1
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Ko JH, Seo DH, Jeong HH, Kim S, Song YM. Sub-1-Volt Electrically Programmable Optical Modulator Based on Active Tamm Plasmon. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2024; 36:e2310556. [PMID: 38174820 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202310556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2023] [Revised: 11/26/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2024]
Abstract
Reconfigurable optical devices hold great promise for advancing high-density optical interconnects, photonic switching, and memory applications. While many optical modulators based on active materials have been demonstrated, it is challenging to achieve a high modulation depth with a low operation voltage in the near-infrared (NIR) range, which is a highly sought-after wavelength window for free-space communication and imaging applications. Here, electrically switchable Tamm plasmon coupled with poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):polystyrene sulfonate (PEDOT:PSS) is introduced. The device allows for a high modulation depth across the entire NIR range by fully absorbing incident light even under epsilon near zero conditions. Optical modulation exceeding 88% is achieved using a CMOS-compatible voltage of ±1 V. This modulation is facilitated by precise electrical control of the charge carrier density through an electrochemical doping/dedoping process. Additionally, the potential applications of the device are extended for a non-volatile multi-memory state optical device, capable of rewritable optical memory storage and exhibiting long-term potentiation/depression properties with neuromorphic behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joo Hwan Ko
- School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju, 61005, Republic of Korea
| | - Dong Hyun Seo
- School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju, 61005, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyeon-Ho Jeong
- School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju, 61005, Republic of Korea
- Department of Semiconductor Engineering, Gwangju Institute of Science AND Technology, Gwangju, 61005, Republic of Korea
| | - Sejeong Kim
- Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, University of Melbourne, Victoria, 3000, Australia
| | - Young Min Song
- School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju, 61005, Republic of Korea
- Department of Semiconductor Engineering, Gwangju Institute of Science AND Technology, Gwangju, 61005, Republic of Korea
- AI Graduate School, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju, 61005, Republic of Korea
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2
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Tran HNQ, Tran KN, Gunenthiran S, Wang J, Law CS, Lim SY, Gary Lim YC, Abell AD, Marsal LF, Santos A. Tailoring Tamm Plasmon Resonances in Dielectric Nanoporous Photonic Crystals. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2024; 16:11787-11799. [PMID: 38394678 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.3c16981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/25/2024]
Abstract
The fields of plasmonics and photonic crystals (PCs) have been combined to generate model light-confining Tamm plasmon (TMM) cavities. This approach effectively overcomes the intrinsic limit of diffraction faced by dielectric cavities and mitigates losses associated with the inherent properties of plasmonic materials. In this study, nanoporous anodic alumina PCs, produced by two-step sinusoidal pulse anodization, are used as a model dielectric platform to establish the methodology for tailoring light confinement through TMM resonances. These model dielectric mirrors feature highly organized nanopores and narrow bandwidth photonic stopbands (PSBs) across different positions of the spectrum. Different types of metallic films (gold, silver, and aluminum) were coated on the top of these model dielectric mirrors. By structuring the features of the plasmonic and photonic components of these hybrid structures, the characteristics of TMM resonances were studied to elucidate effective approaches to optimize the light-confining capability of this hybrid TMM model system. Our findings indicate that the coupling of photonic and plasmonic modes is maximized when the PSB of the model dielectric mirror is broad and located within the midvisible region. It was also found that thicker metal films enhance the quality of the confined light. Gas sensing experiments were performed on optimized TMM systems, and their sensitivity was assessed in real time to demonstrate their applicability. Ag films provide superior performance in achieving the highest sensitivity (S = 0.038 ± 0.001 nm ppm-1) based on specific binding interactions between thiol-containing molecules and metal films.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huong Nguyen Que Tran
- School of Chemical Engineering, The University of Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia
- Institute for Photonics and Advanced Sensing, The University of Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia
| | - Khoa Nhu Tran
- School of Chemical Engineering, The University of Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia
- Institute for Photonics and Advanced Sensing, The University of Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia
| | - Satyathiran Gunenthiran
- School of Chemical Engineering, The University of Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia
- Institute for Photonics and Advanced Sensing, The University of Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia
| | - Juan Wang
- School of Chemical Engineering, The University of Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia
- Institute for Photonics and Advanced Sensing, The University of Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia
| | - Cheryl Suwen Law
- School of Chemical Engineering, The University of Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia
- Institute for Photonics and Advanced Sensing, The University of Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia
| | - Siew Yee Lim
- School of Chemical Engineering, The University of Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia
- Institute for Photonics and Advanced Sensing, The University of Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia
| | - Yong Cheow Gary Lim
- School of Chemical Engineering, The University of Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia
| | - Andrew D Abell
- Institute for Photonics and Advanced Sensing, The University of Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia
| | - Lluis F Marsal
- Department of Electronic, Electric, and Automatic Engineering, Rovira i Virgili University, Tarragona 43007, Spain
| | - Abel Santos
- School of Chemical Engineering, The University of Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia
- Institute for Photonics and Advanced Sensing, The University of Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia
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3
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Yu S, Zhou P, Xi W, Chen Z, Deng Y, Luo X, Li W, Shiomi J, Hu R. General deep learning framework for emissivity engineering. LIGHT, SCIENCE & APPLICATIONS 2023; 12:291. [PMID: 38052800 DOI: 10.1038/s41377-023-01341-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2023] [Revised: 11/17/2023] [Accepted: 11/18/2023] [Indexed: 12/07/2023]
Abstract
Wavelength-selective thermal emitters (WS-TEs) have been frequently designed to achieve desired target emissivity spectra, as a typical emissivity engineering, for broad applications such as thermal camouflage, radiative cooling, and gas sensing, etc. However, previous designs require prior knowledge of materials or structures for different applications and the designed WS-TEs usually vary from applications to applications in terms of materials and structures, thus lacking of a general design framework for emissivity engineering across different applications. Moreover, previous designs fail to tackle the simultaneous design of both materials and structures, as they either fix materials to design structures or fix structures to select suitable materials. Herein, we employ the deep Q-learning network algorithm, a reinforcement learning method based on deep learning framework, to design multilayer WS-TEs. To demonstrate the general validity, three WS-TEs are designed for various applications, including thermal camouflage, radiative cooling and gas sensing, which are then fabricated and measured. The merits of the deep Q-learning algorithm include that it can (1) offer a general design framework for WS-TEs beyond one-dimensional multilayer structures; (2) autonomously select suitable materials from a self-built material library and (3) autonomously optimize structural parameters for the target emissivity spectra. The present framework is demonstrated to be feasible and efficient in designing WS-TEs across different applications, and the design parameters are highly scalable in materials, structures, dimensions, and the target functions, offering a general framework for emissivity engineering and paving the way for efficient design of nonlinear optimization problems beyond thermal metamaterials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shilv Yu
- School of Energy and Power Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430074, China
| | - Peng Zhou
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Low Dimensional Optoelectronic Materials and Devices, Hubei University of Arts and Science, Xiangyang, 441053, Hubei, China
- Hubei Longzhong Laboratory, Wuhan University of Technology (Xiangyang Demonstration Zone), Xiangyang, 441000, Hubei, China
| | - Wang Xi
- School of Energy and Power Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430074, China
| | - Zihe Chen
- School of Energy and Power Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430074, China
| | - Yuheng Deng
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Low Dimensional Optoelectronic Materials and Devices, Hubei University of Arts and Science, Xiangyang, 441053, Hubei, China
- Hubei Longzhong Laboratory, Wuhan University of Technology (Xiangyang Demonstration Zone), Xiangyang, 441000, Hubei, China
| | - Xiaobing Luo
- School of Energy and Power Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430074, China
| | - Wangnan Li
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Low Dimensional Optoelectronic Materials and Devices, Hubei University of Arts and Science, Xiangyang, 441053, Hubei, China.
- Hubei Longzhong Laboratory, Wuhan University of Technology (Xiangyang Demonstration Zone), Xiangyang, 441000, Hubei, China.
| | - Junichiro Shiomi
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-8654, Japan.
| | - Run Hu
- School of Energy and Power Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430074, China.
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4
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Qiu Q, Zhou D, Zhang J, Tan C, Xu Q, Zhang Z, Wen Z, Sun Y, Dai N, Hao J. High-performance narrowband thermal emitter based on aperiodic Tamm plasmon structures assisted by inverse design. OPTICS LETTERS 2023; 48:6000-6003. [PMID: 37966773 DOI: 10.1364/ol.505357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2023] [Accepted: 10/23/2023] [Indexed: 11/16/2023]
Abstract
Controlling the bandwidth and directionality of thermal emission is important for a broad range of applications, from imaging and sensing to energy harvesting. Here, we propose a new, to the best of our knowledge, type of long-wavelength infrared narrowband thermal emitter that is basically composed of aperiodic Tamm plasmon polariton structures. Compared to the thermal emitter based on periodic structures, more parameters need to be considered. An inverse design algorithm instead of traditional forward methodologies is employed to do the geometric parameter optimization. Both theoretical and experimental results show that the thermal emitter exhibits a narrowband thermal emission peak at the wavelength of 8.6 µm in the normal direction. The angular response of emission properties of the thermal emitter is dependent on the emission angle. We believe that our proposed thermal emitter provides an alternative for low-cost, high-effective narrowband mid-infrared light sources and would have a great potential in many applications.
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5
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Zhu Y, Zhou Y, Qin B, Qin R, Qiu M, Li Q. Night-time radiative warming using the atmosphere. LIGHT, SCIENCE & APPLICATIONS 2023; 12:268. [PMID: 37949868 PMCID: PMC10638402 DOI: 10.1038/s41377-023-01315-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2023] [Revised: 10/16/2023] [Accepted: 10/24/2023] [Indexed: 11/12/2023]
Abstract
Night-time warming is vital for human production and daily life. Conventional methods like active heaters are energy-intensive, while passive insulating films possess restrictions regarding space consumption and the lack of heat gain. In this work, a nanophotonic-based night-time warming strategy that passively inhibits thermal radiation of objects while actively harnessing that of atmosphere is proposed. By using a photonic-engineered thin film that exhibits high reflectivity (~0.91) in the atmospheric transparent band (8-14 μm) and high absorptivity (~0.7) in the atmospheric radiative band (5-8 and 14-16 μm), temperature rise of 2.1 °C/4.4 °C compared to typical low-e film and broadband absorber is achieved. Moreover, net heat loss as low as 9 W m-2 is experimentally observed, compared to 16 and 39 W m-2 for low-e film and broadband absorber, respectively. This strategy suggests an innovative way for sustainable warming, thus contributes to addressing the challenges of climate change and promoting global carbon neutrality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yining Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Modern Optical Instrumentation, College of Optical Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, China
| | - Yiwei Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Modern Optical Instrumentation, College of Optical Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, China
| | - Bing Qin
- State Key Laboratory of Modern Optical Instrumentation, College of Optical Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, China
| | - Rui Qin
- State Key Laboratory of Modern Optical Instrumentation, College of Optical Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, China
| | - Min Qiu
- Key Laboratory of 3D Micro/Nano Fabrication and Characterization of Zhejiang Province, School of Engineering, Westlake University, Hangzhou, 310024, China
- Institute of Advanced Technology, Westlake Institute for Advanced Study, Hangzhou, 310024, China
| | - Qiang Li
- State Key Laboratory of Modern Optical Instrumentation, College of Optical Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, China.
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6
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Sreekanth KV, Perumal J, Dinish US, Prabhathan P, Liu Y, Singh R, Olivo M, Teng J. Tunable Tamm plasmon cavity as a scalable biosensing platform for surface enhanced resonance Raman spectroscopy. Nat Commun 2023; 14:7085. [PMID: 37925522 PMCID: PMC10625559 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-42854-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2023] [Accepted: 10/24/2023] [Indexed: 11/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Surface enhanced Resonance Raman spectroscopy (SERRS) is a powerful technique for enhancing Raman spectra by matching the laser excitation wavelength with the plasmonic resonance and the absorption peak of biomolecules. Here, we propose a tunable Tamm plasmon polariton (TPP) cavity based on a metal on distributed Bragg reflector (DBR) as a scalable sensing platform for SERRS. We develop a gold film-coated ultralow-loss phase change material (Sb2S3) based DBR, which exhibits continuously tunable TPP resonances in the optical wavelengths. We demonstrate SERRS by matching the TPP resonance with the absorption peak of the chromophore molecule at 785 nm wavelength. We use this platform to detect cardiac Troponin I protein (cTnI), a biomarker for early diagnosis of cardiovascular disease, achieving a detection limit of 380 fM. This scalable substrate shows great promise as a next-generation tunable biosensing platform for detecting disease biomarkers in body fluids for routine real-time clinical diagnosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kandammathe Valiyaveedu Sreekanth
- Institute of Materials Research and Engineering (IMRE), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), 2 Fusionopolis Way, Innovis #08-03, Singapore, 138634, Republic of Singapore.
| | - Jayakumar Perumal
- Institute of Materials Research and Engineering (IMRE), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), 2 Fusionopolis Way, Innovis #08-03, Singapore, 138634, Republic of Singapore
- A*STAR Skin Research Labs (A*SRL), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), 31 Biopolis Way, Nanos #07-01, Singapore, 138669, Republic of Singapore
| | - U S Dinish
- Institute of Materials Research and Engineering (IMRE), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), 2 Fusionopolis Way, Innovis #08-03, Singapore, 138634, Republic of Singapore
- A*STAR Skin Research Labs (A*SRL), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), 31 Biopolis Way, Nanos #07-01, Singapore, 138669, Republic of Singapore
| | - Patinharekandy Prabhathan
- Division of Physics and Applied Physics, School of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, 21 Nanyang Link, Singapore, 637371, Republic of Singapore
- Centre for Disruptive Photonic Technologies, The Photonic Institute, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore, 639798, Republic of Singapore
| | - Yuanda Liu
- Institute of Materials Research and Engineering (IMRE), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), 2 Fusionopolis Way, Innovis #08-03, Singapore, 138634, Republic of Singapore
| | - Ranjan Singh
- Division of Physics and Applied Physics, School of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, 21 Nanyang Link, Singapore, 637371, Republic of Singapore.
- Centre for Disruptive Photonic Technologies, The Photonic Institute, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore, 639798, Republic of Singapore.
| | - Malini Olivo
- Institute of Materials Research and Engineering (IMRE), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), 2 Fusionopolis Way, Innovis #08-03, Singapore, 138634, Republic of Singapore.
- A*STAR Skin Research Labs (A*SRL), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), 31 Biopolis Way, Nanos #07-01, Singapore, 138669, Republic of Singapore.
| | - Jinghua Teng
- Institute of Materials Research and Engineering (IMRE), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), 2 Fusionopolis Way, Innovis #08-03, Singapore, 138634, Republic of Singapore.
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7
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Yu J, Qin R, Ying Y, Qiu M, Li Q. Asymmetric Directional Control of Thermal Emission. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2023; 35:e2302478. [PMID: 37479110 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202302478] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2023] [Revised: 07/04/2023] [Indexed: 07/23/2023]
Abstract
Control over the directionality of thermal emission plays a fundamental role in efficient heat transport. Although nanophotonic technologies have demonstrated the capability for angular-selective thermal emission, achieving asymmetric directional thermal emission in reciprocal systems with energy directed to a single output angle remains challenging due to symmetric band dispersion. In this work, a general strategy for achieving asymmetric directional thermal emission in reciprocal systems is presented. With periodic perturbation and broken mirror symmetry, metasurfaces behave as resonant metagratings whose resonances can be diffracted to symmetric output angles with distinct efficiency, allowing for high emissivity toward a single direction. An asymmetric directional thermal emitter is experimentally demonstrated at mid-infrared wavelengths with high emissivity (ɛ = 0.61) at the observation angle of +30°, and low emissivity (ɛ < 0.3) at other angles. This work highlights the potential for manipulating the directionality of thermal emission, which holds promise for developing ultrathin customized thermal sources and impacts on various thermal-engineering applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianbo Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Modern Optical Instrumentation, College of Optical Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, China
| | - Rui Qin
- State Key Laboratory of Modern Optical Instrumentation, College of Optical Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, China
| | - Yunbin Ying
- State Key Laboratory of Modern Optical Instrumentation, College of Optical Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, China
| | - Min Qiu
- Key Laboratory of 3D Micro/Nano Fabrication and Characterization of Zhejiang Province, School of Engineering, Westlake University, 18 Shilongshan Road, Hangzhou, 310024, China
| | - Qiang Li
- State Key Laboratory of Modern Optical Instrumentation, College of Optical Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, China
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8
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Qin B, Zhu Y, Zhou Y, Qiu M, Li Q. Whole-infrared-band camouflage with dual-band radiative heat dissipation. LIGHT, SCIENCE & APPLICATIONS 2023; 12:246. [PMID: 37794015 PMCID: PMC10550919 DOI: 10.1038/s41377-023-01287-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2023] [Revised: 09/01/2023] [Accepted: 09/15/2023] [Indexed: 10/06/2023]
Abstract
Advanced multispectral detection technologies have emerged as a significant threat to objects, necessitating the use of multiband camouflage. However, achieving effective camouflage and thermal management across the entire infrared spectrum, especially the short-wave infrared (SWIR) band, remains challenging. This paper proposes a multilayer wavelength-selective emitter that achieves effective camouflage across the entire infrared spectrum, including the near-infrared (NIR), SWIR, mid-wave infrared (MWIR), and long-wave infrared (LWIR) bands, as well as the visible (VIS) band. Furthermore, the emitter enables radiative heat dissipation in two non-atmospheric windows (2.5-3 μm and 5-8 μm). The emitter's properties are characterized by low emittance of 0.270/0.042/0.218 in the SWIR/MWIR/LWIR bands, and low reflectance of 0.129/0.281 in the VIS/NIR bands. Moreover, the high emittance of 0.742/0.473 in the two non-atmospheric windows ensures efficient radiative heat dissipation, which results in a temperature decrement of 14.4 °C compared to the Cr reference at 2000 W m-2 input power density. This work highlights the role of solar radiance in camouflage, and provides a comprehensive guideline for developing multiband camouflage compatible with radiative heat dissipation, from the visible to LWIR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bing Qin
- State Key Laboratory of Modern Optical Instrumentation, College of Optical Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, China
| | - Yining Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Modern Optical Instrumentation, College of Optical Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, China
| | - Yiwei Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Modern Optical Instrumentation, College of Optical Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, China
| | - Min Qiu
- Key Laboratory of 3D Micro/Nano Fabrication and Characterization of Zhejiang Province, School of Engineering, Westlake University, 18 Shilongshan Road, Hangzhou, 310024, Zhejiang, China
- Institute of Advanced Technology, Westlake Institute for Advanced Study, 18 Shilongshan Road, Hangzhou, 310024, Zhejiang, China
| | - Qiang Li
- State Key Laboratory of Modern Optical Instrumentation, College of Optical Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, China.
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9
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Hwang JS, Xu J, Raman AP. Simultaneous Control of Spectral And Directional Emissivity with Gradient Epsilon-Near-Zero InAs Photonic Structures. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2023; 35:e2302956. [PMID: 37465943 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202302956] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2023] [Revised: 07/05/2023] [Accepted: 07/15/2023] [Indexed: 07/20/2023]
Abstract
Controlling both the spectral bandwidth and directionality of emitted thermal radiation is a fundamental challenge in contemporary photonics. Recent work has shown that materials with a spatial gradient in the frequency range of their epsilon-near-zero (ENZ) response can support broad spectrum directionality in their emissivity, enabling high total radiance to specific angles of incidence. However, this capability is limited spectrally and directionally by the availability of materials with phonon-polariton resonances over long-wave infrared wavelengths. Here, an approach is designed and experimentally demonstrated using doped III-V semiconductors that can simultaneously tailor spectral peak, bandwidth, and directionality of infrared emissivity. InAs-based gradient ENZ photonic structures that exhibit broadband directional emission with varying spectral bandwidths and directional ranges as a function of their doping concentration profile and thickness are epitaxially grown and characterized. Due to its easy-to-fabricate geometry, it is believed that this approach provides a versatile photonic platform to dynamically control broadband spectral and directional emissivity for a range of emerging applications in heat transfer and infrared sensing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jae S Hwang
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Jin Xu
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Aaswath P Raman
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
- California NanoSystems Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
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10
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Giri A, Walton SG, Tomko J, Bhatt N, Johnson MJ, Boris DR, Lu G, Caldwell JD, Prezhdo OV, Hopkins PE. Ultrafast and Nanoscale Energy Transduction Mechanisms and Coupled Thermal Transport across Interfaces. ACS NANO 2023; 17:14253-14282. [PMID: 37459320 PMCID: PMC10416573 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.3c02417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2023] [Accepted: 06/06/2023] [Indexed: 08/09/2023]
Abstract
The coupled interactions among the fundamental carriers of charge, heat, and electromagnetic fields at interfaces and boundaries give rise to energetic processes that enable a wide array of technologies. The energy transduction among these coupled carriers results in thermal dissipation at these surfaces, often quantified by the thermal boundary resistance, thus driving the functionalities of the modern nanotechnologies that are continuing to provide transformational benefits in computing, communication, health care, clean energy, power recycling, sensing, and manufacturing, to name a few. It is the purpose of this Review to summarize recent works that have been reported on ultrafast and nanoscale energy transduction and heat transfer mechanisms across interfaces when different thermal carriers couple near or across interfaces. We review coupled heat transfer mechanisms at interfaces of solids, liquids, gasses, and plasmas that drive the resulting interfacial heat transfer and temperature gradients due to energy and momentum coupling among various combinations of electrons, vibrons, photons, polaritons (plasmon polaritons and phonon polaritons), and molecules. These interfacial thermal transport processes with coupled energy carriers involve relatively recent research, and thus, several opportunities exist to further develop these nascent fields, which we comment on throughout the course of this Review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashutosh Giri
- Department
of Mechanical, Industrial and Systems Engineering, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island 02881, United States
| | - Scott G. Walton
- Plasma
Physics Division, Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, DC 22032, United States
| | - John Tomko
- Department
of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22904, United States
| | - Niraj Bhatt
- Department
of Mechanical, Industrial and Systems Engineering, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island 02881, United States
| | - Michael J. Johnson
- Plasma
Physics Division, Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, DC 22032, United States
| | - David R. Boris
- Plasma
Physics Division, Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, DC 22032, United States
| | - Guanyu Lu
- Department
of Mechanical Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37235, United States
| | - Joshua D. Caldwell
- Department
of Mechanical Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37235, United States
- Interdisciplinary
Materials Science, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37235, United States
- Vanderbilt
Institute of Nanoscale Science and Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37235, United States
| | - Oleg V. Prezhdo
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089, United States
- Department
of Physics and Astronomy, University of
Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089, United States
| | - Patrick E. Hopkins
- Department
of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22904, United States
- Department
of Materials Science and Engineering, University
of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22904, United States
- Department
of Physics, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22904, United States
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11
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Duan J, Álvarez-Pérez G, Lanza C, Voronin K, Tresguerres-Mata AIF, Capote-Robayna N, Álvarez-Cuervo J, Tarazaga Martín-Luengo A, Martín-Sánchez J, Volkov VS, Nikitin AY, Alonso-González P. Multiple and spectrally robust photonic magic angles in reconfigurable α-MoO 3 trilayers. NATURE MATERIALS 2023:10.1038/s41563-023-01582-5. [PMID: 37349399 DOI: 10.1038/s41563-023-01582-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2022] [Accepted: 05/16/2023] [Indexed: 06/24/2023]
Abstract
The emergence of a topological transition of the polaritonic dispersion in twisted bilayers of anisotropic van der Waals materials at a given twist angle-the photonic magic angle-results in the diffractionless propagation of polaritons with deep-subwavelength resolution. This type of propagation, generally referred to as canalization, holds promise for the control of light at the nanoscale. However, the existence of a single photonic magic angle hinders such control since the canalization direction in twisted bilayers is unique and fixed for each incident frequency. Here we overcome this limitation by demonstrating multiple spectrally robust photonic magic angles in reconfigurable twisted α-phase molybdenum trioxide (α-MoO3) trilayers. We show that canalization of polaritons can be programmed at will along any desired in-plane direction in a single device with broad spectral ranges. These findings open the door for nanophotonics applications where on-demand control is crucial, such as thermal management, nanoimaging or entanglement of quantum emitters.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Duan
- Department of Physics, University of Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain.
- Center of Research on Nanomaterials and Nanotechnology, CINN (CSIC-Universidad de Oviedo), El Entrego, Spain.
- Centre for Quantum Physics, Key Laboratory of Advanced Optoelectronic Quantum Architecture and Measurement (MOE), School of Physics, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, China.
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Nanophotonics and Ultrafine Optoelectronic Systems, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, China.
| | - G Álvarez-Pérez
- Department of Physics, University of Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain
- Center of Research on Nanomaterials and Nanotechnology, CINN (CSIC-Universidad de Oviedo), El Entrego, Spain
| | - C Lanza
- Department of Physics, University of Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain
| | - K Voronin
- Donostia International Physics Center (DIPC), Donostia, San Sebastián, Spain
| | | | - N Capote-Robayna
- Donostia International Physics Center (DIPC), Donostia, San Sebastián, Spain
| | | | | | - J Martín-Sánchez
- Department of Physics, University of Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain
- Center of Research on Nanomaterials and Nanotechnology, CINN (CSIC-Universidad de Oviedo), El Entrego, Spain
| | - V S Volkov
- XPANCEO, Bayan Business Center, DIP, Dubai, UAE
| | - A Y Nikitin
- Donostia International Physics Center (DIPC), Donostia, San Sebastián, Spain.
- IKERBASQUE, Basque Foundation for Science, Bilbao, Spain.
| | - P Alonso-González
- Department of Physics, University of Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain.
- Center of Research on Nanomaterials and Nanotechnology, CINN (CSIC-Universidad de Oviedo), El Entrego, Spain.
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12
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Huang W, Folland TG, Sun F, Zheng Z, Xu N, Xing Q, Jiang J, Chen H, Caldwell JD, Yan H, Deng S. In-plane hyperbolic polariton tuners in terahertz and long-wave infrared regimes. Nat Commun 2023; 14:2716. [PMID: 37169788 PMCID: PMC10175486 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-38214-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2022] [Accepted: 04/21/2023] [Indexed: 05/13/2023] Open
Abstract
One of the main bottlenecks in the development of terahertz (THz) and long-wave infrared (LWIR) technologies is the limited intrinsic response of traditional materials. Hyperbolic phonon polaritons (HPhPs) of van der Waals semiconductors couple strongly with THz and LWIR radiation. However, the mismatch of photon - polariton momentum makes far-field excitation of HPhPs challenging. Here, we propose an In-Plane Hyperbolic Polariton Tuner that is based on patterning van der Waals semiconductors, here α-MoO3, into ribbon arrays. We demonstrate that such tuners respond directly to far-field excitation and give rise to LWIR and THz resonances with high quality factors up to 300, which are strongly dependent on in-plane hyperbolic polariton of the patterned α-MoO3. We further show that with this tuner, intensity regulation of reflected and transmitted electromagnetic waves, as well as their wavelength and polarization selection can be achieved. Our results can help the development of THz and LWIR miniaturized devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wuchao Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Materials and Technologies, Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Display Material and Technology, School of Electronics and Information Technology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, China
| | - Thomas G Folland
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, 37235, USA
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, 52245, USA
| | - Fengsheng Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Materials and Technologies, Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Display Material and Technology, School of Electronics and Information Technology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, China
| | - Zebo Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Materials and Technologies, Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Display Material and Technology, School of Electronics and Information Technology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, China
| | - Ningsheng Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Materials and Technologies, Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Display Material and Technology, School of Electronics and Information Technology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, China
- The Frontier Institute of Chip and System, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200433, China
| | - Qiaoxia Xing
- State Key Laboratory of Surface Physics, Department of Physics, Key Laboratory of Micro and Nano-Photonic Structures (Ministry of Education), Fudan University, Shanghai, 200433, China
| | - Jingyao Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Materials and Technologies, Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Display Material and Technology, School of Electronics and Information Technology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, China
| | - Huanjun Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Materials and Technologies, Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Display Material and Technology, School of Electronics and Information Technology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, China.
| | - Joshua D Caldwell
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, 37235, USA.
| | - Hugen Yan
- State Key Laboratory of Surface Physics, Department of Physics, Key Laboratory of Micro and Nano-Photonic Structures (Ministry of Education), Fudan University, Shanghai, 200433, China.
| | - Shaozhi Deng
- State Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Materials and Technologies, Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Display Material and Technology, School of Electronics and Information Technology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, China.
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13
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He M, Nolen JR, Nordlander J, Cleri A, Lu G, Arnaud T, McIlwaine NS, Diaz-Granados K, Janzen E, Folland TG, Edgar JH, Maria JP, Caldwell JD. Coupled Tamm Phonon and Plasmon Polaritons for Designer Planar Multiresonance Absorbers. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2023; 35:e2209909. [PMID: 36843308 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202209909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2022] [Revised: 01/13/2023] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Wavelength-selective absorbers (WS-absorbers) are of interest for various applications, including chemical sensing and light sources. Lithography-free fabrication of WS-absorbers can be realized via Tamm plasmon polaritons (TPPs) supported by distributed Bragg reflectors (DBRs) on plasmonic materials. While multifrequency and nearly arbitrary spectra can be realized with TPPs via inverse design algorithms, demanding and thick DBRs are required for high quality-factors (Q-factors) and/or multiband TPP-absorbers, increasing the cost and reducing fabrication error tolerance. Here, high Q-factor multiband absorption with limited DBR layers (3 layers) is experimentally demonstrated by Tamm hybrid polaritons (THPs) formed by coupling TPPs and Tamm phonon polaritons when modal frequencies are overlapped. Compared to the TPP component, the Q-factors of THPs are improved twofold, and the angular broadening is also reduced twofold, facilitating applications where narrow-band and nondispersive WS-absorbers are needed. Moreover, an open-source algorithm is developed to inversely design THP-absorbers consisting of anisotropic media and exemplify that the modal frequencies can be assigned to desirable positions. Furthermore, it is demonstrated that inversely designed THP-absorbers can realize same spectral resonances with fewer DBR layers than a TPP-absorber, thus reducing the fabrication complexity and enabling more cost-effective, lithography-free, wafer-scale WS-absorberss for applications such as free-space communications and gas sensing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingze He
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, 37240, USA
| | - Joshua Ryan Nolen
- Interdisciplinary Materials Science Program, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, 37240, USA
- Photonics Initiative, Advanced Science Research Center, City University of New York, New York, NY, 10031, USA
| | - Josh Nordlander
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Angela Cleri
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Guanyu Lu
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, 37240, USA
| | - Thiago Arnaud
- Department of Physics, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA
- Research Experience for Undergraduates (REU) program, Vanderbilt Institute for Nanoscale Science and Engineering (VINSE), Nashville, TN, 37240, USA
| | - Nathaniel S McIlwaine
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Katja Diaz-Granados
- Interdisciplinary Materials Science Program, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, 37240, USA
| | - Eli Janzen
- Tim Taylor Department of Chemical Engineering, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, 66506, USA
| | - Thomas G Folland
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, 37240, USA
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA
| | - James H Edgar
- Tim Taylor Department of Chemical Engineering, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, 66506, USA
| | - Jon-Paul Maria
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Joshua D Caldwell
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, 37240, USA
- Interdisciplinary Materials Science Program, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, 37240, USA
- Sensorium Technological Laboratories, Nashville, TN, 37205, USA
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14
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Li N, Zou Q, Zhao B, Min C, Yuan X, Somekh M, Feng F. Near-field manipulation of Tamm plasmon polaritons. OPTICS EXPRESS 2023; 31:7321-7335. [PMID: 36859866 DOI: 10.1364/oe.481440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2022] [Accepted: 01/22/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Tamm plasmon polaritons (TPPs) arise from electromagnetic resonant phenomena which appear at the interface between a metallic film and a distributed Bragg reflector. They differ from surface plasmon polaritons (SPPs), since TPPs possess both cavity mode properties and surface plasmon characteristics. In this paper, the propagation properties of TPPs are carefully investigated. With the aid of nanoantenna couplers, polarization-controlled TPP waves can propagate directionally. By combining nanoantenna couplers with Fresnel zone plates, asymmetric double focusing of TPP wave is observed. Moreover, radial unidirectional coupling of the TPP wave can be achieved when the nanoantenna couplers are arranged along a circular or a spiral shape, which shows superior focusing ability compared to a single circular or spiral groove since the electric field intensity at the focal point is 4 times larger. In comparison with SPPs, TPPs possess higher excitation efficiency and lower propagation loss. The numerical investigation shows that TPP waves have great potential in integrated photonics and on-chip devices.
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15
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Huang G, Liu K, Shi G, Guo Q, Li X, Liu Z, Ma W, Wang T. Elevating Surface-Enhanced Infrared Absorption with Quantum Mechanical Effects of Plasmonic Nanocavities. NANO LETTERS 2022; 22:6083-6090. [PMID: 35866846 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.2c01042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Plasmonic nanocavities, with the ability to localize and concentrate light into nanometer-scale dimensions, have been widely used for ultrasensitive spectroscopy, biosensing, and photodetection. However, as the nanocavity gap approaches the subnanometer length scale, plasmonic enhancement, together with plasmonic enhanced optical processes, turns to quenching because of quantum mechanical effects. Here, instead of quenching, we show that quantum mechanical effects of plasmonic nanocavities can elevate surface-enhanced infrared absorption (SEIRA) of molecular moieties. The plasmonic nanocavities, nanojunctions of gold and cadmium oxide nanoparticles, support prominent mid-infrared plasmonic resonances and enable SEIRA of an alkanethiol monolayer (CH3(CH2)n-1SH, n = 3-16). With a subnanometer cavity gap (n < 6), plasmonic resonances turn to blue shift and the SEIRA signal starts a pronounced increase, benefiting from the quantum tunneling effect across the plasmonic nanocavities. Our findings demonstrate the new possibility of optimizing the field enhancement and SEIRA sensitivity of mid-infrared plasmonic nanocavities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guangyan Huang
- Institute of Functional Nano & Soft Materials (FUNSOM), Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Carbon-Based Functional Materials & Devices, Soochow University, 199 Ren'ai Road, Suzhou 215123, Jiangsu, P.R. China
| | - Kaizhen Liu
- Institute of Functional Nano & Soft Materials (FUNSOM), Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Carbon-Based Functional Materials & Devices, Soochow University, 199 Ren'ai Road, Suzhou 215123, Jiangsu, P.R. China
| | - Guangyi Shi
- Institute of Functional Nano & Soft Materials (FUNSOM), Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Carbon-Based Functional Materials & Devices, Soochow University, 199 Ren'ai Road, Suzhou 215123, Jiangsu, P.R. China
| | - Qianqian Guo
- Institute of Functional Nano & Soft Materials (FUNSOM), Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Carbon-Based Functional Materials & Devices, Soochow University, 199 Ren'ai Road, Suzhou 215123, Jiangsu, P.R. China
| | - Xiang Li
- Institute of Functional Nano & Soft Materials (FUNSOM), Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Carbon-Based Functional Materials & Devices, Soochow University, 199 Ren'ai Road, Suzhou 215123, Jiangsu, P.R. China
| | - Zeke Liu
- Institute of Functional Nano & Soft Materials (FUNSOM), Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Carbon-Based Functional Materials & Devices, Soochow University, 199 Ren'ai Road, Suzhou 215123, Jiangsu, P.R. China
| | - Wanli Ma
- Institute of Functional Nano & Soft Materials (FUNSOM), Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Carbon-Based Functional Materials & Devices, Soochow University, 199 Ren'ai Road, Suzhou 215123, Jiangsu, P.R. China
| | - Tao Wang
- Institute of Functional Nano & Soft Materials (FUNSOM), Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Carbon-Based Functional Materials & Devices, Soochow University, 199 Ren'ai Road, Suzhou 215123, Jiangsu, P.R. China
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16
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Roberts JA, Ho PH, Yu SJ, Fan JA. Electrically Driven Hyperbolic Nanophotonic Resonators as High Speed, Spectrally Selective Thermal Radiators. NANO LETTERS 2022; 22:5832-5840. [PMID: 35849552 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.2c01579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
We introduce and experimentally demonstrate electrically driven, spectrally selective thermal emitters based on globally aligned carbon nanotube metamaterials. The self-assembled metamaterial supports a high degree of nanotube ordering, enabling nanoscale ribbons patterned in the metamaterial to function both as Joule-heated incandescent filaments and as infrared hyperbolic resonators imparting spectral selectivity to the thermal radiation. Devices batch-fabricated on a single chip emit polarized thermal radiation with peak wavelengths dictated by their hyperbolic resonances, and their nanoscale heated dimensions yield modulation rates as high as 1 MHz. As a proof of concept, we show that two sets of thermal emitters on the same chip, operating with different peak wavelengths and modulation rates, can be used to sense carbon dioxide with one detector. We anticipate that the combination of batch fabrication, modulation bandwidth, and spectral tuning with chip-based nanotube thermal emitters will enable new modalities in multiplexed infrared sources.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Andris Roberts
- Department of Applied Physics, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Po-Hsun Ho
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Shang-Jie Yu
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Jonathan A Fan
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
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17
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Leuthold J, Dorodnyy A. On-demand emission from Tamm plasmons. NATURE MATERIALS 2021; 20:1595-1596. [PMID: 34675375 DOI: 10.1038/s41563-021-01128-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Juerg Leuthold
- ETH Zurich, Institute of Electromagnetic Fields (IEF), Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Alexander Dorodnyy
- ETH Zurich, Institute of Electromagnetic Fields (IEF), Zurich, Switzerland.
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