Childhood behaviour problems show the greatest gap between DNA-based and twin heritability

Social isolation and poor mental health in young people: testing genetic and environmental influences in a longitudinal cohort study

We assessed genetic and environmental influences on social isolation across childhood and the overlap between social isolation and mental health symptoms including depression symptoms, conduct problems, and psychotic-like experiences from adolescence to young adulthood. Participants included 2,232 children from the Environmental Risk Longitudinal Twin Study. Social isolation was measured at ages 5, 7, 10, 12, and 18. A Cholesky decomposition was specified to estimate the genetic and environmental influences on social isolation across ages 5, 7, 10, and 12. An independent pathway model was used to assess additive genetic (A), shared environmental (C), and non-shared environmental (E) influences on the overlap between social isolation and mental health problems from age 12 to 18. Genetic and non-shared environmental influences accounted for half of the variance in childhood social isolation. Genetic influences contributed to the continuity of social isolation across childhood, while non-shared environmental influences were age-specific. The longitudinal overlap between social isolation and mental health symptoms was largely explained by genetic influences for depression symptoms (r = 0.15-0.24: 82-84% A, 11-12% C, and 5-6% E) and psychotic-like experiences (r = 0.13-0.15: 81-91% A, 0-8% C, and 9-11% E) but not conduct problems (r = 0.13-0.16; 0-42% A, 42-81% C, 16-24% E). Our findings emphasise that rather than a risk factor or an outcome, social isolation is aetiologically intertwined with the experience of poor mental health. An integrative assessment of social isolation could be a helpful indicator of underlying mental health symptoms in young people.

The genetic architecture of differentiating behavioral and emotional problems in early life

BACKGROUND

Early in life, behavioral and cognitive traits associated with risk for developing a psychiatric condition are broad and undifferentiated. As children develop, these traits differentiate into characteristic clusters of symptoms and behaviors that ultimately form the basis of diagnostic categories. Understanding this differentiation process - in the context of genetic risk for psychiatric conditions, which is highly generalized - can improve early detection and intervention.

METHODS

We modeled the differentiation of behavioral and emotional problems from age 1.5-5 years (behavioral problems - emotional problems = differentiation score) in a pre-registered study of ∼79,000 children from the population-based Norwegian Mother, Father, and Child Cohort Study. We used genomic structural equation modeling to identify genetic signal in differentiation and total problems, investigating their links with 11 psychiatric and neurodevelopmental conditions. We examined associations of polygenic scores (PGS) with both outcomes and assessed the relative contributions of direct and indirect genetic effects in ∼33,000 family trios.

RESULTS

Differentiation was primarily genetically correlated with psychiatric conditions via a "neurodevelopmental" factor. Total problems were primarily associated with the "neurodevelopmental" factor and "p"-factor. PGS analyses revealed an association between liability to ADHD and differentiation (β=0.11 [0.10,0.12]), and a weaker association with total problems (β=0.06 [0.04,0.07]). Trio-PGS analyses showed predominantly direct genetic effects on both outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS

We uncovered genomic signal in the differentiation process, mostly related to common variants associated with neurodevelopmental conditions. Investigating the differentiation of early life behavioral and emotional problems may enhance our understanding of the developmental emergence of different psychiatric and neurodevelopmental conditions.

Brain structures with stronger genetic associations are not less associated with family- and state-level economic contexts

We investigate whether neural, cognitive, and psychopathology phenotypes that are more strongly related to genetic differences are less strongly associated with family- and state-level economic contexts (N = 5374 individuals with 1KG-EUR-like genotypes with 870 twins, from the Adolescent Behavior and Cognitive Development study). We estimated the twin- and SNP-based heritability of each phenotype, as well as its association with an educational attainment polygenic index (EA PGI). We further examined associations with family socioeconomic status (SES) and tested whether SES-related differences were moderated by state cost of living and social safety net programs (Medicaid expansion and cash assistance). SES was broadly associated with cognition, psychopathology, brain volumes, and cortical surface areas, even after controlling for the EA PGI. Brain phenotypes that were more heritable or more strongly associated with the EA PGI were not, overall, less related to SES, nor were SES-related differences in these phenotypes less moderated by macroeconomic context and policy. Informing a long-running theoretical debate, and contra to widespread lay beliefs, results suggest that aspects of child brain development that are more strongly related to genetic differences are not, in general, less associated with socioeconomic contexts and policies.

Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and post-GWAS analyses of impulsivity: A systematic review

Impulsivity is related to a host of mental and behavioral problems. It is a complex construct with many different manifestations, most of which are heritable. The genetic compositions of these impulsivity manifestations, however, remain unclear. A number of genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and post-GWAS analyses have tried to address this issue. We conducted a systematic review of all GWAS and post-GWAS analyses of impulsivity published up to December 2023. Available data suggest that single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in more than a dozen of genes (e.g., CADM2, CTNNA2, GPM6B) are associated with different measures of impulsivity at genome-wide significant levels. Post-GWAS analyses further show that different measures of impulsivity are subject to different degrees of genetic influence, share few genetic variants, and have divergent genetic overlap with basic personality traits such as extroversion and neuroticism, cognitive ability, psychiatric disorders, substance use, and obesity. These findings shed light on controversies in the conceptualization and measurement of impulsivity, while providing new insights on the underlying mechanisms that yoke impulsivity to psychopathology.

Interactions between genetic risk for 21 neurodevelopmental and psychiatric disorders and sport activity on youth mental health

Childhood is a sensitive period where behavioral disturbances, determined by genetics and environmental factors including sport activity, may emerge and impact risk of mental illness in adulthood. We aimed to determine if participation in sports can mitigate genetic risk for neurodevelopmental and psychiatric disorders in youth. We analyzed 4975 unrelated European youth (ages 9-10) from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development Study. Our outcomes were eight Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) scores, measured annually. Polygenic risk scores (PRSs) were calculated for 21 disorders, and sport frequency and type were summarized. PRSs and sport variables were tested for main effects and interactions against CBCL outcomes using linear models. Cross-sectionally, PRSs for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and major depressive disorder were associated with increases in multiple CBCL outcomes. Participation in non-contact or team sports, as well as more frequent sport participation reduced all cross-sectional CBCL outcomes, whereas involvement in contact sports increased attention problems and rule-breaking behavior. Interactions revealed that more frequent exercise was significantly associated with less rule breaking behavior in individuals with high genetic risk for obsessive compulsive disorder. Associations with longitudinal CBCL outcomes demonstrated weaker effects. We highlight the importance of genetic context when considering sports as an intervention for early life behavioural problems.

Shared Genetic Risk in the Association of Screen Time With Psychiatric Problems in Children

Importance

Children's exposure to screen time has been associated with poor mental health outcomes, yet the role of genetic factors remains largely unknown.

Objective

To assess the extent of genetic confounding in the associations between screen time and attention problems or internalizing problems in preadolescent children.

Design, Setting, and Participants

This cohort study analyzed data obtained between 2016 and 2019 from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development Study at 21 sites in the US. The sample included children aged 9 to 11 years of genetically assigned European ancestry with self-reported screen time. Data were analyzed between November 2021 and September 2023.

Exposure

Child-reported daily screen time (in hours) was ascertained from questionnaires completed by the children at baseline.

Main Outcomes and Measures

Child psychiatric problems, specifically attention and internalizing problems, were measured with the parent-completed Achenbach Child Behavior Checklist at the 1-year follow-up. Genetic sensitivity analyses model (Gsens) was used, which incorporated polygenic risk scores (PRSs) of both exposure and outcomes as well as either single-nucleotide variant (SNV; formerly single-nucleotide polymorphism)-based heritability or twin-based heritability to estimate genetic confounding.

Results

The 4262 children in the sample included 2269 males (53.2%) with a mean (SD) age of 9.9 (0.6) years. Child screen time was associated with attention problems (β = 0.10 SD; 95% CI, 0.07-0.13 SD) and internalizing problems (β = 0.03 SD; 95% CI, 0.003-0.06 SD). The television time PRS was associated with child screen time (β = 0.18 SD; 95% CI, 0.14-0.23 SD), the attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder PRS was associated with attention problems (β = 0.13 SD; 95% CI, 0.10-0.16 SD), and the depression PRS was associated with internalizing problems (β = 0.10 SD; 95% CI, 0.07-0.13 SD). These PRSs were associated with cross-traits, suggesting genetic confounding. Estimates using PRSs and SNV-based heritability showed that genetic confounding accounted for most of the association between child screen time and attention problems and for 42.7% of the association between child screen time and internalizing problems. When PRSs and twin-based heritability estimates were used, genetic confounding fully explained both associations.

Conclusions and Relevance

Results of this study suggest that genetic confounding may explain a substantial part of the associations between child screen time and psychiatric problems. Genetic confounding should be considered in sociobehavioral studies of modifiable factors for youth mental health.

Explaining the influence of non-shared environment (NSE) on symptoms of behaviour problems from preschool to adulthood: mind the missing NSE gap

BACKGROUND

Individual differences in symptoms of behaviour problems in childhood and adolescence are not primarily due to nature or nurture - another substantial source of variance is non-shared environment (NSE). However, few specific environmental factors have been found to account for these NSE estimates. This creates a 'missing NSE' gap analogous to the 'missing heritability' gap, which refers to the shortfall in identifying DNA differences responsible for heritability. We assessed the extent to which variance in behaviour problem symptoms during the first two decades of life can be accounted for by measured NSE effects after controlling for genetics and shared environment.

METHODS

The sample included 4,039 pairs of twins in the Twins Early Development Study whose environments and symptoms of behaviour problems were assessed in preschool, childhood, adolescence and early adulthood via parent, teacher and self-reports. Twin-specific environments were assessed via parent-reports, including early life adversity, parental feelings, parental discipline and classroom environment. Multivariate longitudinal twin model-fitting was employed to estimate the variance in behaviour problem symptoms at each age that could be predicted by environmental measures at the previous age.

RESULTS

On average across childhood, adolescence and adulthood, parent-rated NSE composite measures accounted for 3.4% of the reliable NSE variance (1.0% of the total variance) in parent-rated, symptoms of behaviour problems, 0.5% (0.1%) in teacher-rated symptoms and 0.9% (0.5%) in self-rated symptoms after controlling for genetics, shared environment and error of measurement. Cumulatively across development, our parent-rated NSE measures in preschool, childhood and adolescence predicted 4.7% of the NSE variance (2.0% of the total variance) in parent-rated and 0.3% (0.2%) in self-rated behaviour problem symptoms in adulthood.

CONCLUSIONS

The missing NSE gap between variance explained by measured environments and total NSE variance is large. Home and classroom environments are more likely to influence behaviour problem symptoms via genetics than via NSE.

A meta-analysis of genetic effects associated with neurodevelopmental disorders and co-occurring conditions

A systematic understanding of the aetiology of neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs) and their co-occurrence with other conditions during childhood and adolescence remains incomplete. In the current meta-analysis, we synthesized the literature on (1) the contribution of genetic and environmental factors to NDDs, (2) the genetic and environmental overlap between different NDDs, and (3) the co-occurrence between NDDs and disruptive, impulse control and conduct disorders (DICCs). Searches were conducted across three platforms: Web of Science, Ovid Medline and Ovid Embase. Studies were included only if 75% or more of the sample consisted of children and/or adolescents and the studies had measured the aetiology of NDDs and DICCs using single-generation family designs or genomic methods. Studies that had selected participants on the basis of unrelated diagnoses or injuries were excluded. We performed multilevel, random-effects meta-analyses on 296 independent studies, including over four million (partly overlapping) individuals. We further explored developmental trajectories and the moderating roles of gender, measurement, geography and ancestry. We found all NDDs to be substantially heritable (family-based heritability, 0.66 (s.e. = 0.03); SNP heritability, 0.19 (s.e. = 0.03)). Meta-analytic genetic correlations between NDDs were moderate (grand family-based genetic correlation, 0.36 (s.e. = 0.12); grand SNP-based genetic correlation, 0.39 (s.e. = 0.19)) but differed substantially between pairs of disorders. The genetic overlap between NDDs and DICCs was strong (grand family-based genetic correlation, 0.62 (s.e. = 0.20)). While our work provides evidence to inform and potentially guide clinical and educational diagnostic procedures and practice, it also highlights the imbalance in the research effort that has characterized developmental genetics research.

A genetically informed Registered Report on adverse childhood experiences and mental health

Children who experience adversities have an elevated risk of mental health problems. However, the extent to which adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) cause mental health problems remains unclear, as previous associations may partly reflect genetic confounding. In this Registered Report, we used DNA from 11,407 children from the United Kingdom and the United States to investigate gene-environment correlations and genetic confounding of the associations between ACEs and mental health. Regarding gene-environment correlations, children with higher polygenic scores for mental health problems had a small increase in odds of ACEs. Regarding genetic confounding, elevated risk of mental health problems in children exposed to ACEs was at least partially due to pre-existing genetic risk. However, some ACEs (such as childhood maltreatment and parental mental illness) remained associated with mental health problems independent of genetic confounding. These findings suggest that interventions addressing heritable psychiatric vulnerabilities in children exposed to ACEs may help reduce their risk of mental health problems.

Differences in Parenting Behavior are Systematic Sources of the Non-shared Environment for Internalizing and Externalizing Problem Behavior

Although there is evidence for non-shared environmental links between parenting and problem behavior, so far, age-, informant-, and parent-specific patterns for both internalizing and externalizing problem behaviors have not been examined within one study yet. Using the twin differences design, the present study aimed to test how maternal and paternal parenting systematically act as a source of non-shared environment for problem behavior across different age groups and informants. We examined 1327 monozygotic twin pairs and their parents drawn from three birth cohorts of the German TwinLife study. Our results revealed that particularly child-reported less positive and more negative parenting by both parents contribute significantly to the unique environmental variance of problem behavior, although we did not find a clear pattern across age groups. Our study underlines the necessity of controlling for genetic confounding to uncover the truly environmentally mediated (and thus environmentally influenceable) pathways between parenting and problem behavior. A practical implication could be that it may be useful to primarily consider the child's perspective and focus on maternal as well as paternal parenting in interventions that address parenting to reduce problem behavior.

The genetics of specific cognitive abilities

Most research on individual differences in performance on tests of cognitive ability focuses on general cognitive ability (g), the highest level in the three-level Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) hierarchical model of intelligence. About 50% of the variance of g is due to inherited DNA differences (heritability) which increases across development. Much less is known about the genetics of the middle level of the CHC model, which includes 16 broad factors such as fluid reasoning, processing speed, and quantitative knowledge. We provide a meta-analytic review of 747,567 monozygotic-dizygotic twin comparisons from 77 publications for these middle-level factors, which we refer to as specific cognitive abilities (SCA), even though these factors are not independent of g. Twin comparisons were available for 11 of the 16 CHC domains. The average heritability across all SCA is 56%, similar to that of g. However, there is substantial differential heritability across SCA and SCA do not show the developmental increase in heritability seen for g. We also investigated SCA independent of g (SCA.g). A surprising finding is that SCA.g remain substantially heritable (53% on average), even though 25% of the variance of SCA that covaries with g has been removed. Our review highlights the need for more research on SCA and especially on SCA.g. Despite limitations of SCA research, our review frames expectations for genomic research that will use polygenic scores to predict SCA and SCA.g. Genome-wide association studies of SCA.g are needed to create polygenic scores that can predict SCA profiles of cognitive abilities and disabilities independent of g.

Research Review: A guide to computing and implementing polygenic scores in developmental research

The increasing availability of genotype data in longitudinal population- and family-based samples provides opportunities for using polygenic scores (PGS) to study developmental questions in child and adolescent psychology and psychiatry. Here, we aim to provide a comprehensive overview of how PGS can be generated and implemented in developmental psycho(patho)logy, with a focus on longitudinal designs. As such, the paper is organized into three parts: First, we provide a formal definition of polygenic scores and related concepts, focusing on assumptions and limitations. Second, we give a general overview of the methods used to compute polygenic scores, ranging from the classic approach to more advanced methods. We include recommendations and reference resources available to researchers aiming to conduct PGS analyses. Finally, we focus on the practical applications of PGS in the analysis of longitudinal data. We describe how PGS have been used to research developmental outcomes, and how they can be applied to longitudinal data to address developmental questions.

On the importance of parenting in externalizing disorders: an evaluation of indirect genetic effects in families

BACKGROUND

Theoretical models of the development of childhood externalizing disorders emphasize the role of parents. Empirical studies have not been able to identify specific aspects of parental behaviors explaining a considerable proportion of the observed individual differences in externalizing problems. The problem is complicated by the contribution of genetic factors to externalizing problems, as parents provide both genes and environments to their children. We studied the joint contributions of direct genetic effects of children and the indirect genetic effects of parents through the environment on externalizing problems.

METHODS

The study used genome-wide single nucleotide polymorphism data from 9,675 parent-offspring trios participating in the Norwegian Mother Father and child cohort study. Based on genomic relatedness matrices, we estimated the contribution of direct genetic effects and indirect maternal and paternal genetic effects on ADHD, conduct and disruptive behaviors at 8 years of age.

RESULTS

Models including indirect parental genetic effects were preferred for the ADHD symptoms of inattention and hyperactivity, and conduct problems, but not oppositional defiant behaviors. Direct genetic effects accounted for 11% to 24% of the variance, whereas indirect parental genetic effects accounted for 0% to 16% in ADHD symptoms and conduct problems. The correlation between direct and indirect genetic effects, or gene-environment correlations, decreased the variance with 16% and 13% for conduct and inattention problems, and increased the variance with 6% for hyperactivity problems.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides empirical support to the notion that parents have a significant role in the development of childhood externalizing behaviors. The parental contribution to decrease in variation of inattention and conduct problems by gene-environment correlations would limit the number of children reaching clinical ranges in symptoms. Not accounting for indirect parental genetic effects can lead to both positive and negative bias when identifying genetic variants for childhood externalizing behaviors.

Genome-wide Association Meta-analysis of Childhood and Adolescent Internalizing Symptoms

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the genetic architecture of internalizing symptoms in childhood and adolescence.

METHOD

In 22 cohorts, multiple univariate genome-wide association studies (GWASs) were performed using repeated assessments of internalizing symptoms, in a total of 64,561 children and adolescents between 3 and 18 years of age. Results were aggregated in meta-analyses that accounted for sample overlap, first using all available data, and then using subsets of measurements grouped by rater, age, and instrument.

RESULTS

The meta-analysis of overall internalizing symptoms (INToverall) detected no genome-wide significant hits and showed low single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) heritability (1.66%, 95% CI = 0.84-2.48%, neffective = 132,260). Stratified analyses indicated rater-based heterogeneity in genetic effects, with self-reported internalizing symptoms showing the highest heritability (5.63%, 95% CI = 3.08%-8.18%). The contribution of additive genetic effects on internalizing symptoms appeared to be stable over age, with overlapping estimates of SNP heritability from early childhood to adolescence. Genetic correlations were observed with adult anxiety, depression, and the well-being spectrum (|rg| > 0.70), as well as with insomnia, loneliness, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, autism, and childhood aggression (range |rg| = 0.42-0.60), whereas there were no robust associations with schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, or anorexia nervosa.

CONCLUSION

Genetic correlations indicate that childhood and adolescent internalizing symptoms share substantial genetic vulnerabilities with adult internalizing disorders and other childhood psychiatric traits, which could partially explain both the persistence of internalizing symptoms over time and the high comorbidity among childhood psychiatric traits. Reducing phenotypic heterogeneity in childhood samples will be key in paving the way to future GWAS success.

Using DNA to predict behaviour problems from preschool to adulthood

BACKGROUND

One goal of the DNA revolution is to predict problems in order to prevent them. We tested here if the prediction of behaviour problems from genome-wide polygenic scores (GPS) can be improved by creating composites across ages and across raters and by using a multi-GPS approach that includes GPS for adult psychiatric disorders as well as for childhood behaviour problems.

METHOD

Our sample included 3,065 genotyped unrelated individuals from the Twins Early Development Study who were assessed longitudinally for hyperactivity, conduct, emotional problems, and peer problems as rated by parents, teachers, and children themselves. GPS created from 15 genome-wide association studies were used separately and jointly to test the prediction of behaviour problems composites (general behaviour problems, externalising, and internalising) across ages (from age 2 to 21) and across raters in penalised regression models. Based on the regression weights, we created multi-trait GPS reflecting the best prediction of behaviour problems. We compared GPS prediction to twin heritability using the same sample and measures.

RESULTS

Multi-GPS prediction of behaviour problems increased from <2% of the variance for observed traits to up to 6% for cross-age and cross-rater composites. Twin study estimates of heritability, although to a lesser extent, mirrored patterns of multi-GPS prediction as they increased from <40% to 83%.

CONCLUSIONS

The ability of GPS to predict behaviour problems can be improved by using multiple GPS, cross-age composites and cross-rater composites, although the effect sizes remain modest, up to 6%. Our approach can be used in any genotyped sample to create multi-trait GPS predictors of behaviour problems that will be more predictive than polygenic scores based on a single age, rater, or GPS.

Editorial: Genome-wide Association Studies of Internalizing Symptoms: A Big Step on a Long Road

Anxiety and depression are collectively the most common mental illnesses, affecting 15% of the world's population in any given year.¹ Together, they account for the greatest global burden of ongoing disability of any disorder, mental or physical.² They frequently emerge early in life as internalizing disorders in childhood or adolescence, and have long-lasting effects on mental wellbeing, acting as risk factors for mental illnesses in adulthood.³ As such, understanding the causes of these disorders is imperative. Internalizing disorders are influenced by multiple environmental and genetic factors, and research from twin studies has indicated that they have a genetic contribution (heritability) of 40% to 50%.⁴ However, implicating specific genetic variants through genome-wide association studies (GWAS) has been challenging, in part due to the need to obtain large sample sizes and the logistical difficulty of doing so. In this issue of the Journal, Jami et al. present an innovative meta-analysis that is a major step toward an understanding of specific variants.⁵.

Nine Levels of Explanation : A Proposed Expansion of Tinbergen's Four-Level Framework for Understanding the Causes of Behavior

Tinbergen's classic "On Aims and Methods of Ethology" (Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie, 20, 1963) proposed four levels of explanation of behavior, which he thought would soon apply to humans. This paper discusses the need for multilevel explanation; Huxley and Mayr's prior models, and others that followed; Tinbergen's differences with Lorenz on "the innate"; and Mayr's ultimate/proximate distinction. It synthesizes these approaches with nine levels of explanation in three categories: phylogeny, natural selection, and genomics (ultimate causes); maturation, sensitive period effects, and routine environmental effects (intermediate causes); and hormonal/metabolic processes, neural circuitry, and eliciting stimuli (proximate causes), as a respectful extension of Tinbergen's levels. The proposed classification supports and builds on Tinbergen's multilevel model and Mayr's ultimate/proximate continuum, adding intermediate causes in accord with Tinbergen's emphasis on ontogeny. It requires no modification of Standard Evolutionary Theory or The Modern Synthesis, but shows that much that critics claim was missing was in fact part of Neo-Darwinian theory (so named by J. Mark Baldwin in The American Naturalist in 1896) all along, notably reciprocal causation in ontogeny, niche construction, cultural evolution, and multilevel selection. Updates of classical examples in ethology are offered at each of the nine levels, including the neuroethological and genomic findings Tinbergen foresaw. Finally, human examples are supplied at each level, fulfilling his hope of human applications as part of the biology of behavior. This broad ethological framework empowers us to explain human behavior-eventually completely-and vindicates the idea of human nature, and of humans as a part of nature.

Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Genetically Informed Research: Associations Between Parent Anxiety and Offspring Internalizing Problems

OBJECTIVE

Parent anxiety is associated with offspring internalizing problems (emotional problems related to anxiety and depression). This may reflect causal processes, whereby exposure to parent anxiety directly influences offspring internalizing (and/or vice versa). However, parent-offspring associations could also be attributable to their genetic relatedness. A systematic review and meta-analysis were conducted to investigate whether exposure to parent anxiety is associated with offspring internalizing after controlling for genetic relatedness.

METHOD

A literature search across 5 databases identified 429 unique records. Publications were retained if they used a quasi-experimental design in a general population sample to control for participant relatedness in associations between parent anxiety and offspring internalizing outcomes. Publications were excluded if they involved an experimental exposure or intervention. Studies of prenatal and postnatal anxiety exposure were meta-analyzed separately. Pearson's correlation coefficient estimates (r) were pooled using multilevel random-effects models.

RESULTS

Eight publications were retained. Data were drawn from 4 population cohorts, each unique to a quasi-experimental design: adoption, sibling-comparison, children-of-twins or in vitro fertilization. Cohorts were located in northern Europe or America. Families were predominantly of European ancestry. Three publications (Nfamilies >11,700; offspring age range, 0.5-10 years) showed no association between prenatal anxiety exposure and offspring internalizing outcomes after accounting for participant relatedness (r = .04; 95% CI: -.07, .14). Six publications (Nfamilies >12,700; offspring age range, 0.75-22 years) showed a small but significant association between concurrent symptoms in parents and offspring after accounting for participant relatedness (r = .13; 95% CI: .04, .21).

CONCLUSION

Initial literature, derived from homogeneous populations, suggests that prenatal anxiety exposure does not cause offspring internalizing outcomes. However, postnatal anxiety exposure may be causally associated with concurrent offspring internalizing via nongenetic pathways. Longitudinal stability, child-to-parent effects, and the role of moderators and methodological biases require attention.

The relational genomics of cognitive function: A longitudinal study

OBJECTIVES

Research in social genetics indicates a person's genome may influence outcomes of those in close relationships. Implications for cognitive function remain unexplored. The current study examined such "metagenomic" patterns among older U.S. couples.

METHODS

Data were from married or cohabiting couples in the 2006-2016 waves of the Health and Retirement Study, nationally representative of U.S. adults over 50. Measures included cognitive function as well as separate polygenic scores for cognition and for educational attainment. Analysis was through parallel process latent growth models.

RESULTS

Consistent with a recent "genetic externalities" conception, one partner's polygenic score for educational attainment was linked to the other's baseline levels of cognitive function. Contrary to relational moderation speculations, neither a partner's genetic scores nor educational attainment altered individual-level genetic influences.

DISCUSSION

Findings add to the growing evidence that transpersonal genetic influences in one's proximal context have substantively important implications. Research is needed on the role of non-partnership ties in channeling such effects. Implications for life course theory are discussed.

Transpersonal Genetic Effects Among Older U.S. Couples: A Longitudinal Study

BACKGROUND

Emerging social genetics research suggests one's genes may influence not just one's own outcomes but also those of close social alters. Health implications, particularly in late life, remain underexplored. Using combined genetic and survey data, this study examined such transpersonal genetic associations among older U.S. couples.

METHOD

Data were from married or cohabiting couples in the 2006-2016 waves of the Health and Retirement Study, nationally representative of U.S. adults over 50. Measures included a polygenic score for educational attainment, and self-rated health. Analysis was through parallel process latent growth models.

RESULTS

Women's and men's genetic scores for education had transpersonal linkages with their partner's health. Such associations were solely with life-course variations and not late-life change in outcomes. Moreover, they were indirect, mediated by educational attainment itself. Evidence also emerged for individual-level genetic effects mediated by the partner's education.

DISCUSSION

In addition to the subject-specific linkages emphasized in extant genetics literature, relational contexts involve multiple transpersonal genetic associations. These appear to have consequences for a partner's and one's own health. Life-course theory indicates that a person is never not embedded in such contexts, suggesting that these patterns may be widespread. Research is needed on their implications for the life-course and gene-environment correlation literature.

How important are parents in the development of child anxiety and depression? A genomic analysis of parent-offspring trios in the Norwegian Mother Father and Child Cohort Study (MoBa)

BACKGROUND

Many studies detect associations between parent behaviour and child symptoms of anxiety and depression. Despite knowledge that anxiety and depression are influenced by a complex interplay of genetic and environmental risk factors, most studies do not account for shared familial genetic risk. Quantitative genetic designs provide a means of controlling for shared genetics, but rely on observed putative exposure variables, and require data from highly specific family structures.

METHODS

The intergenerational genomic method, Relatedness Disequilibrium Regression (RDR), indexes environmental effects of parents on child traits using measured genotypes. RDR estimates how much the parent genome influences the child indirectly via the environment, over and above effects of genetic factors acting directly in the child. This 'genetic nurture' effect is agnostic to parent phenotype and captures unmeasured heritable parent behaviours. We applied RDR in a sample of 11,598 parent-offspring trios from the Norwegian Mother, Father and Child Cohort Study (MoBa) to estimate parental genetic nurture separately from direct child genetic effects on anxiety and depression symptoms at age 8. We tested for mediation of genetic nurture via maternal anxiety and depression symptoms. Results were compared to a complementary non-genomic pedigree model.

RESULTS

Parental genetic nurture explained 14% of the variance in depression symptoms at age 8. Subsequent analyses suggested that maternal anxiety and depression partially mediated this effect. The genetic nurture effect was mirrored by the finding of family environmental influence in our pedigree model. In contrast, variance in anxiety symptoms was not significantly influenced by common genetic variation in children or parents, despite a moderate pedigree heritability.

CONCLUSIONS

Genomic methods like RDR represent new opportunities for genetically sensitive family research on complex human traits, which until now has been largely confined to adoption, twin and other pedigree designs. Our results are relevant to debates about the role of parents in the development of anxiety and depression in children, and possibly where to intervene to reduce problems.

Women's greater late-life depression: Traumatic experiences or GxE?

OBJECTIVES

This study examined the role of traumatic life experiences, and their interaction with genetic risk, in explaining gender differences in late life depression.

METHODS

Data were from the 2008-through-2014 waves of the Health and Retirement Study, nationally representative of U.S. adults over age 50. Analysis was restricted to white participants. Newly available polygenic risk scores indexed genetic propensity for depression. Linear growth models examined gender effects on depression, as well as their mediation by environmental and genetic risk.

RESULTS

Across-person results suggested greater depression among older white women than men. No disparities were found in within-person change. Women also did not have more traumatic life experiences. Nor did the few factors they reported more than men influence depression, or mediate the gender difference in this outcome. The sole exception was childhood parental physical abuse. This early experience mediated about a quarter of the gender disparity-but only at mean or high genetic vulnerability. In contrast, adulthood traumas common among women interacted negatively with polygenic risk-such that they mediated the gender effect only at low levels of the latter.

DISCUSSION

Traumatic life experiences and their genetic interactions appear to have minimal utility in explaining women's greater depression-at least among white older adults. Careful work is needed on the extent to which these factors underlie other social disparities in mental health.

Maternal and paternal effects on offspring internalizing problems: Results from genetic and family-based analyses

It is unclear to what extent parental influences on the development of internalizing problems in offspring are explained by indirect genetic effects, reflected in the environment provided by the parent, in addition to the genes transmitted from parent to child. In this study, these effects were investigated using two innovative methods in a large birth cohort. Using maternal-effects genome complex trait analysis (M-GCTA), the effects of offspring genotype, maternal or paternal genotypes, and their covariance on offspring internalizing problems were estimated in 3,801 mother-father-child genotyped trios. Next, estimated genetic correlations within pedigree data, including 10,688 children, were used to estimate additive genetic effects, maternal and paternal genetic effects, and a shared family effect using linear mixed effects modeling. There were no significant maternal or paternal genetic effects on offspring anxiety or depressive symptoms at age 8, beyond the effects transmitted via the genetic pathway between parents and children. However, indirect maternal genetic effects explained a small, but nonsignificant, proportion of variance in childhood depressive symptoms in both the M-GCTA (~4%) and pedigree (~8%) analyses. Our results suggest that parental effects on offspring internalizing problems are predominantly due to transmitted genetic variants, rather than the indirect effect of parental genes via the environment.

Genes-in-Dyads: A Study of Relationship Quality

OBJECTIVES

Using dyadic genetic information on older couples, this study queried associations of a polygenic score for well-being with one's own as well as a partner's relationship experiences.

METHOD

Data were from the 2010 wave of the U.S. Health and Retirement Study. Analysis was through structural equation modeling.

RESULTS

Especially among women, the genetic score was associated with individuals' own relationship experiences. Genetic externalities-linkages of one's genes with a partner's experiences-were also observed. No significant gender variations emerged.

DISCUSSION

Contrary to conceptions implicit in much of existing genetics literature-which focuses on individuals' own gene-trait associations-the interpersonal environments most crucial to life course and health outcomes are shaped by the genes of all involved actors. Genetic externalities are a central component. Implications for the life course and gene-environment literatures are discussed.

On the etiology of internalizing and externalizing problem behavior: A twin-family study

Internalizing and externalizing behavior problems are established risk factors for many unpleasant outcomes and psychopathology in adulthood, and understanding the interplay between genes and environment is important for deducing implications for therapeutic interventions. Among genetic studies on internalizing and externalizing problem behavior, the heritability estimates differ widely. Most research only uses twin data and other-reports, and therefore certain limitations are inevitable. Our study is the first to investigate genetic and environmental influences on problem behavior using a Nuclear Twin Family Design and self-reports, in order to address these limitations. Internalizing and externalizing problem behavior of 3,087 twin pairs (age 11–23), a sibling, and their parents were analyzed with structural equation modeling to estimate heritability separately for each of three twin birth cohorts. Genetic influences account for about one-third of the variance for both internalizing and externalizing. Shared environmental influences were only found for internalizing, and through the advantages of considering data from the whole twin family, firstly could be identified as solely twin-specific. Our findings could contribute to a better understanding of the gap between heritability based on twin studies and DNA-based heritability (‘missing heritability problem’): Results indicate that heritability estimates gained via classic twin design and other-reports are slightly overestimated and therefore environmental influences, in general, are more important than previous research suggests. Simultaneously, we showed that family-specific environment either contributes to behavior problems only on an individual level, or that it has a lesser influence than originally thought.

Single nucleotide polymorphism heritability and differential patterns of genetic overlap between inattention and four neurocognitive factors in youth

Theoretical models of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder implicate neurocognitive dysfunction, yet neurocognitive functioning covers a range of abilities that may not all be linked with inattention. This study (a) investigated the single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) heritability (h2SNP) of inattention and aspects of neurocognitive efficiency (memory, social cognition, executive function, and complex cognition) based on additive genome-wide effects; (b) examined if there were shared genetic effects among inattention and each aspect of neurocognitive efficiency; and (c) conducted an exploratory genome-wide association study to identify genetic regions associated with inattention. The sample included 3,563 participants of the Philadelphia Neurodevelopmental Cohort, a general population sample aged 8-21 years who completed the Penn Neurocognitive Battery. Data on inattention was obtained with the Kiddie Schedule of Affective Disorders (adapted). Genomic relatedness matrix restricted maximum likelihood was implemented in genome-wide complex trait analysis. Analyses revealed significant h2SNP for inattention (20%, SE = 0.08), social cognition (13%, SE = 0.08), memory (17%, SE = 0.08), executive function (25%, SE = 0.08), and complex cognition (24%, SE = 0.08). There was a positive genetic correlation (0.67, SE = 0.37) and a negative residual covariance (-0.23, SE = 0.06) between inattention and social cognition. No SNPs reached genome-wide significance for inattention. Results suggest specificity in genetic overlap among inattention and different aspects of neurocognitive efficiency.

Genome-Wide Association Study of Latent Cognitive Measures in Adolescence: Genetic Overlap With Intelligence and Education

Individual differences in executive functions (EF) are heritable and predictive of academic attainment (AA). However, little is known about genetic contributions to EFs or their genetic relationship with AA and intelligence. We conducted genome-wide association analyses for processing speed (PS) and the latent EF measures of working memory (WM) and inhibitory control (IC) in 4,611 adolescents from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children. While no loci reached genome-wide significance, common genetic variants explained 30% of the variance in WM and 19% in PS. In contrast, we failed to find common genetic contributions to IC. Finally, we examined shared genetic effects between EFs and general intelligence, AA and ADHD. We identified significant genetic correlations between WM, intelligence, and AA. A more specific pattern was observed for PS, with modest genetic overlap with intelligence. Together these findings highlight diversity in the genetic contributions to specific cognitive functions and their genetic relationship with educational and psychiatric outcomes.

Genes, Childhood Trauma, and Late Life Depressive Symptoms

Objectives: Findings on gene-environment correlations suggest childhood “environments” may reflect genetic liabilities. The independent psychosocial influence of childhood trauma is unclear. This study examined such effects on adulthood depressive symptoms. Methods: Data were from the Health and Retirement Study. Trauma items included childhood physical abuse and parental substance abuse. Multinomial logit models examined genetic effects on stable and unstable reports. Linear growth models tested associations of stable trauma responses, genes, and their interaction with current depressive symptoms. Results: Genetic risk predicted both stable and unstable trauma reports. With genes controlled, stable responses were associated with life course variations but not late life change in depression. The exception was women’s physical abuse, which moderated genetic effects but had no independent influence. Discussion: Apparent gene-trauma correlations may be driven by flawed retrospective reports. Research is needed to distinguish true from artifactual genetic effects on other environmental factors and establish psychosocial implications.

Major Discrimination Experiences, Education, and Genes

Objectives: Rather than acting as a buffer, educational attainment has a known positive linkage with major experiences of lifetime discrimination. Recently established genetic roots of education, then, may also influence such reports. The current study examined these patterns. Methods: Data were from the 2010 wave of the Health and Retirement Study. Polygenic scores indexed one's genetic propensity for more education. Mediation analysis was through counterfactual methods. Results: Among Whites as well as Blacks, genetic antecedents of education also elevated discrimination reports. Part of this influence was channeled through education. At least among Whites, direct effects were also found. Discussion: Major discrimination experiences seem partly rooted in genes. Mechanisms are tentatively suggested. Direct genetic influences, in particular, indicate potential confounding of previously estimated linkages between discrimination and health or life course factors. Given the range of these prior results, and their implications for healthy aging, investigation of these possibilities is needed.

The molecular genetics of hand preference revisited

Hand preference is a prominent behavioural trait linked to human brain asymmetry. A handful of genetic variants have been reported to associate with hand preference or quantitative measures related to it. Most of these reports were on the basis of limited sample sizes, by current standards for genetic analysis of complex traits. Here we performed a genome-wide association analysis of hand preference in the large, population-based UK Biobank cohort (N = 331,037). We used gene-set enrichment analysis to investigate whether genes involved in visceral asymmetry are particularly relevant to hand preference, following one previous report. We found no evidence supporting any of the previously suggested variants or genes, nor that genes involved in visceral laterality have a role in hand preference. It remains possible that some of the previously reported genes or pathways are relevant to hand preference as assessed in other ways, or else are relevant within specific disorder populations. However, some or all of the earlier findings are likely to be false positives, and none of them appear relevant to hand preference as defined categorically in the general population. Our analysis did produce a small number of novel, significant associations, including one implicating the microtubule-associated gene MAP2 in handedness.

Interpreting Behavior Genetic Models: Seven Developmental Processes to Understand

Behavior genetic findings figure in debates ranging from urgent public policy matters to perennial questions about the nature of human agency. Despite a common set of methodological tools, behavior genetic studies approach scientific questions with potentially divergent goals. Some studies may be interested in identifying a complete model of how individual differences come to be (e.g., identifying causal pathways among genotypes, environments, and phenotypes across development). Other studies place primary importance on developing models with predictive utility, in which case understanding of underlying causal processes is not necessarily required. Although certainly not mutually exclusive, these two goals often represent tradeoffs in terms of costs and benefits associated with various methodological approaches. In particular, given that most empirical behavior genetic research assumes that variance can be neatly decomposed into independent genetic and environmental components, violations of model assumptions have different consequences for interpretation, depending on the particular goals. Developmental behavior genetic theories postulate complex transactions between genetic variation and environmental experiences over time, meaning assumptions are routinely violated. Here, we consider two primary questions: (1) How might the simultaneous operation of several mechanisms of gene-environment (GE)-interplay affect behavioral genetic model estimates? (2) At what level of GE-interplay does the 'gloomy prospect' of unsystematic and non-replicable genetic associations with a phenotype become an unavoidable certainty?

The genetic underpinnings of callous-unemotional traits: A systematic research review

BACKGROUND

Callous-unemotional (CU) traits represent the affective features of psychopathy used to delineate youth at high risk for externalizing pathology. The genetic etiology CU traits is not currently well-understood.

METHODS

The current review surveyed the literature for studies on the genetic underpinnings of CU traits and integrated information from 39 genetic studies.

RESULTS

The results from 24 studies with quantitative data suggest that the heritability for CU traits is likely between 36-67%. A majority of the 16 molecular genetic studies focused on candidate genes in the serotonin and oxytocin systems with results that have not been well replicated. Although two genome-wide association studies have been conducted, no genome-wide significant loci have been discovered.

DISCUSSION

There is some evidence to suggest that the serotonin and oxytocin systems may play a role in CU traits; however, there is currently not enough evidence to implicate specific genetic mechanisms. The authors encourage researchers to continue to apply the most up-to-date and relevant methodology, specifically collaborations and consortiums using genome-wide and polygenic methods.

Extracting stability increases the SNP heritability of emotional problems in young people

Twin studies have shown that emotional problems (anxiety and depression) in childhood and adolescence are moderately heritable (~20-50%). In contrast, DNA-based 'SNP heritability' estimates are generally <15% and non-significant. One notable feature of emotional problems is that they can be somewhat transient, but the moderate stability seen across time and across raters is predominantly influenced by stable genetic influences. This suggests that by capturing what is in common across time and across raters, we might be more likely to tap into any underlying genetic vulnerability. We therefore hypothesised that a phenotype capturing the pervasive stability of emotional problems would show higher heritability. We fitted single-factor latent trait models using 12 emotional problems measures across ages 7, 12 and 16, rated by parents, teachers and children themselves in the Twins Early Development Study sample. Twin and SNP heritability estimates for stable emotional problems (N = 6110 pairs and 6110 unrelated individuals, respectively) were compared to those for individual measures. Twin heritability increased from 45% on average for individual measures to 76% (se = 0.023) by focusing on stable trait variance. SNP heritability rose from 5% on average (n.s.) to 14% (se = 0.049; p = 0.002). Heritability was also higher for stable within-rater composites. Polygenic scores for both adult anxiety and depression significantly explained variance in stable emotional problems (0.4%; p = 0.0001). The variance explained was more than in most individual measures. Stable emotional problems also showed significant genetic correlation with adult depression and anxiety (average = 52%). These results demonstrate the value of examining stable emotional problems in gene-finding and prediction studies.

Intracellular calcium dysregulation in autism spectrum disorder: An analysis of converging organelle signaling pathways

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a group of complex, neurological disorders that affect early cognitive, social, and verbal development. Our understanding of ASD has vastly improved with advances in genomic sequencing technology and genetic models that have identified >800 loci with variants that increase susceptibility to ASD. Although these findings have confirmed its high heritability, the underlying mechanisms by which these genes produce the ASD phenotypes have not been defined. Current efforts have begun to "functionalize" many of these variants and envisage how these susceptibility factors converge at key biochemical and biophysical pathways. In this review, we discuss recent work on intracellular calcium signaling in ASD, including our own work, which begins to suggest it as a compelling candidate mechanism in the pathophysiology of autism and a potential therapeutic target. We consider how known variants in the calcium signaling genomic architecture of ASD may exert their deleterious effects along pathways particularly involving organelle dysfunction including the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), a major calcium store, and the mitochondria, a major calcium ion buffer, and theorize how many of these pathways intersect.

A systematic review of genome-wide research on psychotic experiences and negative symptom traits: new revelations and implications for psychiatry

We present a systematic review of genome-wide research on psychotic experience and negative symptom (PENS) traits in the community. We integrate these new findings, most of which have emerged over the last four years, with more established behaviour genetic and epidemiological research. The review includes the first genome-wide association studies of PENS, including a recent meta-analysis, and the first SNP heritability estimates. Sample sizes of <10 000 participants mean that no genome-wide significant variants have yet been replicated. Importantly, however, in the most recent and well-powered studies, polygenic risk score prediction and linkage disequilibrium (LD) score regression analyses show that all types of PENS share genetic influences with diagnosed schizophrenia and that negative symptom traits also share genetic influences with major depression. These genetic findings corroborate other evidence in supporting a link between PENS in the community and psychiatric conditions. Beyond the systematic review, we highlight recent work on gene-environment correlation, which appears to be a relevant process for psychotic experiences. Genes that influence risk factors such as tobacco use and stressful life events are likely to be harbouring 'hits' that also influence PENS. We argue for the acceptance of PENS within the mainstream, as heritable traits in the same vein as other sub-clinical psychopathology and personality styles such as neuroticism. While acknowledging some mixed findings, new evidence shows genetic overlap between PENS and psychiatric conditions. In sum, normal variations in adolescent and adult thinking styles, such as feeling paranoid, are heritable and show genetic associations with schizophrenia and major depression.