blenheim soil was observed to have a higher relative abundance of bacterial taxa associated with disease suppression such as Calditrichaeota, Zixibacteria, GAL15, Omnitrophicaeota, Rokubacteria, AKYG587 (Planctomycetes), JdFR-76 (Calditrichaeota), and Rubrobacter (Actinobacteria). In contrast, Bernam soil had a higher proportion of other bacterial taxa, Chloroflexi and Acidothermus (Actinobacteria). Cercomonas (Cercozoa) and Calcarisporiella (Ascomycota) were eukaryotes that are abundant in Blenheim soil, while Uronema (Ciliophora) and mammals were present in higher abundance in Bernam soil. Some of the bacterial taxa have been reported previously in disease-suppressive and -conducive soils as potential disease-suppressive or disease-inducible bacteria. Furthermore, Cercomonas was reported previously as potential bacterivorous flagellates involved in the selection of highly toxic biocontrol bacteria, which might contribute to disease suppression indirectly. The results from this study may provide valuable information related to soil microbial community structures and their association with soil characteristics and soil susceptibility to Ganoderma.

Interactions of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi with Hyphosphere Microbial Communities in a Saline Soil: Impacts on Phosphorus Availability and Alkaline Phosphatase Gene Abundance

The limited availability of soil phosphorus to plants under salinity stress is a major constraint for crop production in saline soils, which could be alleviated by improving mycorrhizal and soil microbial interactions. This study investigated the effects of Funneliformis mosseae (Fm) inoculation on phosphorus (P) availability to Sorghum bicolor, and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity and gene abundance (phoD) in a P-deficient naturally saline soil. A greenhouse study was conducted in order to compare the experimental treatments of Fm inoculated vs. control plants grown in saline soil with and without (sterilized soil) native microbial community. A separate hyphosphere (root-free) compartment was constructed within the mycorrhizosphere and amended with phosphate. After four weeks of transplanting, shoot, roots, mycorrhizosphere, and hyphosphere samples were collected and analyzed for soil and plant P concentrations, root colonization, and abundance of ALP and phoD. The results showed significantly higher colonization in Fm-inoculated treatments compared to uninoculated. Plant available P concentrations, phoD gene abundance and ALP activity were significantly reduced (p < 0.05) in sterilized-hyphosphere as compared to unsterilized in both Fm-inoculated and uninoculated treatments. Inoculation with Fm significantly increased the plant P uptake (p < 0.05) when compared to uninoculated treatments, but only in the plants gown in unsterile mycorrhizosphere. It can be concluded that inoculation of Fm increased root colonization and the uptake of P by sorghum plant in saline soil and native microbial community interactions were critical for increasing bioavailable P concentrations. These beneficial interactions between plants, mycorrhizae, and native microbes should be considered for soil fertility management in saline soils.

Metabarcoding Analysis of Bacterial Communities Associated with Media Grow Bed Zones in an Aquaponic System

The development of environmentally sustainable plant and fish production in aquaponic systems requires a complete understanding of the systems' biological components. In order to better understand the role of microorganisms in this association, we studied the bacterial communities in the dry, root, and mineralized zones of a flood-and-drain media bed aquaponic system. Bacterial communities were characterized using metabarcoding of the V3-V4 16S rRNA regions obtained from paired-end Illumina MiSeq reads. Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria, and Bacteroidetes accounted for more than 90% of the total community in the dry zone and the effluent water. These phyla also accounted for more than 68% of the total community in the root and mineralized zones. The genera Massilia, Mucilaginibacter, Mizugakiibacter, and Rhodoluna were most dominant in the dry, root, and mineralized zones and in the effluent water, respectively. The number of shared operational taxonomic units (OTUs) for the three zones was 241, representing 7.15% of the total observed OTUs. The number of unique OTUs in samples from dry zone, root zone, mineralized zone, and effluent water was 485, 638, 445, and 383, respectively. The samples from the root zone harbored more diverse communities than either the dry or mineralized zones. This study is the first to report on the bacterial community within the zones of a flood-and-drain media bed. Thus, this information will potentially accelerate studies on other microbial communities involved in the bioconversion of nitrogen compounds and mineralization within these types of aquaponic systems.

Alta presencia de cadmio resulta en baja diversidad de hongos formadores de micorrizas arbusculares asociados a cacao (Theobroma cacao L.)

Los hongos formadores de micorrizas arbusculares (HFMA) son simbiontes obligados presentes en la rizósfera de plantas de cacao y la diversidad de sus comunidades se modifica, dependiendo de diversos factores como la presencia de cadmio (Cd) en el suelo. La persistencia de HFMA en suelos enriquecidos naturalmente con Cd podría ser un indicador de su capacidad para tolerar esta condición. Esta investigación caracterizó la estructura de la comunidad de HFMA locales presentes en la rizósfera de plantas de cacao en dos suelos con baja (B-Cd: 0,1 mg kg-1) y alta (A-Cd: 20,9 mg kg-1) concentración de Cd. Esporas de HFMA se identificaron mediante claves taxonómicas y su abundancia, riqueza y diversidad se determinó en muestras de suelo originales y después de su multiplicación mediante cultivos trampa. Las comunidades de HFMA se compararon usando análisis de componentes principales (ACP) e índices de diversidad alfa y beta. Los resultados indican que A-Cd presentó valores significativamente menores de abundancia (21 %), riqueza (20 %) y diversidad (11 %) de morfoespecies de HFMA con respecto a B-Cd. Las dos comunidades de HFMA presentaron cinco de siete géneros en común, pero solo cuatro de las 23 morfoespecies descritas se encontraron en ambas comunidades.El análisis de diversidad beta y el ACP determinaron baja similaridad y tasa de recambio entre las comunidades de HFMA. La dominancia de Diversispora spurca, Rhizoglomus sp. yClaroideoglomus etunicatumen A-Cd sugiere que estas morfoespecies son estrés-tolerantes y candidatos potenciales para el desarrollo de estrategias de mitigación en suelos con Cd.

Productivity and quality of horticultural crops through co-inoculation of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and plant growth promoting bacteria

Associations between plants and microorganisms exist in nature, and they can either be beneficial or detrimental to host plants. Promoting beneficial plant-microbe interaction for increased crop yield and quality is one pathway to eco-friendly and sustainable crop production. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and plant growth promoting bacteria (PGPB) are microorganisms that are beneficial to horticultural crops. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi establish symbioses with plant roots which help to improve nutrient uptake by the host plant and alter its physiology to withstand external abiotic factors and pathogens. Plant growth promoting bacteria promote plant growth either directly by aiding resource acquisition and controlling the levels of plant hormones or indirectly by reducing the inhibitory effects of phytopathogens. Co-inoculation of both organisms combines the benefits of each for increased crop productivity. Even though the co-inoculation of PGPB and AMF have been shown to enhance the yield and quality of crops, its benefits have fully not been exploited for horticultural crops. In this review, the response of horticultural crops to co-inoculation with PGPB and AMF with particular interest to the impact on the yield and crop quality was discussed. We explained some of the mechanisms responsible for the synergy between AMF and PGPB in plant growth promotion. Finally, suggestions on areas that need to be researched further to exploit and improve the effects of these organisms were highlighted.

Tailoring plant-associated microbial inoculants in agriculture: a roadmap for successful application

Plants are now recognized as metaorganisms which are composed of a host plant associated with a multitude of microbes that provide the host plant with a variety of essential functions to adapt to the local environment. Recent research showed the remarkable importance and range of microbial partners for enhancing the growth and health of plants. However, plant-microbe holobionts are influenced by many different factors, generating complex interactive systems. In this review, we summarize insights from this emerging field, highlighting the factors that contribute to the recruitment, selection, enrichment, and dynamic interactions of plant-associated microbiota. We then propose a roadmap for synthetic community application with the aim of establishing sustainable agricultural systems that use microbial communities to enhance the productivity and health of plants independently of chemical fertilizers and pesticides. Considering global warming and climate change, we suggest that desert plants can serve as a suitable pool of potentially beneficial microbes to maintain plant growth under abiotic stress conditions. Finally, we propose a framework for advancing the application of microbial inoculants in agriculture.