What do parents of nonverbal and minimally verbal autistic children think about genomic autism research?

LAY ABSTRACT

In Summer 2021, a genomic study of autism, Spectrum 10 K, was paused due to backlash from the autistic and autism communities. This raised important questions about how these communities perceive genomic research. The Personal Experiences of Autism and Perceptions of DNA-based research study was established to address this issue among a range of sub-groups within these communities. Twenty parents of nonverbal or minimally verbal autistic children took part in the current study. Data were provided in diverse formats including online interviews, telephone interviews, and writing. This approach was co-produced with autistic experts by experience and involved a parent of a minimally verbal autistic child. Data were analysed using reflexive Thematic Analysis. We found that participants were supportive of autism research, including some genomic research, as long as it is designed to support autistic people and is ethical and transparent. However, while some believed that polygenic scores, genomic predictors of the statistical probability of being autistic, would be helpful, others argued that this would only be true in an ideal world and that the world is too far from ideal. Participants felt excluded from the autistic and autism communities and that the dominant voices in those communities do not represent them or their children. We concluded that genomic researchers need to work with the autistic and autism communities to design future work, and that it is important to ensure a representative range of voices are heard.

Genetic influences on sibling bullying and mental health difficulties

BACKGROUND

Sibling bullying is associated with mental health difficulties; both in the short and long term. It is commonly assumed that sibling bullying leads to mental health difficulties but additional explanations for the relationship between the two are seldom investigated.

METHODS

To address this gap in knowledge, we used a genetically sensitive design with data from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (maximum N = 3,959, 53% female). At ages 11-13 years, individuals self-reported their involvement in sibling bullying, as a victim and perpetrator, and parents reported on their child's mental health difficulties. Polygenic scores, indices of genetic risk for psychiatric disorders (major depressive disorder and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder) were computed using children's genetic data. Regression and structural equation models were fitted to the data.

RESULTS

Sibling bullying, victimisation and perpetration, and polygenic scores both predicted mental health difficulties in an additive manner but there was no interaction between them. Polygenic scores for mental health difficulties were also associated with sibling bullying.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that sibling bullying, victimisation and perpetration, is associated with mental health difficulties, even after accounting for some genetic effects. Additionally, the relationship between sibling bullying and mental health difficulties may be, at least partly, due to shared genetic aetiology. One possibility is that genetic risk for mental health difficulties influences the onset of mental health difficulties which in turn make children more susceptible to sibling bullying.

'It feels like I'm back to being a teacher': A longitudinal trajectory analysis of teachers' experiences during the first 8 months of COVID-19 in England

BACKGROUND

Understanding teachers' experiences throughout the school closures and reopenings that have characterized large periods of the COVID-19 pandemic provides us with unique insights into what it means to be a teacher during a global public health crisis.

AIM AND METHOD

To investigate teachers' narratives of their experiences, we conducted 95 semi-structured interviews with 24 teachers in England across four time points between April and November 2020. We used a longitudinal qualitative trajectory analysis of participants' stories of their high-, low- and turning-points.

RESULTS

We derived four themes that were evident at each time point and developed over time. The themes were: (1) growing frustration at uncertainties caused by poor government leadership, (2) expanding concern for pupil learning and well-being, (3) an increasingly labour-intensive and exhausting job and (4) declining pleasure and pride in being a teacher.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings shed light on the impact of COVID-19 on the professional identity of these teachers and we propose ways in which teachers can be supported now and in the future.

Measuring CHAOS? Evaluating the short-form Confusion, Hubbub And Order Scale

The Confusion, Hubbub and Order Scale (CHAOS) - short form - is a survey tool intended to capture information about home environments. It is widely used in studies of child and adolescent development and psychopathology, particularly twin studies. The original long form of the scale comprised 15 items and was validated in a sample of infants in the 1980s. The short form of the scale was developed in the late 1990s and contains six items, including four from the original scale, and two new items. This short form has not been validated and is the focus of this study. We use five samples drawn from twin studies in Australia, the UK, and the USA, and examine measurement invariance of the CHAOS short-form. We first compare alternate confirmatory factor models for each group; we next test between-group configural, metric and scalar invariance; finally, we examine predictive validity of the scale under different conditions. We find evidence that a two-factor configuration of the six items is more appropriate than the commonly used one-factor model. Second, we find measurement non-invariance across groups at the metric invariance step, with items performing differently depending on the sample. We also find inconsistent results in tests of predictive validity using family-level socioeconomic status and academic achievement as criterion variables. The results caution the continued use of the short-form CHAOS in its current form and recommend future revisions and development of the scale for use in developmental research.

The Development of Mental Health Difficulties in Young People With and Without Developmental Language Disorder: A Gene-Environment Interplay Study Using Polygenic Scores

PURPOSE

Young people with developmental language disorder (DLD) have poorer mental health than those without DLD. However, not all young people with DLD are equally affected; some have more mental health difficulties than others. What explains these differences remains unclear.

METHOD

Data from a community cohort study, the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children, were analyzed to investigate genetic and environmental influences on the development of mental health difficulties at five time points from childhood (7 years) to adolescence (16 years) in 6,387 young people (8.7% with DLD). Regression and latent class models were fitted to the data.

RESULTS

Polygenic scores (PGSs), indices of genetic risk, for common psychiatric disorders (major depressive disorder, anxiety disorder, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder) predicted mental health difficulties in both groups (with and without DLD). The presence of DLD, in some instances, amplified mental health difficulties for those with high genetic risk for common psychiatric disorders. Subgroups of children with similar developmental trajectories of mental health difficulties were identified. Young people with DLD were more likely than those without DLD to follow mental health subgroups characterized by consistently high levels of difficulties during development. PGSs, socioeconomic status, and the early home environment distinguished subgroups with low mental health difficulties from those characterized by high levels of difficulties, but these effects did not differ based on DLD status.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that, for the most part, both genetic and environmental risk affect the development of mental health difficulties in a cumulative way for young people with DLD (and those without). Some analysis did, however, suggest that genetic risk for common psychiatric disorders might manifest more strongly in those with DLD compared with those without DLD.

SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIAL

https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.22351012.

Parents' perceptions of the impact of COVID-19 and school transition on autistic children's friendships

LAY ABSTRACT

Research shows that moving schools can be a challenging time for autistic children and young people. One factor that has been found to support successful transition is friendships. However, there is little research exploring how transition between schools affects autistic children's friendships, and even less on how children's relationships during transition have been impacted by COVID-19. Fourteen parents of autistic children and young people were interviewed about their child's move to a new school and the impact they felt this had on their friendships. Parents described how moving with existing friends helped some children to find the transition less challenging. Others had differing experiences, with their children's friendships playing a much smaller role in the move. Differences were also seen with regard to the impact of COVID-19, with some parents speaking of how hard being away from friends was for their child, while others found the social restrictions a welcome break from interacting with peers. The study highlights how different the experiences of autistic individuals, and their parents, can be and the importance of a child-centred approach to transition support.

Explaining the influence of non-shared environment (NSE) on symptoms of behaviour problems from preschool to adulthood: mind the missing NSE gap

BACKGROUND

Individual differences in symptoms of behaviour problems in childhood and adolescence are not primarily due to nature or nurture - another substantial source of variance is non-shared environment (NSE). However, few specific environmental factors have been found to account for these NSE estimates. This creates a 'missing NSE' gap analogous to the 'missing heritability' gap, which refers to the shortfall in identifying DNA differences responsible for heritability. We assessed the extent to which variance in behaviour problem symptoms during the first two decades of life can be accounted for by measured NSE effects after controlling for genetics and shared environment.

METHODS

The sample included 4,039 pairs of twins in the Twins Early Development Study whose environments and symptoms of behaviour problems were assessed in preschool, childhood, adolescence and early adulthood via parent, teacher and self-reports. Twin-specific environments were assessed via parent-reports, including early life adversity, parental feelings, parental discipline and classroom environment. Multivariate longitudinal twin model-fitting was employed to estimate the variance in behaviour problem symptoms at each age that could be predicted by environmental measures at the previous age.

RESULTS

On average across childhood, adolescence and adulthood, parent-rated NSE composite measures accounted for 3.4% of the reliable NSE variance (1.0% of the total variance) in parent-rated, symptoms of behaviour problems, 0.5% (0.1%) in teacher-rated symptoms and 0.9% (0.5%) in self-rated symptoms after controlling for genetics, shared environment and error of measurement. Cumulatively across development, our parent-rated NSE measures in preschool, childhood and adolescence predicted 4.7% of the NSE variance (2.0% of the total variance) in parent-rated and 0.3% (0.2%) in self-rated behaviour problem symptoms in adulthood.

CONCLUSIONS

The missing NSE gap between variance explained by measured environments and total NSE variance is large. Home and classroom environments are more likely to influence behaviour problem symptoms via genetics than via NSE.

Do Children Think it is Important to Predict Learning and Behaviour Problems, and Do They Think Genetic Screening Has a Role to Play in This?

This study explores how capable young children are of thinking about a potential future that uses DNA screening to assess an individual's likelihood of experiencing learning or behaviour difficulties. Puppets and a scenario-based approach were used to ask children aged 4-10 (n = 165) whether they thought DNA screening might be helpful or harmful. A content analysis derived six categories: (1) 'Worried about being - and being seen as - different'; (2) 'Beliefs about the origins of learning and behaviour'; (3) 'Testing is harmful'; (4) 'Testing could help'; (5) 'How soon is too soon for testing?'; and (6) 'What's the point?'. Findings indicate young children, as key stakeholders, can make useful contributions to public debate in this important and controversial area.

A longitudinal study of the mental health of autistic children and adolescents and their parents during COVID-19: Part 2, qualitative findings

LAY ABSTRACT

We know that autistic children and young people, and their caregivers, are at increased risk of mental ill health. We asked whether the first 6 months of COVID-19 exacerbated that risk, and whether the implications were different for autistic pupils and their caregivers, than for those with other special educational needs and difficulties. In a linked paper, we found that caregivers of autistic pupils reported higher levels of depression and anxiety symptoms in their children than parents of children with other special educational needs and difficulties (Toseeb & Asbury, 2022). For pupils with other special educational needs and difficulties, their parent-reported anxiety symptoms eased over time while remaining high throughout for autistic pupils. There were no differences in mental health and wellbeing between caregivers of autistic pupils and those with other special educational needs and difficulties. Here, we used parents' written descriptions of their own and their child's mental health during the first 6 months of COVID-19 to explore these linked findings in greater depth. We identified strong evidence of worry and distress for all, but most prominently autistic children and young people. Our finding that worry and distress declined over time for pupils with other special educational needs and difficulties, but not for autistic pupils, was supported and we observed a few differences between caregivers. We also found evidence of wellbeing throughout the sample, and examples of some (mainly autistic) pupils benefitting from a reduction in demands (e.g. going to school). This has implications for our understanding of the school experience for autistic pupils. Findings suggest that the mental health of autistic children and young people may have been disproportionately affected during the first 6 months of COVID-19 and that careful consideration of optimal support, from both health and education perspectives, is vital.

A longitudinal study of the mental health of autistic children and adolescents and their parents during COVID-19: Part 1, quantitative findings

LAY ABSTRACT

Autistic children and adolescents, and their parents/carers, tend to experience more symptoms of anxiety and depression compared to those with other special educational needs and disabilities. The rapid change in society as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic is likely to have disproportionately affected autistic young people and their parents/carers. We investigated how the mental health of autistic young people, and their parents/carers, developed during the first lockdown in the United Kingdom and how it changed once schools fully reopened for face-to-face teaching approximately 6 months later. Parents/carers completed online standardised questionnaires about their own and their child's mental health at four time points between March 2020 and October 2020. We found that, throughout this period, autistic young people experienced more symptoms of anxiety and depression compared to those with other special educational needs and disabilities. Anxiety levels decreased as lockdown progressed and schools reopened for face-to-face teaching but only for those with other special educational needs and disabilities. For autistic young people, both anxiety and depression symptoms remained high throughout. There were no differences in the mental health of parents/carers of autistic children compared to those with other special educational needs and disabilities. These findings suggest that the mental health of autistic children and adolescents is likely to have been disproportionately affected during and after the first lockdown in the United Kingdom. In the second part of this article (Asbury & Toseeb, 2022), we attempt to explain these trends using qualitative data provided by parents during the same period.

Can genomic research make a useful contribution to social policy?

As genetic research into outcomes beyond health gathers pace, largely through the use of genome-wide association studies, interest from policy-makers has grown. In the last year, two UK reports have explored the policy implications of genomic research, one from the UK Government Office for Science and one from the Early Intervention Foundation. In this article, we explore areas of consensus between these two reports and use them to propose priorities for policy-makers as we prepare for what some have termed a 'genetic revolution'. Both reports agree on two clear recommendations for science and policy communities. One of these relates to public education and engagement, and the other to ensuring that genomic databases are ancestrally diverse. Both reports agree that-even if it is found to be a viable and ethical idea in the medium-term future-DNA data should not be incorporated into social policy before these two issues have been comprehensively addressed. In the article, we argue that scientists are taking the lead on tackling the diversity deficit but that there is a clear role for policy-makers to play in addressing low genetic literacy in society, and that this is a matter of urgency.

Alone in the COVID-19 lockdown: An exploratory study

Feelings of isolation have been prevalent worldwide since March 2020 due to COVID-19 pandemic lockdowns. This has prompted increased concerns about loneliness and related mental health problems. During the first UK COVID-19 lockdown, 71 participants were asked to share their high and low point stories from lockdown. These were analyzed using thematic analysis to explore how "aloneness" was experienced at this time. A deductive analyses supported three key facets of aloneness reported in the literature: emotional loneliness, social loneliness, and existential loneliness, as well as a more positive form of aloneness, solitude. An inductive analysis identified risk and protective factors for loneliness, comprising worry, lockdown changes, and poor mental health; and social contact, emotional contact, stability and simple life. The study highlights the importance of understanding how facets of aloneness interrelate, and how understanding risk and protective factors can help us to develop social and policy interventions to alleviate loneliness. In particular, solitude is proposed as a potential mechanism for alleviating loneliness, particularly existential loneliness, alongside more common social methods.

"My brain feels like a browser with 100 tabs open": A longitudinal study of teachers' mental health and well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic

BACKGROUND

Teaching and caring for pupils during the COVID-19 pandemic has been a challenge for many teachers, and its impact on teachers' mental health and well-being (MHWB) should be of great national and international concern.

AIM AND PARTICIPANTS

This study examines 24 primary and secondary school teachers' MHWB experiences across three time points (April, July, and November 2020) using longitudinal qualitative trajectory analysis.

METHOD

We used a mixture of inductive and deductive coding, based on the Job Demands-Resources Model, to identify the job demands (aspects of the job that can be physically or psychologically costly) and job resources (aspects of the job that can buffer the effects of job demands and promote achievement and growth) teachers reported experiencing across the three time points.

RESULTS

Generally, teachers' MHWB seemed to have declined throughout the pandemic, especially for primary school leaders. Six job demands contributed negatively to teachers' MHWB (i.e., uncertainty, workload, negative perception of the profession, concern for others' well-being, health struggles, and multiple roles) and three job resources contributed positively to their MHWB (i.e., social support, work autonomy, and coping strategies).

CONCLUSIONS

Policymakers and practitioners can support teachers' MHWB by engaging in more collaborative communication and ensuring greater accessibility to sources of social support. These discussions and provisions will be crucial in supporting teachers, and thereby the educational system, both during and after the pandemic.

School quality ratings are weak predictors of students' achievement and well-being

BACKGROUND

In England, all state-funded schools are inspected by an independent government agency, the Office for Standards in Education, Children's Services and Skills (Ofsted). Inspections aim to hold schools accountable and to promote the improvement of education, with the results made available to the public. Ofsted reports intend to index school quality, but their influence on students' individual outcomes has not been previously studied. The aim of the current study was to explore the extent to which school quality, as indexed by Ofsted ratings, is associated with students' educational achievement, well-being and school engagement.

METHODS

We use an England population-based sample of 4,391 individuals, for whom school performance at age 11 and GCSE grades at age 16 were accessed from the National Pupil Database, and who completed measures of well-being and school engagement at age 16.

RESULTS

We found that Ofsted ratings of secondary school quality accounted for 4% of the variance in students' educational achievement at age 16, which was further reduced to 1% of the variance after we accounted for prior school performance at age 11 and family socioeconomic status. Furthermore, Ofsted ratings were weak predictors of school engagement and student well-being, with an average correlation of .03.

CONCLUSION

Our findings suggest that differences in school quality, as indexed by Ofsted ratings, have little relation to students' individual outcomes. Accordingly, our results challenge the usefulness of Ofsted ratings as guides for parents and students when choosing secondary schools.

Evidence for specificity of polygenic contributions to attainment in English, maths and science during adolescence

How well one does at school is predictive of a wide range of important cognitive, socioeconomic, and health outcomes. The last few years have shown marked advancement in our understanding of the genetic contributions to, and correlations with, academic attainment. However, there exists a gap in our understanding of the specificity of genetic associations with performance in academic subjects during adolescence, a critical developmental period. To address this, the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children was used to conduct genome-wide association studies of standardised national English (N = 5983), maths (N = 6017) and science (N = 6089) tests. High SNP-based heritabilities (h2SNP) for all subjects were found (41-53%). Further, h2SNP for maths and science remained after removing shared variance between subjects or IQ (N = 3197-5895). One genome-wide significant single nucleotide polymorphism (rs952964, p = 4.86 × 10-8) and four gene-level associations with science attainment (MEF2C, BRINP1, S100A1 and S100A13) were identified. Rs952964 remained significant after removing the variance shared between academic subjects. The findings highlight the benefits of using environmentally homogeneous samples for genetic analyses and indicate that finer-grained phenotyping will help build more specific biological models of variance in learning processes and abilities.

'Like a rug had been pulled from under you': The impact of COVID-19 on teachers in England during the first six weeks of the UK lockdown

BACKGROUND

On 20 March 2020, in response to COVID-19, UK schools were closed to most pupils. Teachers were required to put remote teaching and learning in place with only two days' notice from the government.

AIMS

The current study explores teachers' experiences of this abrupt change to their working practices, and during the 5-6 weeks that followed.

SAMPLE

Twenty-four teachers from English state schools were interviewed, representing mainstream primary and secondary schools and a range of years of experience and seniority.

METHODS

Participants were asked to tell stories of three key scenes during the first 5-6 weeks of lockdown: a low point, a high point, and a turning point. A reflexive thematic analysis of their narratives was conducted.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

Six themes were identified: uncertainty, finding a way, worry for the vulnerable, importance of relationships, teacher identity, and reflections. Teachers' narratives suggest that, after an initial period of uncertainty they settled into the situation and found a way forward, supported by strong relationships. However, they remain extremely worried about the most vulnerable pupils and want more joined-up thinking from the government on how to support them effectively, along with clarity from policymakers to enable planning ahead. Teachers reflected on how to use their learning during this period to improve pupils' experiences of education post-COVID-19, and on how aspects of shared teacher identity have worked as stressors and coping mechanisms. These initial interviews form the baseline for a longitudinal interview study of teachers' experiences of COVID-19 in England.

Genetic and Environmental Influences on Adolescent Emotional Inertia in Daily Life

Emotional inertia represents the extent to which individuals' emotions tend to carry over from one time point to the next. High emotional inertia indicates low emotion regulation ability and has been associated with psychological maladjustment and mood disorders. However, the extent of genetic influence on emotional inertia, particularly in adolescents, is largely unknown. The current study examined genetic and environmental influences on individual differences in emotional inertia. This study followed a sample of 447 17-year-old same-sex UK twins (41% males) with an innovative intensive longitudinal daily diary design that captured their intra-individual emotion fluctuations over one month. Adolescents reported their positive and negative emotions once a day consecutively for up to 40 days. Time series analyses were used to construct emotional inertia and classical twin analyses were used to disentangle its genetic and environmental influences. The results showed that inertia for positive emotion was only modestly heritable and inertia for negative emotion showed no heritability at all. Both measures showed predominantly non-shared environmental influences. These findings highlight the importance of unique environmental influences in shaping individual differences in how well adolescents regulate their emotions and how easily they move from one emotional state to another in daily life. The importance of identifying specific environmental influences on emotional inertia is discussed, and suggestions of what those influences might be are offered.

Developing SENSES: Student experience of non-shared environment scales

Twin and adoption studies find that non-shared environmental (NSE) factors account for variance in most behavioural traits and offer an explanation for why genetically identical individuals differ. Using data from a qualitative hypothesis-generating study we designed a quantitative measure of pupils’ non-shared experiences at the end of formal compulsory education (SENSES: Student Experiences of Non-Shared Environment Scales). In Study 1 SENSES was administered to n = 117 16–19 year old twin pairs. Exploratory Factor Analysis yielded a 49-item 10 factor solution which explained 63% of the variance in responses. SENSES showed good internal consistency and convergent and divergent validity. In Study 2 this factor structure was confirmed with data from n = 926 twin pairs and external validity was demonstrated via significant correlations between 9 SENSES factors and both public examination performance and life satisfaction. These studies lend preliminary support to SENSES but further research is required to confirm its psychometric properties; to assess whether individual differences in SENSES are explained by NSE effects; and to explore whether SENSES explains variance in achievement and wellbeing.

Teacher beliefs about the aetiology of individual differences in cognitive ability, and the relevance of behavioural genetics to education

BACKGROUND

Despite a large body of research that has explored the influence of genetic and environmental factors on educationally relevant traits, few studies have explored teachers' beliefs about, or knowledge of, developments in behavioural genetics related to education.

AIMS

This study aimed to describe the beliefs and knowledge of UK teachers about behavioural genetics and its relevance to education, and to test for differences between groups of teachers based on factors including years of experience and age of children taught.

SAMPLE

Data were gathered from n = 402 teachers from a representative sample of UK schools. Teachers from primary and secondary schools, and from across the state and independent sectors, were recruited.

METHODS

An online questionnaire was used to gather demographic data (gender, age, years of experience, age of children taught, and state vs. independent) and also data on beliefs about the relative influence of nature and nurture on cognitive ability; knowledge of behavioural genetics; openness to genetic research in education; and mindset. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics, ANOVA, correlations, and multiple regression.

RESULTS

Teachers perceived genetic and environmental factors as equally important influences on cognitive ability and tended towards a growth mindset. Knowledge about behavioural genetics was low, but openness to learning more about genetics was high. Statistically significant differences were observed between groups based on age of children taught (openness higher among primary teachers) and state versus independent (more growth-minded in state sector).

CONCLUSIONS

Although teachers have a limited knowledge of behavioural genetics, they are keen to learn more.

Differences in exam performance between pupils attending selective and non-selective schools mirror the genetic differences between them

On average, students attending selective schools outperform their non-selective counterparts in national exams. These differences are often attributed to value added by the school, as well as factors schools use to select pupils, including ability, achievement and, in cases where schools charge tuition fees or are located in affluent areas, socioeconomic status. However, the possible role of DNA differences between students of different schools types has not yet been considered. We used a UK-representative sample of 4814 genotyped students to investigate exam performance at age 16 and genetic differences between students in three school types: state-funded, non-selective schools ('non-selective'), state-funded, selective schools ('grammar') and private schools, which are selective ('private'). We created a genome-wide polygenic score (GPS) derived from a genome-wide association study of years of education (EduYears). We found substantial mean genetic differences between students of different school types: students in non-selective schools had lower EduYears GPS compared to those in grammar (d = 0.41) and private schools (d = 0.37). Three times as many students in the top EduYears GPS decile went to a selective school compared to the bottom decile. These results were mirrored in the exam differences between school types. However, once we controlled for factors involved in pupil selection, there were no significant genetic differences between school types, and the variance in exam scores at age 16 explained by school type dropped from 7% to <1%. These results show that genetic and exam differences between school types are primarily due to the heritable characteristics involved in pupil admission.

Correction: Do MZ twins have discordant experiences of friendship? A qualitative hypothesis-generating MZ twin differences study

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0180521.].

Externalizing problems in childhood and adolescence predict subsequent educational achievement but for different genetic and environmental reasons

BACKGROUND

Childhood behavior problems predict subsequent educational achievement; however, little research has examined the etiology of these links using a longitudinal twin design. Moreover, it is unknown whether genetic and environmental innovations provide incremental prediction for educational achievement from childhood to adolescence.

METHODS

We examined genetic and environmental influences on parental ratings of behavior problems across childhood (age 4) and adolescence (ages 12 and 16) as predictors of educational achievement at age 16 using a longitudinal classical twin design.

RESULTS

Shared-environmental influences on anxiety, conduct problems, and peer problems at age 4 predicted educational achievement at age 16. Genetic influences on the externalizing behaviors of conduct problems and hyperactivity at age 4 predicted educational achievement at age 16. Moreover, novel genetic and (to a lesser extent) nonshared-environmental influences acting on conduct problems and hyperactivity emerged at ages 12 and 16, adding to the genetic prediction from age 4.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings demonstrate that genetic and shared-environmental factors underpinning behavior problems in early childhood predict educational achievement in midadolescence. These findings are consistent with the notion that early-childhood behavior problems reflect the initiation of a life-course persistent trajectory with concomitant implications for social attainment. However, we also find evidence that genetic and nonshared-environment innovations acting on behavior problems have implications for subsequent educational achievement, consistent with recent work arguing that adolescence represents a sensitive period for socioaffective development.

'Mr Cummings clearly does not understand the science of genetics and should maybe go back to school on the subject': an exploratory content analysis of the online comments beneath a controversial news story

An article published in the UK Guardian on 11/10/2013 with the headline 'Genetics outweighs teaching, Gove advisor tells his boss' reported a leaked document written by special advisor Dominic Cummings to the then UK Secretary of State for Education, Michael Gove. The article generated 3008 on-line reader comments from the public. These reader comments offer a naturalistic opportunity to understand public opinion regarding Cummings' controversial suggestions and ideas. We conducted a content analysis of n = 800 reader comments, coding them on the basis of level of agreement with the ideas and opinions expressed in the article. Of all aspects of education mentioned, Cummings' reported views on genetics were commented upon most frequently and were subject to the most opposition from commenters, but also the most support. Findings offer some insight into the challenges involved in conducting public discourse about the relevance of genes in education. We discuss the accuracy with which Cummings' views were presented and the effect this may have had on reader responses to the points being raised.

From classroom environment to mathematics achievement: The mediating role of self-perceived ability and subject interest

Drawing on Bandura's triadic reciprocal causation model, perceived classroom environment and three intrapersonal factors (mathematics self-efficacy, maths interest and academic self-concept) were considered as predictors of test performance in two correlated mathematics assessments: a public examination (GCSE) and an on-line test, both taken by UK pupils at age 16 (n = 6689). Intrapersonal factors were significantly associated with both test scores, even when the alternative score was taken into account. Classroom environment did not correlate with mathematics achievement once intrapersonal factors and alternative test performance were included in the model, but was associated with subject interest and academic self-concept. Perceptions of classroom environment may exercise an indirect influence on achievement by boosting interest and self-concept. In turn, these intrapersonal factors have direct relationships with achievement and were found to mediate the relationship between perceived classroom environment and maths performance. Findings and their implications for mathematics education are discussed.

•

Can learning environment (classroom) and intrapersonal factors (self-perceived ability and interest) predict maths at age 16?

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Intrapersonal factors are associated with maths performance at 16.

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Learning environments are associated with intrapersonal factors at this age.

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In particular, perceived maths classroom environment predicts interest in maths.

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Intrapersonal factors mediate the relationship between perceived classroom environment and maths performance.

Can Genetics Research Benefit Educational Interventions for All?

Pretty much everyone knows that our genes have at least something to do with how able or how high achieving we are. Some believe that we should not speak of this common knowledge, nor inquire into how genetic influence works or what it might mean. If we do not keep an open mind to the fact of genetic influence on academic achievement, however, then we cannot explore its possible implications. And if we do not consider the implications, then we cannot, as a society, harness any potential benefits or avoid possible pitfalls. So that's what this essay is about-exploring what behavioral genetics research might be able to offer to educational theory, policy, and practice. We cannot yet use biological information to make accurate predictions for all children. We do know, however, that academic achievement is heritable, which is to say that differences between individuals are influenced by differences in their DNA. If genes are part of the problem for some pupils (to take the negative spin on this), then it seems likely that studying them could be part of a solution. And that's what behavioral geneticists are trying to do-to chart and understand pathways from DNA to behavior and to identify interventions that can maximize outcomes for all. The fact is, though, that we have an awfully long way to go.

Clones in the classroom: a daily diary study of the nonshared environmental relationship between monozygotic twin differences in school experience and achievement

Do genetically identical children experience the same classroom differently? Are nonshared classroom experiences associated with differences in achievement? We designed a telephone diary measure which we administered every school day for 2 weeks to 122 10-year-olds in 61 monozygotic (MZ) twin pairs. Each pair shared genes, a classroom, peers and a teacher. We found that MZ twins did experience their classrooms differently (rMZ < 0.65 for all measures of classroom experience). Furthermore, MZ differences in peer problems were significantly associated with MZ differences in Mathematics achievement (ES = 8%); differences in positivity about school were significantly associated with differences in Mathematics (ES = 15%) and Science (ES = 8%) achievement; and differences in 'flow' in Science lessons were associated with differences in Science achievement (ES = 12%). In a multiple regression analysis, MZ differences in positivity about school significantly predicted MZ differences in Mathematics achievement (R2 = 0.16, p < .01) and MZ differences in 'flow' in Science significantly predicted MZ differences in Science achievement (R2 = 0.10, p < .05). These results indicate that MZ twins experience the classroom differently and that differences in their experience are associated with differences in their achievement.

Birthweight-discordance and differences in early parenting relate to monozygotic twin differences in behaviour problems and academic achievement at age 7

This longitudinal monozygotic (MZ) twin differences study explored associations between birthweight and early family environment and teacher-rated behaviour problems and academic achievement at age 7. MZ differences in anxiety, hyperactivity, conduct problems, peer problems and academic achievement correlated significantly with MZ differences in birthweight and early family environment, showing effect sizes of up to 2%. As predicted by earlier research, associations increased at the extremes of discordance, even in a longitudinal, cross-rater design, with effect sizes reaching as high as 12%. As with previous research some of these non-shared environmental (NSE) relationships appeared to operate partly as a function of SES, family chaos and maternal depression. Higher-risk families generally showed stronger negative associations.

X Inactivation as a Source of Behavioural Differences in Monozygotic Female Twins

Although members of monozygotic twin pairs are identical in genome sequence, they may differ in patterns of gene expression. One early and irreversible process affecting gene expression, which can create differences within pairs of female monozygotic twins, is X inactivation - one twin can express mainly paternally-received genes on the X chromosome while the other twin expresses mainly maternally-received genes. It follows that non-identical X chromosome expression may cause female monozygotic twins to correlate less strongly than male monozygotic twins on complex behavioural traits affected by X-linked loci. We tested this hypothesis using data from around 4000 same-sex twin pairs on 9 social, behavioural and cognitive measures at ages 2, 3 and 4. Consistent with our hypothesis, monozygotic males were generally more similar than monozygotic females. Three of four significant differences were in traits showing higher correlations in males than females, and these traits - prosocial behaviour, peer problems, and verbal ability - have all been proposed previously in the literature as being influenced by genes on the X chromosome. Interestingly, dizygotic twins showed the reverse pattern of correlations for similar variables, which is also consistent with the X inactivation hypothesis; taken together, then, our monozygotic and dizygotic results suggest the presence of quantitative trait loci on the X chromosome.

Nonshared environmental influences on individual differences in early behavioral development: a monozygotic twin differences study

The monozygotic (MZ) twin differences method was used to investigate nonshared environmental (NSE) influences independent of genetics. Four-year-old MZ twin pairs (N = 2,353) were assessed by their parents on 2 parenting measures (harsh parental discipline and negative parental feelings) and 4 behavioral measures (anxiety, prosocial behavior, hyperactivity, and conduct problems). Within-pair differences in parenting correlated significantly with MZ differences in behavior, with an average effect size of 3%. For the extreme 10% of the parenting-discordant and behavior-discordant distributions, the average NSE effect size was substantially greater (11%), suggesting a stronger NSE relationship for more discordant twins. NSE relationships were also stronger in higher risk environments, that is, families with lower socioeconomic status, greater family chaos, or greater maternal depression.

Why are children in the same family so different? Nonshared environment a decade later

OBJECTIVE

To review recent developments in the study of nonshared environment; that is, the environmental influences that make children growing up in the same family different, rather than similar.

METHOD

We review several recent influential books and papers on the subject of nonshared environment from the decade following the 1987 paper that highlighted its importance in psychological development.

RESULTS

Modest progress has been made toward identifying the specific aspects of the environment responsible for nonshared environment. Although parents treat their multiple children differently, such differential treatment accounts for only a small amount of nonshared environmental influence, once genetic factors are controlled. It has been suggested that some degree of nonshared environment may be due to the fact that siblings react differently to ostensibly shared environmental influences. Peer influence and other experiences outside the family may be more important sources of systematic nonshared environment.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite the difficulties encountered in identifying specific sources of nonshared environment, the fact remains that most environmental variance affecting the development of psychological dimensions and psychiatric disorders is not shared by children growing up in the same family. More research and theory are needed to explain why such siblings are so different. Chance, in the sense of idiosyncratic experiences, also needs to be considered.