Nanoparticle delivery of Cas9 ribonucleoprotein and donor DNA in vivo induces homology-directed DNA repair

Engineered-affibody conjugates contribute to the specific targeting and cellular retention of polyplexes in Erbb3 overexpressed lung cancer cells

Ligand-modified nanoparticles have shown the ability to specifically bind to tumor cells, improving retention in tumors after initial accumulation driven by the enhanced permeability and retention effect. These particles are typically engineered to bind to receptors overexpressed in cancer cells compared to healthy cells, such as the HER3 (Erbb3) receptor in lung cancer. In this study, we confirmed the overexpression of Erbb3 in various KRAS mutant lung cancer cell lines. An engineered affibody, well-established in previous research, was selected to target Erbb3 as a proof of concept. The affibody was integrated into the particle system via two distinct strategies. In the pre-functionalization approach, the affibody was conjugated to PEI or C14-PEI using SPDP as a linker. A spectral shift technique was then used to assess the affinity of the affibody and affibody conjugates toward Erbb3, allowing us to estimate the half-maximal effective concentration (EC50). Following synthesis and characterization, various polyplex formulations were prepared, including mRNA complexes with PEI-affibody, C14-PEI/PEI-affibody, and C14-PEI/C14-PEI-affibody. In the post-functionalization approach, polyplex formulations composed of different blends of C14-PEI and functionalized Azido-PEI were initially prepared and subsequently modified with DBCO-functionalized affibody via click chemistry. These formulations were prepared at various nitrogen to phosphate (N/P) ratios and characterized in terms of particle size, polydispersity index (PDI), and zeta potential. We also evaluated cellular uptake and eGFP mRNA expression to understand how the different formulations and conjugates influenced ligand-modified polyplex properties and delivery behavior. Our results demonstrated that affibody conjugates can specifically target Erbb3 and promote polyplex accumulation in KRAS-mutated lung cancer cells. We further analyzed the impact of conjugation methods and affibody density on polyplex design and performance. In conclusion, this study highlights the advantages of using specific targeting ligands. By optimizing formulation components, conjugation methods, and ligand density, various targeting ligands can be attached to polyplexes, enhancing cell-specific targeting, internalization, and retention. These findings provide valuable insights and a foundation for future targeted therapies and polyplex design.

Gold Nanoparticles Coated with Nucleic Acids: An Overview of the Different Bioconjugation Pathways

Gold-based nanomaterials have marked the last few decades with the emergence of new medical technologies presenting unique features. For instance, the conjugation of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) and nucleic acids has allowed the creation of nanocarriers with immense promise for gene therapy applications. Although the use of lipid particles as RNA delivery vectors has been broadly explored, this review aims to focus on the limited models reported for the conjugation of RNA with AuNPs. This is nonetheless unexpected regarding the manifold strategies existing to conjugate DNA to gold nanoparticles, which are exhaustively listed in this paper. Furthermore, new processes such as fast microwave and freezing methods have been described very recently, and it therefore seemed necessary to review these recent but promising conjugation pathways and to pick out those applicable to RNA. Indeed, RNA is considerably more attractive than DNA for therapeutic purposes, but its low stability involves numerous difficulties in the construction of effective nanodevices. However, from the many approaches developed for DNA, it turns out that just two of them are frequently used for the building of RNA delivery platforms based on gold: the salt-aging method with thiolated RNA strands and physisorption. However, both approaches present strong limitations such as the low stability of the Au-S bond and the potential cytotoxicity of polycations. To conclude, this general assessment highlights that the exploration of innovating approaches implying different chemistries is needed for the creation of more robust and shapeable AuNPs-RNA conjugates.

Advancing cancer gene therapy: the emerging role of nanoparticle delivery systems

Gene therapy holds immense potential due to its ability to precisely target oncogenes, making it a promising strategy for cancer treatment. Advances in genetic science and bioinformatics have expanded the applications of gene delivery technologies beyond detection and diagnosis to potential therapeutic interventions. However, traditional gene therapy faces significant challenges, including limited therapeutic efficacy and the rapid degradation of genetic materials in vivo. To address these limitations, multifunctional nanoparticles have been engineered to encapsulate and protect genetic materials, enhancing their stability and therapeutic effectiveness. Nanoparticles are being extensively explored for their ability to deliver various genetic payloads-including plasmid DNA, messenger RNA, and small interfering RNA-directly to cancer cells. This review highlights key gene modulation strategies such as RNA interference, gene editing systems, and chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) technologies, alongside a diverse array of nanoscale delivery systems composed of polymers, lipids, and inorganic materials. These nanoparticle-based delivery platforms aim to improve targeted transport of genetic material into cancer cells, ultimately enhancing the efficacy of cancer therapies.

Lipopeptide-mediated delivery of CRISPR/Cas9 ribonucleoprotein complexes for gene editing and correction

CRISPR/Cas gene editing is a highly promising technology for the treatment and even potential cure of genetic diseases. One of the major challenges for its therapeutic use is finding safe and effective vehicles for intracellular delivery of the CRISPR/Cas9 ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complex. In this study, we tested and characterized a series of novel fatty acid-modified versions of a previously reported Cas9 RNP carrier, consisting of a complex of the cell-penetrating peptide (CPP) LAH5 with Cas9 RNP and homology-directed DNA repair templates. Comparative experiments demonstrated that RNP/peptide nanocomplexes showed various improvements depending on the type of fatty acid modification. These improvements included enhanced stability in serum, improved membrane disruption capability and increased transfection efficacy. Cas9 RNP/oleic acid LAH5 peptide nanocomplexes showed the overall best performance for both gene editing and correction. Moreover, Cas9 RNP/oleic acid LAH5 nanocomplexes significantly protected the Cas9 protein cargo from enzymatic protease digestion. In addition, in vivo testing demonstrated successful gene editing after intramuscular administration. Despite the inherent barriers of the tightly organized muscle tissues, we achieved approximately 10 % gene editing in the skeletal muscle tissues when targeting the CAG-tdTomato locus in the transgenic Ai9 Cre-LoxP reporter mouse strain and 7 % gene editing when targeting the Ccr5 gene, without any observable short-term toxicity. In conclusion, the oleic acid-modified LAH5 peptide is an effective delivery platform for direct Cas9/RNP delivery, and holds great potential for the development of new CRISPR/Cas9-based therapeutic applications for the treatment of genetic diseases.

CRISPR/Cas9 Delivery Systems to Enhance Gene Editing Efficiency

CRISPR/Cas9 has revolutionized genome editing by enabling precise and efficient genetic modifications across multiple biological systems. Despite its growing therapeutic potential, key challenges remain in mitigating off-target effects, minimizing immunogenicity, and improving the delivery of CRISPR components into target cells. This review provides an integrated analysis of physical, viral, and non-viral delivery systems, highlighting recent advances in the use of lipid nanoparticles, polymeric carriers, and hybrid platforms. We also examine an often overlooked factor: the aggregation behavior of the Cas9 protein, which may interfere with cellular uptake, the encapsulation efficiency, and nuclear localization. By comparing delivery platforms and their reported editing outcomes, we identify critical physicochemical parameters that influence therapeutic success. Finally, we propose standardized methods to assess Cas9 encapsulation and aggregation and discuss translational barriers such as manufacturing scalability and regulatory requirements. These insights aim to guide the development of safer and more effective CRISPR/Cas9-based therapies.

Effect of Surface Modification of Gold Nanoparticles Loaded with Small Nucleic Acid Sequences on Cytotoxicity and Uptake: A Comparative Study In Vitro

Nanoparticle technology, particularly gold nanoparticles (AuNPs), is being developed for a wide range of applications, including as a delivery system of peptides or nucleic acids (NA). Their use in precision medicine requires detailed engineering of NP functionalization to optimize their function and minimize off-target toxicity. Two main routes can be found in the literature for the attachment of NA strands to AuNPs: covalent binding via a thiol group or passive adsorption onto a specially adapted coating previously applied to the metallic core. In this latter case, the coating is often a positively charged polymer, as polyethylenimine, which due to its high positive charge can induce cytotoxicity. Here, we investigated an innovative strategy based on the initial coating of the particles using calix[4]arene macrocycles bearing polyethylene glycol chains as an interesting alternative to polyethylenimine for NA adsorption. Because any molecular modification of AuNPs may affect the cytotoxicity and cellular uptake, we compared the behavior of these AuNPs to that of particles obtained via a classical thiol covalent attachment in MCF-7 and GC-1 spg cell lines. We showed a high biocompatibility of both AuNPs-NA internalized in vitro. The difference in subcellular localization of both AuNPs-NA in MCF-7 cells compared to GC-1 spg cells suggests that their subcellular target is cell- and coating-dependent. This finding provides valuable insights for developing alternative NA delivery systems with a high degree of tunability.

Specific macrophage RhoA targeting CRISPR-Cas9 for mitigating osteoclastogenesis-induced joint damage in inflammatory arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is the most prevalent inflammatory arthritis with unknown etiology, characterized by synovial inflammation and articular bone erosion. Studies have highlighted that inhibiting macrophage-induced osteoclastogenesis holds promise in mitigating bone destruction. However, specifically halting this pathological cascade remains a challenge for the management of RA. Here, initially, we identify that Ras homolog gene family member A (RhoA) is a pivotal target in inducing osteoclastogenesis of macrophages. Subsequently, we develop a strategy termed specific macrophages RhoA targeting (SMART), in which phosphatidylserine (PS)-enriched macrophage membranes are engineered to deliver macrophage-specific promoter-containing CRISPR-Cas9 plasmids (SMART-Cas9), enabling targeted editing of RhoA in RA joint macrophages. Multiscale imaging techniques confirm the highly specific targeted effect of SMART-Cas9 on the macrophages of inflamed joints. SMART-Cas9 successfully reduces osteoclastogenesis by macrophages, thus mitigating bone erosion by modulating cytoskeletal dynamics and immune balance in inflammatory arthritis, representing a therapeutic avenue for RA and other inflammatory bone diseases.

Lipid Nanoparticles for In Vivo Lung Delivery of CRISPR-Cas9 Ribonucleoproteins Allow Gene Editing of Clinical Targets

In the past 10 years, CRISPR-Cas9 has revolutionized the gene-editing field due to its modularity, simplicity, and efficacy. It has been applied for the creation of in vivo models, to further understand human biology, and toward the curing of genetic diseases. However, there remain significant delivery barriers for CRISPR-Cas9 application in the clinic, especially for in vivo and extrahepatic applications. In this work, high-throughput molecular barcoding techniques were used alongside traditional screening methodologies to simultaneously evaluate LNP formulations encapsulating ribonucleoproteins (RNPs) for in vitro gene-editing efficiency and in vivo biodistribution. This resulted in the identification of a lung-tropic LNP formulation, which shows efficient gene editing in endothelial and epithelial cells within the lung, targeting both model reporter and clinically relevant genomic targets. Further, this LNP shows no off-target indel formation in the liver, making it a highly specific extrahepatic delivery system for lung-editing applications.

Gene Editing for Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy: From Experimental Models to Emerging Therapies

The CRISPR system has emerged as a ground-breaking gene-editing tool, offering promising therapeutic potential for Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD), a severe genetic disorder affecting approximately 1 in 5000 male births globally. DMD is caused by mutations in the dystrophin gene, which encodes a critical membrane-associated protein essential for maintaining muscle structure, function and repair. Patients with DMD experience progressive muscle degeneration, loss of ambulation, respiratory insufficiency, and cardiac failure, with most succumbing to the disease by their third decade of life. Despite the well-characterized genetic basis of DMD, curative treatments- such as exon skipping therapies, micro-dystrophin, and steroids- remain elusive. Recent preclinical studies have demonstrated the promise of CRISPR-based approaches in restoring dystrophin expression across various models, including human cells, murine systems, and large animal models. These advancements highlight the potential of gene editing to fundamentally alter the trajectory of the disease. However, significant challenges persist, including immunogenicity, off-target effects, and limited editing efficiency, which hinder clinical translation. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the latest developments in CRISPR-based therapeutic strategies for DMD. It emphasizes the need for further innovation in gene-editing technologies, delivery systems, and rigorous safety evaluations to overcome current barriers and harness the full potential of CRISPR/Cas as a durable and effective treatment for DMD.

CRISPR/Cas9-Based therapeutics as a promising strategy for management of Alzheimer's disease: progress and prospects

CRISPR/Cas9 technology has revolutionized genetic and biomedical research in recent years. It enables editing and modulation of gene function with an unparalleled precision and effectiveness. Among the various applications and prospects of this technology, the opportunities it offers in unraveling the molecular underpinnings of a myriad of central nervous system diseases, including neurodegenerative disorders, psychiatric conditions, and developmental abnormalities, are unprecedented. In this review, we highlight the applications of CRISPR/Cas9-based therapeutics as a promising strategy for management of Alzheimer's disease and transformative impact of this technology on AD research. Further, we emphasize the role of CRISPR/Cas9 in generating accurate AD models for identification of novel therapeutic targets, besides the role of CRISPR-based therapies aimed at correcting AD-associated mutations and modulating the neurodegenerative processes. Furthermore, various delivery systems are reviewed and potential of the non-viral nanotechnology-based carriers for overcoming the critical limitations of effective delivery systems for CRISPR/Cas9 is discussed. Overall, this review highlights the promise and prospects of CRISPR/Cas9 technology for unraveling the intricate molecular processes underlying the development of AD, discusses its limitations, ethical concerns and several challenges including efficient delivery across the BBB, ensuring specificity, avoiding off-target effects. This article can be helpful in better understanding the applications of CRISPR/Cas9 based therapeutic approaches and the way forward utilizing enormous potential of this technology in targeted, gene-specific treatments that could change the trajectory of this debilitating and incurable illness.

Precisely Targeted Nanoparticles for CRISPR-Cas9 Delivery in Clinical Applications

Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats/CRISPR-associated protein 9 (CRISPR-Cas9), an emerging gene-editing technology, has recently gained rapidly increasing attention. However, the lack of efficient delivery vectors to deliver CRISPR-Cas9 to specific cells or tissues has hindered the translation of this biotechnology into clinical applications. Chemically synthesized nanoparticles (NPs), as attractive non-viral delivery platforms for CRISPR-Cas9, have been extensively investigated because of their unique characteristics, such as controllable size, high stability, multi-functionality, bio-responsive behavior, biocompatibility, and versatility in chemistry. In this review, the key considerations for the precise design of chemically synthesized-based nanoparticles include efficient encapsulation, cellular uptake, the targeting of specific tissues and cells, endosomal escape, and controlled release. We discuss cutting-edge strategies to integrate chemical modifications into non-viral nanoparticles that guide the CRISPR-Cas9 genome-editing machinery to specific edits. We also highlighted the rationale of intelligent nanoparticle design. In particular, we have summarized promising functional groups and molecules that can effectively optimize carrier function. In addition, this review focuses on advances in the widespread application of NPs delivery in the biomedical fields to promote the development of safe, specific, and efficient NPs for delivering CRISPR-Cas9 systems, providing references for accelerating their clinical translational applications.

Customizable virus-like particles deliver CRISPR-Cas9 ribonucleoprotein for effective ocular neovascular and Huntington's disease gene therapy

In vivo CRISPR gene editing holds enormous potential for various diseases. Ideally, CRISPR delivery should be cell type-specific and time-restricted for optimal efficacy and safety, but customizable methods are lacking. Here we develop a cell-tropism programmable CRISPR-Cas9 ribonucleoprotein delivery system (RIDE) based on virus-like particles. The efficiency of RIDE was comparable to that of adeno-associated virus and lentiviral vectors and higher than lipid nanoparticles. RIDE could be readily reprogrammed to target dendritic cells, T cells and neurons, and significantly ameliorated the disease symptoms in both ocular neovascular and Huntington's disease models via cell-specific gene editing. In addition, RIDE could efficiently edit the huntingtin gene in patients' induced pluripotent stem cell-derived neurons and was tolerated in non-human primates. This study is expected to facilitate the development of in vivo CRISPR therapeutics.

From resistance to remedy: the role of clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats system in combating antimicrobial resistance-a review

The growing challenge of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) poses a significant and increasing risk to public health worldwide, necessitating innovative strategies to restore the efficacy of antibiotics. The precise genome-editing abilities of the CRISPR-Cas system have made it a potent instrument for directly targeting and eliminating antibiotic resistance genes. This review explored the mechanisms and applications of CRISPR-Cas systems in combating AMR. The latest developments in CRISPR technology have broadened its potential use, encompassing programmable antibacterial agents and improved diagnostic methods for antibiotic-resistant infections. Nevertheless, several challenges must be overcome for clinical success, including the survival of resistant bacteria, generation of anti-CRISPR proteins that reduce effectiveness, and genetic modifications that change target sequences. Additionally, the efficacy of CRISPR-Cas systems differs across bacterial species, making their universal application challenging. After overcoming these challenges, CRISPR-Cas has the potential to revolutionize AMR treatment, restore antibiotic efficacy, and reshape infection control.

Rationally Engineering Pro-Proteins and Membrane-Penetrating α‑Helical Polypeptides for Genome Editing Toward Choroidal Neovascularization Treatment

Ribonucleoprotein (RNP)-based CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing holds great potential for the treatment of choroidal neovascularization (CNV), which however, is challenged by the lack of efficient cytosolic protein delivery tools. Herein, reversibly-phosphorylated pro-proteins (P-proteins) with conjugated adenosine triphosphate (ATP) tags are engineered and coupled with a membrane-penetrating, guanidine-enriched, α-helical polypeptide (LGP) to mediate robust and universal cytosolic delivery. LGP forms salt-stable nanocomplexes (NCs) with P-proteins via electrostatic interaction and salt bridging, and the helix-assisted, strong membrane activities of LGP enabled efficient cellular internalization and endolysosomal escape of NCs. Therefore, this approach allows efficient cytosolic delivery of a wide range of protein cargoes and maintains their bioactivities due to endolysosomal acidity-triggered traceless restoration of P-proteins. Notably, intravitreally delivered LGP/P-RNP NCs targeting hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α) induce pronounced gene disruption to downregulate pro-angiogenic factors and alleviate subretinal fibrosis, ultimately provoking robust therapeutic efficacy in CNV mice. Such a facile and versatile platform provides a powerful tool for cytosolic protein delivery and genome editing, and it holds promising potential for the treatment of CNV-associated diseases, such as age-related macular degeneration.

Remotely Sequential Activation of Biofunctional MXenes for Spatiotemporally Controlled Photothermal Cancer Therapy Integrated with Multimodal Imaging

Spatiotemporally controlled cancer therapy may offer great advantages in precision medicine, but still remains some challenges in programmed sequential release and co-localization of components at target sites. Herein, a MXene-based nanoprobe (TCC@M) is meticulously designed by engineering of photodynamically activated CRISPR-Cas9 and cancer cell membrane-camouflaged Ti3C2 MXenes for targeting delivery and spatiotemporally controlled gene regulation followed by enhanced photothermal therapy (PTT) via two near-infrared irradiations. The first irradiation can activate the photosensitizer bound in cancer cells internalized TCC@M to release Cas9 ribonucleoprotein (RNP) by photodynamic effect. The released Cas9 RNP then enters the nuclei directed by the fused nuclear localization sequence in Cas9 to cleave the heat shock protein (HSP) 90α gene, which greatly reduces the expression of HSP90α protein and thus effectively sensitizes cancer cells to heat, leading to enhanced PTT at a mild temperature (<45 °C) risen by Ti₃C₂ MXenes under the second irradiation. Simultaneously, TCC@M can produce fluorescence, photoacoustic, and thermal imaging signals to guide the optimal irradiation timing. The in vivo studies have demonstrated the spatiotemporally selective therapeutic efficacy of the designed TCC@M. This innovative approach presents an effective integration of gene regulation and enhanced PTT, exemplifying a precise cancer treatment strategy.

Anionic polymer coating for enhanced delivery of Cas9 mRNA and sgRNA nanoplexes

Polymeric carriers have long been recognized as some of the most effective and promising systems for nucleic acid delivery. In this study, we utilized an anionic di-block co-polymer, PEG-PLE, to enhance the performance of lipid-modified PEI (C14-PEI) nanoplexes for delivering Cas9 mRNA and sgRNA targeting KRAS G12S mutations in lung cancer cells. Our results demonstrated that PEG-PLE, when combined with C14-PEI at a weight-to-weight ratio of 0.2, produced nanoplexes with a size of approximately 140 nm, a polydispersity index (PDI) of 0.08, and a zeta potential of around -1 mV. The PEG-PLE/C14-PEI nanoplexes at this ratio were observed to be both non-cytotoxic and effective in encapsulating Cas9 mRNA and sgRNA. Confocal microscopy imaging revealed efficient endosomal escape and intracellular distribution of the RNAs. Uptake pathway inhibition studies indicated that the internalization of PEG-PLE/C14-PEI primarily involves scavenger receptors and clathrin-mediated endocytosis. Compared to C14-PEI formulations, PEG-PLE/C14-PEI demonstrated a significant increase in luciferase mRNA expression and gene editing efficiency, as confirmed by T7EI and ddPCR, in A549 cells. Sanger sequencing identified insertions and/or deletions around the PAM sequence, with a total of 69% indels observed. Post-transfection, the KRAS-ERK pathway was downregulated, resulting in significant increases in cell apoptosis and inhibition of cell migration. Taken together, this study reveals a new and promising formulation for CRISPR delivery as potential lung cancer treatment.

CRISPR-Cas9 Gene Therapy: Non-Viral Delivery and Stimuli-Responsive Nanoformulations

The CRISPR-Cas9 technology, one of the groundbreaking genome editing methods for addressing genetic disorders, has emerged as a powerful, precise, and efficient tool. However, its clinical translation remains hindered by challenges in delivery efficiency and targeting specificity. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the structural features, advantages, and potential applications of various non-viral and stimuli-responsive systems, examining recent progress to emphasize the potential to address these limitations and advance CRISPR-Cas9 therapeutics. We describe how recent reports emphasize that nonviral vectors, including lipid-based nanoparticles, extracellular vesicles, polymeric nanoparticles, gold nanoparticles, and mesoporous silica nanoparticles, can offer diverse advantages to enhance stability, cellular uptake, and biocompatibility, based on their structures and physio-chemical stability. We also summarize recent progress on stimuli-responsive nanoformulations, a type of non-viral vector, to introduce precision and control in CRISPR-Cas9 delivery. Stimuli-responsive nanoformulations are designed to respond to pH, redox states, and external triggers, facilitate controlled and targeted delivery, and minimize off-target effects. The insights in our review suggest future challenges for clinical applications of gene therapy technologies and highlight the potential of delivery systems to enhance CRISPR-Cas9's clinical efficacy, positioning them as pivotal tools for future gene-editing therapies.

Treating genetic blood disorders in the era of CRISPR-mediated genome editing

In the setting of monogenic disease, advances made in genome editing technologies can, in principle, be deployed as a therapeutic strategy to precisely correct a specific gene mutation in an affected cell type and restore functionality. Using the β-hemoglobinopathies and hemophilia as exemplars, we review recent experimental breakthroughs using CRISPR-derived genome editing technology that have translated to significant improvements in the management of inherited hematologic disorders. Yet there are also challenges facing the use of CRISPR-mediated genome editing in these patients; we discuss possible ways to obviate those issues for furtherance of clinical benefit.

Zwitterionic polymers with high serum tolerance for intracellular protein delivery

Cationic polymers have been widely developed as carriers for intracellular protein delivery, but face tough challenges such as poor serum tolerance and inevitable material toxicity. Here, we present a type of phase-separating polymer with an anionic surface to address the above issues. A cationic dendrimer is first modified with a hydrophobic moiety to obtain a pH-responsive amphiphilic polymer, which is further conjugated with anionic benzenesulphonate at different grafting degrees. The benzenesulphonate modification facilely changes the hydrophobicity of the polymer and reduces the material cytotoxicity. Interestingly, the polymer can co-assemble with cargo proteins to form nanovesicles for intracellular protein delivery. The benzenesulphonate on the polymer surface bolsters the resistance of polymers to serum proteins, allowing the materials to maintain high delivery efficacy in culture media containing abundant serum proteins. This study provides a facile strategy to design materials with high serum tolerance for intracellular protein delivery.

Aptamer-conjugated gold nanoparticles enable oligonucleotide delivery into muscle stem cells to promote regeneration of dystrophic muscles

Inefficient targeting of muscle stem cells (MuSCs), also called satellite cells, represents a major bottleneck of current therapeutic strategies for muscular dystrophies, as it precludes the possibility of promoting compensatory regeneration. Here we describe a muscle-targeting delivery platform, based on gold nanoparticles, that enables the release of therapeutic oligonucleotides into MuSCs. We demonstrate that AuNPs conjugation to an aptamer against α7/β1 integrin dimers directs either local or systemic delivery of microRNA-206 to MuSCs, thereby promoting muscle regeneration and improving muscle functionality, in a mouse model of Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy. We show here that this platform is biocompatible, non-toxic, and non-immunogenic, and it can be easily adapted for the release of a wide range of therapeutic oligonucleotides into diseased muscles.

Advances in CRISPR-Cas technology and its applications: revolutionising precision medicine

CRISPR-Cas (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats-CRISPR-associated proteins) has undergone marked advancements since its discovery as an adaptive immune system in bacteria and archaea, emerged as a potent gene-editing tool after the successful engineering of its synthetic guide RNA (sgRNA) toward the targeting of specific DNA sequences with high accuracy. Besides its DNA editing ability, further-developed Cas variants can also edit the epigenome, rendering the CRISPR-Cas system a versatile tool for genome and epigenome manipulation and a pioneering force in precision medicine. This review explores the latest advancements in CRISPR-Cas technology and its therapeutic and biomedical applications, highlighting its transformative impact on precision medicine. Moreover, the current status of CRISPR therapeutics in clinical trials is discussed. Finally, we address the persisting challenges and prospects of CRISPR-Cas technology.

Nanomaterials for intelligent CRISPR-Cas tools: improving environment sustainability

Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)/CRISPR-associated protein (Cas) is a desirable gene modification tool covering a wide area in various sectors of medicine, agriculture, and microbial biotechnology. The role of this incredible genetic engineering technology has been extensively investigated; however, it remains formidable with cargo choices, nonspecific delivery, and insertional mutagenesis. Various nanomaterials including lipid, polymeric, and inorganic are being used to deliver the CRISPR-Cas system. Progress in nanomaterials could potentially address these challenges by accelerating precision targeting, cost-effectiveness, and one-step delivery. In this review, we highlighted the advances in nanotechnology and nanomaterials as smart delivery systems for CRISPR-Cas so as to ameliorate applications for environmental remediation including biomedical research and healthcare, strategies for mitigating antimicrobial resistance, and to be used as nanofertilizers for enhancing crop growth, and reducing the environmental impact of traditional fertilizers. The timely co-evolution of nanotechnology and CRISPR technologies has contributed to smart novel nanostructure hybrids for improving the onerous tasks of environmental remediation and biological sustainability.

Gold Nanoparticles in Nanomedicine: Unique Properties and Therapeutic Potential

Gold nanoparticles (NPs) have demonstrated significance in several important fields, including drug delivery and anticancer research, due to their unique properties. Gold NPs possess significant optical characteristics that enhance their application in biosensor development for diagnosis, in photothermal and photodynamic therapies for anticancer treatment, and in targeted drug delivery and bioimaging. The broad surface modification possibilities of gold NPs have been utilized in the delivery of various molecules, including nucleic acids, drugs, and proteins. Moreover, gold NPs possess strong localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) properties, facilitating their use in surface-enhanced Raman scattering for precise and efficient biomolecule detection. These optical properties are extensively utilized in anticancer research. Both photothermal and photodynamic therapies show significant results in anticancer treatments using gold NPs. Additionally, the properties of gold NPs demonstrate potential in other biological areas, particularly in antimicrobial activity. In addition to delivering antigens, peptides, and antibiotics to enhance antimicrobial activity, gold NPs can penetrate cell membranes and induce apoptosis through various intracellular mechanisms. Among other types of metal NPs, gold NPs show more tolerable toxicity capacity, supporting their application in wide-ranging areas. Gold NPs hold a special position in nanomaterial research, offering limited toxicity and unique properties. This review aims to address recently highlighted applications and the current status of gold NP research and to discuss their future in nanomedicine.

Engineering branched ionizable lipid for hepatic delivery of clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat-Cas9 ribonucleoproteins

The delivery of the CRISPR/Cas ribonucleoprotein (RNP) has received attention for clinical applications owing to its high efficiency with few off-target effects. Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) are potential non-viral vectors for the delivery of RNPs. Herein, we report the engineering of a branched scaffold structure of ionizable lipids for the hepatic delivery of RNPs. Both the total carbon number and branching position were critical for the functional delivery of RNPs. The optimal ionizable lipid exhibited a more than 98% reduction in transthyretin protein after a single dose with no obvious signs of toxicity. The mechanistic study has revealed that optimal LNPs have a unique "flower-like structure" that depends on both the lipid structure and the payload and that these LNPs accumulate in hepatocytes in an apolipoprotein E-independent manner. These results represent a major step toward the realization of in vivo genome editing therapy via RNP delivery using chemically synthesizable LNP formulations.

Lung and liver editing by lipid nanoparticle delivery of a stable CRISPR-Cas9 ribonucleoprotein

Lipid nanoparticle (LNP) delivery of clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat (CRISPR) ribonucleoproteins (RNPs) could enable high-efficiency, low-toxicity and scalable in vivo genome editing if efficacious RNP-LNP complexes can be reliably produced. Here we engineer a thermostable Cas9 from Geobacillus stearothermophilus (GeoCas9) to generate iGeoCas9 variants capable of >100× more genome editing of cells and organs compared with the native GeoCas9 enzyme. Furthermore, iGeoCas9 RNP-LNP complexes edit a variety of cell types and induce homology-directed repair in cells receiving codelivered single-stranded DNA templates. Using tissue-selective LNP formulations, we observe genome-editing levels of 16‒37% in the liver and lungs of reporter mice that receive single intravenous injections of iGeoCas9 RNP-LNPs. In addition, iGeoCas9 RNPs complexed to biodegradable LNPs edit the disease-causing SFTPC gene in lung tissue with 19% average efficiency, representing a major improvement over genome-editing levels observed previously using viral or nonviral delivery strategies. These results show that thermostable Cas9 RNP-LNP complexes can expand the therapeutic potential of genome editing.

A platform to deliver single and bi-specific Cas9/guide RNA to perturb genes in vitro and in vivo

Although CRISPR-Cas9 technology is poised to revolutionize the treatment of diseases with underlying genetic mutations, it faces some significant issues limiting clinical entry. They include low-efficiency in vivo systemic delivery and undesired off-target effects. Here, we demonstrate, by modifying Cas9 with phosphorothioate-DNA oligos (PSs), that one can efficiently deliver single and bi-specific CRISPR-Cas9/guide RNA (gRNA) dimers in vitro and in vivo with reduced off-target effects. We show that PS-Cas9/gRNA-mediated gene knockout preserves chimeric antigen receptor T cell viability and expansion in vitro and in vivo. PS-Cas9/gRNA mediates gene perturbation in patient-derived tumor organoids and mouse xenograft tumors, leading to potent tumor antitumor effects. Further, HER2 antibody-PS-Cas9/gRNA conjugate selectively perturbs targeted genes in HER2+ ovarian cancer xenografts in vivo. Moreover, we created bi-specific PS-Cas9 with two gRNAs to target two adjacent sequences of the same gene, leading to efficient targeted gene disruption ex vivo and in vivo with markedly reduced unintended gene perturbation. Thus, the cell-penetrating PS-Cas9/gRNA can achieve efficient systemic delivery and precision in gene disruption.

Enrichment of T-lymphocytes from leukemic blood using inertial microfluidics toward improved chimeric antigen receptor-T cell manufacturing

Chimeric antigen receptor cell therapy is a successful immunotherapy for the treatment of blood cancers. However, hurdles in their manufacturing remain including efficient isolation and purification of the T-cell starting material. Herein, we describe a one-step separation based on inertial spiral microfluidics for efficient enrichment of T-cells in B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) and B-cell chronic lymphocytic leukemia patient's samples. In healthy donors used to optimize the process, the lymphocyte purity was enriched from 65% (SD ± 0.2) to 91% (SD ± 0.06) and T-cell purity was enriched from 45% (SD ± 0.1) to 73% (SD ± 0.02). Leukemic samples had higher starting B-cells compared to the healthy donor samples. Efficient enrichment and recovery of lymphocytes and T-cells were achieved in ALL samples with B-cells, monocytes and leukemic blasts depleted by 80% (SD ± 0.09), 89% (SD ± 0.1) and 74% (SD ± 0.09), respectively, and a 70% (SD ± 0.1) T-cell recovery. Chronic lymphocytic leukemia samples had lower T-cell numbers, and the separation process was less efficient compared to the ALL. This study demonstrates the use of inertial microfluidics for T-cell enrichment and depletion of B-cell blasts in ALL, suggesting its potential to address a key bottleneck of the chimeric antigen receptor-T manufacturing workflow.

Delivery approaches of immunomodulatory nucleic acids for cancer therapy

Messenger RNA (mRNA) vaccines have made remarkable public health contributions during the pandemic and initiated a new era for nucleic acid-based therapeutics. With the unique strength of nucleic acids, including not only mRNA but also DNA, microRNA, small interfering RNA (siRNA), and other nucleic acids, either in tuning off genes or introducing function, nucleic acid therapeutics have been regarded as potential candidates for the treatment of many different diseases, especially for the immunomodulation in cancer. However, the scope of the applications was limited by the challenges in delivery due to intrinsic properties of nucleic acids including low stability, immunogenicity, and toxicity. Bioengineering approaches toward efficient and targeted delivery of therapeutic nucleic acids have gained momentum in clinical applications in the past few decades. Recent advances in the biotechnological approaches for the delivery of mRNA, siRNA, and clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)/Cas for immunomodulatory are promising alternatives in designing future cancer immunotherapy.

CRISPR/Cas9: an overview of recent developments and applications in cancer research

Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)-CRISPR associated protein 9 (Cas9) has risen as a potent gene editing method with vast potential across numerous domains, including its application in cancer research and therapy. This review article provides an extensive overview of the research that has been done so far on CRISPR-Cas9 with an emphasis on how it could be utilized in the treatment of cancer. The authors go into the underlying ideas behind CRISPR-Cas9, its mechanisms of action, and its application for the study of cancer biology. Furthermore, the authors investigate the various uses of CRISPR-Cas9 in cancer research, spanning from the discovery of genes and the disease to the creation of novel therapeutic approaches. The authors additionally discuss the challenges and limitations posed by CRISPR-Cas9 technology and offer insights into the potential applications and future directions of this cutting-edge field of research. The article intends to consolidate the present understanding and stimulate more research into CRISPR-Cas9's promise as a game-changing tool for cancer research and therapy.

Unleashing the potential: type I CRISPR-Cas systems in actinomycetes for genome editing

Covering: up to the end of 2023Type I CRISPR-Cas systems are widely distributed, found in over 40% of bacteria and 80% of archaea. Among genome-sequenced actinomycetes (particularly Streptomyces spp.), 45.54% possess type I CRISPR-Cas systems. In comparison to widely used CRISPR systems like Cas9 or Cas12a, these endogenous CRISPR-Cas systems have significant advantages, including better compatibility, wide distribution, and ease of operation (since no exogenous Cas gene delivery is needed). Furthermore, type I CRISPR-Cas systems can simultaneously edit and regulate genes by adjusting the crRNA spacer length. Meanwhile, most actinomycetes are recalcitrant to genetic manipulation, hindering the discovery and engineering of natural products (NPs). The endogenous type I CRISPR-Cas systems in actinomycetes may offer a promising alternative to overcome these barriers. This review summarizes the challenges and recent advances in CRISPR-based genome engineering technologies for actinomycetes. It also presents and discusses how to establish and develop genome editing tools based on type I CRISPR-Cas systems in actinomycetes, with the aim of their future application in gene editing and the discovery of NPs in actinomycetes.

Polymers as Efficient Non-Viral Gene Delivery Vectors: The Role of the Chemical and Physical Architecture of Macromolecules

Gene therapy is the technique of inserting foreign genetic elements into host cells to achieve a therapeutic effect. Although gene therapy was initially formulated as a potential remedy for specific genetic problems, it currently offers solutions for many diseases with varying inheritance patterns and acquired diseases. There are two major groups of vectors for gene therapy: viral vector gene therapy and non-viral vector gene therapy. This review examines the role of a macromolecule's chemical and physical architecture in non-viral gene delivery, including their design and synthesis. Polymers can boost circulation, improve delivery, and control cargo release through various methods. The prominent examples discussed include poly-L-lysine, polyethyleneimine, comb polymers, brush polymers, and star polymers, as well as hydrogels and natural polymers and their modifications. While significant progress has been made, challenges still exist in gene stabilization, targeting specificity, and cellular uptake. Overcoming cytotoxicity, improving delivery efficiency, and utilizing natural polymers and hybrid systems are vital factors for prospects. This comprehensive review provides an illuminating overview of the field, guiding the way toward innovative non-viral-based gene delivery solutions.

Delivery of PAMAM dendrimers and dendriplexes across natural barriers (blood-brain barrier and placental barrier) in healthy pregnant mice

Gene therapy is an important tool for treating fetal diseases that allows for the delivery and integration of therapeutic genes into the genome of cells carrying mutations. Nanomolecules, like PAMAM dendrimers, have recently come into wider use for carrying vectors as they have several advantages over viral vectors. Namely, (1) tunable size and surface chemistry, (2) uniform size, (3) the ability to target specific tissues, and (4) the ability to carry large biomolecules and drugs. Recently, we demonstrated that 4th generation (G4) PAMAM dendrimer with a cystamine core and a non-toxic surface having 90% -OH and 10% -NH2 groups (D-Cys) could cross the blood-brain barrier following injection into the bloodstream. In the current study, as a proof of concept, we delivered the dendrimers alone (D-Cys) tagged with Cy5.5 (D-Cys-cy5.5) to healthy pregnant C57BL/6J mice to determine the fate of these dendrimers in the pregnant mice as well as in the fetus. Systematic diffusion of the D-Cys-cy5.5 was evaluated on gestational day 17 (3 days after injection) using in vivo imaging. This revealed that the dendrimer was taken up into circulation and away from the injection site. Analysis of sections by fluorescence microscopy showed that D-Cys-cy5.5 was able to successfully cross the maternal blood-brain barrier. However, analysis of the fetal brains failed to detect dendrimers in the central nervous system (CNS). Instead, they appeared to be retained in the placenta. This is one of the first studies to analyze the distribution of surface-modified PAMAM dendrimer in the pregnant mouse and fetus following systemic injection.

Advances in Nanoparticles as Non-Viral Vectors for Efficient Delivery of CRISPR/Cas9

The clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat (CRISPR)/Cas9 system is a gene-editing technology. Nanoparticle delivery systems have attracted attention because of the limitations of conventional viral vectors. In this review, we assess the efficiency of various nanoparticles, including lipid-based, polymer-based, inorganic, and extracellular vesicle-based systems, as non-viral vectors for CRISPR/Cas9 delivery. We discuss their advantages, limitations, and current challenges. By summarizing recent advancements and highlighting key strategies, this review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the role of non-viral delivery systems in advancing CRISPR/Cas9 technology for clinical applications and gene therapy.

Lung-specific supramolecular nanoparticles for efficient delivery of therapeutic proteins and genome editing nucleases

Protein therapeutics play a critical role in treating a large variety of diseases, ranging from infections to genetic disorders. However, their delivery to target tissues beyond the liver, such as the lungs, remains a great challenge. Here, we report a universally applicable strategy for lung-targeted protein delivery by engineering Lung-Specific Supramolecular Nanoparticles (LSNPs). These nanoparticles are designed through the hierarchical self-assembly of metal-organic polyhedra (MOP), featuring a customized surface chemistry that enables protein encapsulation and specific lung affinity after intravenous administration. Our design of LSNPs not only addresses the hurdles of cell membrane impermeability of protein and nonspecific tissue distribution of protein delivery, but also shows exceptional versatility in delivering various proteins, including those vital for anti-inflammatory and CRISPR-based genome editing to the lung, and across multiple animal species, including mice, rabbits, and dogs. Notably, the delivery of antimicrobial proteins using LSNPs effectively alleviates acute bacterial pneumonia, demonstrating a significant therapeutic potential. Our strategy not only surmounts the obstacles of tissue-specific protein delivery but also paves the way for targeted treatments in genetic disorders and combating antibiotic resistance, offering a versatile solution for precision protein therapy.

Advances in CRISPR/Cas systems-based cell and gene therapy

Cell and gene therapy are innovative biomedical strategies aimed at addressing diseases at their genetic origins. CRISPR (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats) systems have become a groundbreaking tool in cell and gene therapy, offering unprecedented precision and versatility in genome editing. This chapter explores the role of CRISPR in gene editing, tracing its historical development and discussing biomolecular formats such as plasmid, RNA, and protein-based approaches. Next, we discuss CRISPR delivery methods, including viral and non-viral vectors, followed by examining the various engineered CRISPR variants for their potential in gene therapy. Finally, we outline emerging clinical applications, highlighting the advancements in CRISPR for breakthrough medical treatments.

CRISPR technology in human diseases

Gene editing is a growing gene engineering technique that allows accurate editing of a broad spectrum of gene-regulated diseases to achieve curative treatment and also has the potential to be used as an adjunct to the conventional treatment of diseases. Gene editing technology, mainly based on clustered regularly interspaced palindromic repeats (CRISPR)-CRISPR-associated protein systems, which is capable of generating genetic modifications in somatic cells, provides a promising new strategy for gene therapy for a wide range of human diseases. Currently, gene editing technology shows great application prospects in a variety of human diseases, not only in therapeutic potential but also in the construction of animal models of human diseases. This paper describes the application of gene editing technology in hematological diseases, solid tumors, immune disorders, ophthalmological diseases, and metabolic diseases; focuses on the therapeutic strategies of gene editing technology in sickle cell disease; provides an overview of the role of gene editing technology in the construction of animal models of human diseases; and discusses the limitations of gene editing technology in the treatment of diseases, which is intended to provide an important reference for the applications of gene editing technology in the human disease.

Adenine base editing-mediated exon skipping restores dystrophin in humanized Duchenne mouse model

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) affecting 1 in 3500-5000 live male newborns is the frequently fatal genetic disease resulted from various mutations in DMD gene encoding dystrophin protein. About 70% of DMD-causing mutations are exon deletion leading to frameshift of open reading frame and dystrophin deficiency. To facilitate translating human DMD-targeting CRISPR therapeutics into patients, we herein establish a genetically humanized mouse model of DMD by replacing exon 50 and 51 of mouse Dmd gene with human exon 50 sequence. This humanized mouse model recapitulats patient's DMD phenotypes of dystrophin deficiency and muscle dysfunction. Furthermore, we target splicing sites in human exon 50 with adenine base editor to induce exon skipping and robustly restored dystrophin expression in heart, tibialis anterior and diaphragm muscles. Importantly, systemic delivery of base editor via adeno-associated virus in the humanized male mouse model improves the muscle function of DMD mice to the similar level of wildtype ones, indicating the therapeutic efficacy of base editing strategy in treating most of DMD types with exon deletion or point mutations via exon-skipping induction.

Functionalized extracellular nanovesicles as advanced CRISPR delivery systems

The clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat (CRISPR) system, an emerging tool for genome editing, has garnered significant public interest for its potential in treating genetic diseases. Despite the rapid advancements in CRISPR technology, the progress in developing effective delivery strategies lags, impeding its clinical application. Extracellular nanovesicles (EVs), either in their endogenous forms or with engineered modifications, have emerged as a promising solution for CRISPR delivery. These EVs offer several advantages, including high biocompatibility, biological permeability, negligible immunogenicity, and straightforward production. Herein, we first summarize various types of functional EVs for CRISPR delivery, such as unmodified, modified, engineered virus-like particles (VLPs), and exosome-liposome hybrid vesicles, and examine their distinct intracellular pathways. Then, we outline the cutting-edge techniques for functionalizing extracellular vesicles, involving producer cell engineering, vesicle engineering, and virus-like particle engineering, emphasizing the diverse CRISPR delivery capabilities of these nanovesicles. Lastly, we address the current challenges and propose rational design strategies for their clinical translation, offering future perspectives on the development of functionalized EVs.

Nonviral CRISPR/Cas9 mutagenesis for streamlined generation of mouse lung cancer models

Functional analysis in mouse models is necessary to establish the involvement of a set of genetic variations in tumor development. A modeling platform to facilitate and cost-effectively analyze the role of multiple genes in carcinogenesis would be valuable. Here, we present an innovative strategy for lung mutagenesis using CRISPR/Cas9 ribonucleoproteins delivered via cationic polymers. This approach allows the simultaneous inactivation of multiple genes. We validate the effectiveness of this system by targeting a group of tumor suppressor genes, specifically Rb1, Rbl1, Pten, and Trp53, which were chosen for their potential to cause lung tumors, namely small cell lung carcinoma (SCLC). Tumors with histologic and transcriptomic features of human SCLC emerged after intratracheal administration of CRISPR/polymer nanoparticles. These tumors carried loss-of-function mutations in all four tumor suppressor genes at the targeted positions. These findings were reproduced in two different pure genetic backgrounds. We provide a proof of principle for simplified modeling of lung tumorigenesis to facilitate functional testing of potential cancer-related genes.

Guide for generating single-cell-derived knockout clones in mammalian cell lines using the CRISPR/Cas9 system

Genome editing has developed rapidly in various research fields for targeted genome modifications in many organisms, including cells, plants, viruses, and animals. The clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats-associated protein 9 system stands as a potent tool in gene editing for generating cells and animal models with high precision. The clinical potential of clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats-associated protein 9 has been extensively reported, with applications in genetic disease correction, inhibition of viral replication, and personalized or targeted therapeutics for various cancers. In this study, we provide a guide on single-guide RNA design, cloning single-guide RNA into plasmid vectors, single-cell isolation via transfection, and identification of knockout clones using next-generation sequencing. In addition, by providing the results of insertion into mammalian cell lines through next-generation sequencing, we offer useful information to those conducting research on human and animal cell lines.

Dual Effect by Chemical Electron Transfer Enhanced siRNA Lipid Nanoparticles: Reactive Oxygen Species-Triggered Tumor Cell Killing Aggravated by Nrf2 Gene Silencing

Insufficient endosomal escape presents a major hurdle for successful nucleic acid therapy. Here, for the first time, a chemical electron transfer (CET) system was integrated into small interfering RNA (siRNA) lipid nanoparticles (LNPs). The CET acceptor can be chemically excited using the generated energy between the donor and hydrogen peroxide, which triggers the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), promoting endosomal lipid membrane destabilization. Tetra-oleoyl tri-lysino succinoyl tetraethylene pentamine was included as an ionizable lipopeptide with a U-shaped topology for effective siRNA encapsulation and pH-induced endosomal escape. LNPs loaded with siRNA and CET components demonstrated a more efficient endosomal escape, as evidenced by a galectin-8-mRuby reporter; ROS significantly augmented galectin-8 recruitment by at least threefold compared with the control groups, with a p value of 0.03. Moreover, CET-enhanced LNPs achieved a 24% improvement in apoptosis level by knocking down the tumor-protective gene nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2, boosting the CET-mediated ROS cell killing.

Revolutionizing Lung Cancer Treatment: Innovative CRISPR-Cas9 Delivery Strategies

Lung carcinoma, including both non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) and small cell lung cancer (SCLC), remains a significant global health challenge due to its high morbidity and mortality rates. The objsective of this review is to meticulously examine the current advancements and strategies in the delivery of CRISPR-Cas9 gene-editing technology for the treatment of lung carcinoma. This technology heralds a new era in molecular biology, offering unprecedented precision in genomic modifications. However, its therapeutic potential is contingent upon the development of effective delivery mechanisms that ensure the efficient and specific transport of gene-editing tools to tumor cells. We explore a variety of delivery approaches, such as viral vectors, lipid-based nanoparticles, and physical methods, highlighting their respective advantages, limitations, and recent breakthroughs. This review also delves into the translational and clinical significance of these strategies, discussing preclinical and clinical studies that investigate the feasibility, efficacy, and safety of CRISPR-Cas9 delivery for lung carcinoma. By scrutinizing the landscape of ongoing clinical trials and offering translational perspectives, we aim to elucidate the current state and future directions of this rapidly evolving field. The review is structured to first introduce the problem and significance of lung carcinoma, followed by an overview of CRISPR-Cas9 technology, a detailed examination of delivery strategies, and an analysis of clinical applications and regulatory considerations. Our discussion concludes with future perspectives and challenges, such as optimizing delivery strategies, enhancing specificity, mitigating immunogenicity concerns, and addressing regulatory issues. This comprehensive overview seeks to provide insights into the potential of CRISPR-Cas9 as a revolutionary approach for targeted therapies and personalized medicine in lung carcinoma, emphasizing the importance of delivery strategy development in realizing the full potential of this groundbreaking technology.

AAV mediated genome engineering with a bypass coagulation factor alleviates the bleeding phenotype in a murine model of hemophilia B

It is crucial to develop a long-term therapy that targets hemophilia A and B, including inhibitor-positive patients. We have developed an Adeno-associated virus (AAV) based strategy to integrate the bypass coagulation factor, activated FVII (murine, mFVIIa) gene into the Rosa26 locus using Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR)/Cas9 mediated gene-editing. AAV vectors designed for expression of guide RNA (AAV8-gRNA), Cas9 (AAV2 neddylation mutant-Cas9), and mFVIIa (AAV8-mFVIIa) flanked by homology arms of the target locus were validated in vitro. Hemophilia B mice were administered with AAV carrying gRNA, Cas9 (1 × 1011 vgs/mouse), and mFVIIa with homology arms (2 × 1011 vgs/mouse) with appropriate controls. Functional rescue was documented with suitable coagulation assays at various time points. The data from the T7 endonuclease assay revealed a cleavage efficiency of 20-42 %. Further, DNA sequencing confirmed the targeted integration of mFVIIa into the safe-harbor Rosa26 locus. The prothrombin time (PT) assay revealed a significant reduction in PT in mice that received the gene-editing vectors (22 %), and a 13 % decline in mice that received only the AAV-FVIIa when compared to mock treated mice, 8 weeks after vector administration. Furthermore, FVIIa activity in mice that received triple gene-editing vectors was higher (122.5mIU/mL vs 28.8mIU/mL) than the mock group up to 15 weeks post vector administration. A hemostatic challenge by tail clip assay revealed that hemophilia B mice injected with only FVIIa or the gene-editing vectors had significant reduction in blood loss. In conclusion, AAV based gene-editing facilitates sustained expression of coagulation FVIIa and phenotypic rescue in hemophilia B mice.

Exonuclease editor promotes precision of gene editing in mammalian cells

BACKGROUND

Many efforts have been made to improve the precision of Cas9-mediated gene editing through increasing knock-in efficiency and decreasing byproducts, which proved to be challenging.

RESULTS

Here, we have developed a human exonuclease 1-based genome-editing tool, referred to as exonuclease editor. When compared to Cas9, the exonuclease editor gave rise to increased HDR efficiency, reduced NHEJ repair frequency, and significantly elevated HDR/indel ratio. Robust gene editing precision of exonuclease editor was even superior to the fusion of Cas9 with E1B or DN1S, two previously reported precision-enhancing domains. Notably, exonuclease editor inhibited NHEJ at double strand breaks locally rather than globally, reducing indel frequency without compromising genome integrity. The replacement of Cas9 with single-strand DNA break-creating Cas9 nickase further increased the HDR/indel ratio by 453-fold than the original Cas9. In addition, exonuclease editor resulted in high microhomology-mediated end joining efficiency, allowing accurate and flexible deletion of targeted sequences with extended lengths with the aid of paired sgRNAs. Exonuclease editor was further used for correction of DMD patient-derived induced pluripotent stem cells, where 30.0% of colonies were repaired by HDR versus 11.1% in the control.

CONCLUSIONS

Therefore, the exonuclease editor system provides a versatile and safe genome editing tool with high precision and holds promise for therapeutic gene correction.

How CRISPR Is Revolutionizing the Generation of New Models for Cancer Research

Cancers arise through acquisition of mutations in genes that regulate core biological processes like cell proliferation and cell death. Decades of cancer research have led to the identification of genes and mutations causally involved in disease development and evolution, yet defining their precise function across different cancer types and how they influence therapy responses has been challenging. Mouse models have helped define the in vivo function of cancer-associated alterations, and genome-editing approaches using CRISPR have dramatically accelerated the pace at which these models are developed and studied. Here, we highlight how CRISPR technologies have impacted the development and use of mouse models for cancer research and discuss the many ways in which these rapidly evolving platforms will continue to transform our understanding of this disease.

Revolutionising healing: Gene Editing's breakthrough against sickle cell disease

Recent advancements in gene editing illuminate new potential therapeutic approaches for Sickle Cell Disease (SCD), a debilitating monogenic disorder caused by a point mutation in the β-globin gene. Despite the availability of several FDA-approved medications for symptomatic relief, allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) remains the sole curative option, underscoring a persistent need for novel treatments. This review delves into the growing field of gene editing, particularly the extensive research focused on curing haemoglobinopathies like SCD. We examine the use of techniques such as CRISPR-Cas9 and homology-directed repair, base editing, and prime editing to either correct the pathogenic variant into a non-pathogenic or wild-type one or augment fetal haemoglobin (HbF) production. The article elucidates ways to optimize these tools for efficacious gene editing with minimal off-target effects and offers insights into their effective delivery into cells. Furthermore, we explore clinical trials involving alternative SCD treatment strategies, such as LentiGlobin therapy and autologous HSCT, distilling the current findings. This review consolidates vital information for the clinical translation of gene editing for SCD, providing strategic insights for investigators eager to further the development of gene editing for SCD.

Biomaterial-Based CRISPR/Cas9 Delivery Systems for Tumor Treatment

CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing technology is characterized by high specificity and efficiency, and has been applied to the treatment of human diseases, especially tumors involving multiple genetic modifications. However, the clinical application of CRISPR/Cas9 still faces some major challenges, the most urgent of which is the development of optimized delivery vectors. Biomaterials are currently the best choice for use in CRISPR/Cas9 delivery vectors owing to their tunability, biocompatibility, and efficiency. As research on biomaterial vectors continues to progress, hope for the application of the CRISPR/Cas9 system for clinical oncology therapy builds. In this review, we first detail the CRISPR/Cas9 system and its potential applications in tumor therapy. Then, we introduce the different delivery forms and compare the physical, viral, and non-viral vectors. In addition, we analyze the characteristics of different types of biomaterial vectors. We further review recent research progress in the use of biomaterials as vectors for CRISPR/Cas9 delivery to treat specific tumors. Finally, we summarize the shortcomings and prospects of biomaterial-based CRISPR/Cas9 delivery systems.

A non-viral DNA delivery system consisting of multifunctional chimeric peptide fused with zinc-finger protein

Non-viral gene delivery systems have received sustained attention as a promising alternative to viral vectors for disease treatment and prevention in recent years. Numerous methods have been developed to enhance gene uptake and delivery in the cytoplasm; however, due to technical difficulties and delivery efficiency, these systems still face challenges in a range of biological applications, especially in vivo. To alleviate this challenge, we devised a novel system for gene delivery based on a recombinant protein eTAT-ZF9-NLS, which consisted of a multifunctional chimeric peptide and a zinc-finger protein with sequence-specific DNA-binding activity. High transfection efficiency was observed in several mammalian cells after intracellular delivery of plasmid containing ZF9-binding sites mediated by eTAT-ZF9-NLS. Our new approach provides a novel transfection strategy and the transfection efficiency was confirmed both in vitro and in vivo, making it a preferential transfection reagent for possible gene therapy.

Finely tuned ionizable lipid nanoparticles for CRISPR/Cas9 ribonucleoprotein delivery and gene editing

Nonviral delivery of the CRISPR/Cas9 system provides great benefits for in vivo gene therapy due to the low risk of side effects. However, in vivo gene editing by delivering the Cas9 ribonucleoprotein (RNP) is challenging due to the poor delivery into target tissues and cells. Here, we introduce an effective delivery method for the CRISPR/Cas9 RNPs by finely tuning the formulation of ionizable lipid nanoparticles. The LNPs delivering CRISPR/Cas9 RNPs (CrLNPs) are demonstrated to induce gene editing with high efficiencies in various cancer cell lines in vitro. Furthermore, we show that CrLNPs can be delivered into tumor tissues with high efficiency, as well as induce significant gene editing in vivo. The current study presents an effective platform for nonviral delivery of the CRISPR/Cas9 system that can be applied as an in vivo gene editing therapeutic for treating various diseases such as cancer and genetic disorders.