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Zhou B, Rasmussen M, Whelan PR, Ji J, Shivayogimath A, Bøggild P, Jepsen PU. Non-Linear Conductivity Response of Graphene on Thin-Film PET Characterized by Transmission and Reflection Air-Plasma THz-TDS. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:3669. [PMID: 37050729 PMCID: PMC10099266 DOI: 10.3390/s23073669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2023] [Revised: 03/28/2023] [Accepted: 03/29/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
We demonstrate that the conductivity of graphene on thin-film polymer substrates can be accurately determined by reflection-mode air-plasma-based THz time-domain spectroscopy (THz-TDS). The phase uncertainty issue associated with reflection measurements is discussed, and our implementation is validated by convincing agreement with graphene electrical properties extracted from more conventional transmission-mode measurements. Both the reflection and transmission THz-TDS measurements reveal strong non-linear and instantaneous conductivity depletion across an ultra-broad bandwidth (1-9 THz) under relatively high incident THz electrical field strengths (up to 1050 kV/cm).
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Affiliation(s)
- Binbin Zhou
- Department of Electrical and Photonics Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Mattias Rasmussen
- Department of Electrical and Photonics Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | | | - Jie Ji
- Department of Physics, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Abhay Shivayogimath
- Department of Physics, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Peter Bøggild
- Department of Physics, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Peter Uhd Jepsen
- Department of Electrical and Photonics Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
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2
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Artesani A, Lamuraglia R, Menegazzo F, Bonetti S, Traviglia A. Terahertz Time-Domain Spectroscopy in Reflection Configuration for Inorganic and Mineral Pigment Identification. APPLIED SPECTROSCOPY 2023; 77:74-87. [PMID: 36190333 DOI: 10.1177/00037028221133404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
This work demonstrates terahertz time-domain spectroscopy (THz-TDS) in reflection configuration on a class of inorganic and mineral pigments. The technique is validated for pictorial materials against the limitations imposed by the back-reflection of the THz signal, such as weak signal intensity, multiple signal losses and distortion, as well as the current scarce databases. This work provides a detailed description of the experimental procedure and method used for the determination of material absorption coefficient of a group of 10 pigments known to be used in ancient frescoes, that are, Cu-based (azurite, malachite, and Egyptian blue), Pb-based (minium and massicot), Fe-based (iron oxide yellow, dark ochre, hematite, and Pompeii red) pigments and mercury sulfide (cinnabar), and classified the vibrational modes of the molecular oxides and sulfides for material identification. The results of this work showed that the mild signal in reflection configuration does not limit the application of THz-TDS on inorganic and mineral pigments as long as (i) the THz signal is normalized with a highly reflective reference sample, (ii) the secondary reflected signals from inner interfaces are removed with a filtering procedure, and (iii) the limitations at high frequencies imposed by the dynamic range of the instrument are considered. Under these assumptions, we were able to differentiate molecular phases of the same metal and identify azurite, Egyptian blue, minium, and cinnabar, isolating the molecular vibrations up to 125 cm-1. The established approach demonstrated to be reliable, and it can be extended for the study of other materials, well beyond the reach of the heritage domain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessia Artesani
- Center for Cultural Heritage Technology, 121451Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Venice, Italy
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, 437807Humanitas University, Milan, Italy
| | - Raffaella Lamuraglia
- Center for Cultural Heritage Technology, 121451Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Venice, Italy
- Department of Molecular Sciences and Nanosystems, 19047Ca' Foscari University of Venice, Venice, Italy
| | - Federica Menegazzo
- Center for Cultural Heritage Technology, 121451Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Venice, Italy
- Department of Molecular Sciences and Nanosystems, 19047Ca' Foscari University of Venice, Venice, Italy
| | - Stefano Bonetti
- Center for Cultural Heritage Technology, 121451Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Venice, Italy
- Department of Molecular Sciences and Nanosystems, 19047Ca' Foscari University of Venice, Venice, Italy
- Department of Physics, 7675Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Arianna Traviglia
- Center for Cultural Heritage Technology, 121451Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Venice, Italy
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Systematic THz study of the substrate effect in limiting the mobility of graphene. Sci Rep 2021; 11:8729. [PMID: 33888755 PMCID: PMC8062515 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-87894-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2021] [Accepted: 04/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
We explore the substrate-dependent charge carrier dynamics of large area graphene films using contact-free non-invasive terahertz spectroscopy. The graphene samples are deposited on seven distinct substrates relevant to semiconductor technologies and flexible/photodetection devices. Using a Drude model for Dirac fermions in graphene and a fitting method based on statistical signal analysis, we extract transport properties such as the charge carrier density and carrier mobility. We find that graphene films supported by substrates with minimal charged impurities exhibit an enhanced carrier mobility, while substrates with a high surface roughness generally lead to a lower transport performance. The smallest amount of doping is observed for graphene placed on the polymer Zeonor, which also has the highest carrier mobility. This work provides valuable guidance in choosing an optimal substrate for graphene to enable applications where high mobility is required.
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Lin H, Russell BP, Bawuah P, Zeitler JA. Sensing Water Absorption in Hygrothermally Aged Epoxies with Terahertz Time-Domain Spectroscopy. Anal Chem 2021; 93:2449-2455. [PMID: 33401901 PMCID: PMC7880525 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.0c04453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
![]()
In
the field of non-destructive testing, terahertz sensing has
been used to analyze a wide range of materials where the most successful
applications have involved materials that are semi-transparent to
terahertz radiation. In this work, we demonstrate the sensitivity
of terahertz time-domain spectroscopy to quantify water absorption
in hygrothermally aged simple and commercial epoxy systems supported
by conventional gravimetric analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hungyen Lin
- Engineering Department, Lancaster University, Gillow Avenue, Lancaster LA1 4YW, United Kingdom
| | - Benjamin P Russell
- Experimental Materials Science, Hexcel Composites Ltd., Ickleton Road, Duxford CB22 4QB, United Kingdom
| | - Prince Bawuah
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Cambridge, Philippa Fawcett Drive, Cambridge CB3 0AS, United Kingdom
| | - J Axel Zeitler
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Cambridge, Philippa Fawcett Drive, Cambridge CB3 0AS, United Kingdom
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Conductivity Extraction Using a 180 GHz Quasi-Optical Resonator for Conductive Thin Film Deposited on Conductive Substrate. MATERIALS 2020; 13:ma13225260. [PMID: 33233851 PMCID: PMC7699854 DOI: 10.3390/ma13225260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2020] [Revised: 11/15/2020] [Accepted: 11/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Measurement of electrical conductivity of conductive thin film deposited on a conductive substrate is important and challenging. An effective conductivity model was constructed for a bilayer structure to extract thin film conductivity from the measured Q-factor of a quasi-optical resonator. As a demonstration, aluminium films with thickness of 100 nm were evaporated on four silicon wafers whose conductivity ranges from ~101 to ~105 S/m (thus, the proposed method can be verified for a substrate with a wide range of conductivity). Measurement results at ~180 GHz show that average conductivities are 1.66 × 107 S/m (which agrees well with direct current measurements) with 6% standard deviation. The proposed method provides a contactless conductivity evaluation method for conductive thin film deposited on conductive substrate which cannot be achieved by the existing microwave resonant method.
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D'Arco A, Mussi V, Petrov S, Tofani S, Petrarca M, Beccherelli R, Dimitrov D, Marinova V, Lupi S, Zografopoulos DC. Fabrication and spectroscopic characterization of graphene transparent electrodes on flexible cyclo-olefin substrates for terahertz electro-optic applications. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2020; 31:364006. [PMID: 32460247 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6528/ab96e6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
We demonstrate graphene on flexible, low-loss, cyclo-olefin polymer films as transparent electrodes for terahertz electro-optic devices and applications. Graphene was grown by chemical vapor deposition and transferred to cyclo-olefin polymer substrates by the thermal release tape method as layers on an approximate area of 4 cm2. The structural and electromagnetic properties of the graphene samples as well as their spatial variation were systematically mapped by means of µRaman, terahertz time-domain and mid-infrared spectroscopy. Thanks to the small thickness and very low intrinsic absorption of the employed substrates, both high transmittance and conductivity were recorded, demonstrating the suitability of the technique for the fabrication of a new class of transparent and flexible electrodes working in the terahertz spectrum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annalisa D'Arco
- Department of Physics,'Sapienza' University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 2, I-00185, Rome, Italy. Roma1-INFN, Piazzale Aldo Moro, 2, I-00185, Rome, Italy
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Alves-Lima D, Song J, Li X, Portieri A, Shen Y, Zeitler JA, Lin H. Review of Terahertz Pulsed Imaging for Pharmaceutical Film Coating Analysis. SENSORS 2020; 20:s20051441. [PMID: 32155785 PMCID: PMC7085697 DOI: 10.3390/s20051441] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2020] [Revised: 02/27/2020] [Accepted: 03/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
Terahertz pulsed imaging (TPI) was introduced approximately fifteen years ago and has attracted a lot of interest in the pharmaceutical industry as a fast, non-destructive modality for quantifying film coatings on pharmaceutical dosage forms. In this topical review, we look back at the use of TPI for analysing pharmaceutical film coatings, highlighting the main contributions made and outlining the key challenges ahead.
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Affiliation(s)
- Décio Alves-Lima
- Department of Engineering, Lancaster University, Lancaster LA1 4YW, UK; (D.A.-L.); (J.S.); (X.L.)
| | - Jun Song
- Department of Engineering, Lancaster University, Lancaster LA1 4YW, UK; (D.A.-L.); (J.S.); (X.L.)
- Department of Information Science, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, Jiangsu, China
| | - Xiaoran Li
- Department of Engineering, Lancaster University, Lancaster LA1 4YW, UK; (D.A.-L.); (J.S.); (X.L.)
| | - Alessia Portieri
- TeraView Ltd., 1, Enterprise Cambridge Research Park, Cambridge CB25 9PD, UK;
| | - Yaochun Shen
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Electronics, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 3GJ, UK;
| | - J. Axel Zeitler
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Cambridge, Philippa Fawcett Drive, Cambridge CB3 0AS, UK;
| | - Hungyen Lin
- Department of Engineering, Lancaster University, Lancaster LA1 4YW, UK; (D.A.-L.); (J.S.); (X.L.)
- Correspondence:
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8
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Beer A, Hershkovitz D, Fleischer S. Iris-assisted terahertz field-induced second-harmonic generation in air. OPTICS LETTERS 2019; 44:5190-5193. [PMID: 31674964 DOI: 10.1364/ol.44.005190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2019] [Accepted: 08/27/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Terahertz field-induced second-harmonic generation (TFISH) is a technique for optical detection of broadband THz fields. We show that by placing an iris at the interaction volume of the THz and optical fields, the TFISH signal increases by several tenfold in atmospheric air. The iris-assisted TFISH amplification is characterized at varying air pressures and probe intensities and provides an elegant platform for studying nonlinear phase matching in the gas phase.
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Naftaly M, Vieweg N, Deninger A. Industrial Applications of Terahertz Sensing: State of Play. SENSORS 2019; 19:s19194203. [PMID: 31569789 PMCID: PMC6806174 DOI: 10.3390/s19194203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2019] [Revised: 09/17/2019] [Accepted: 09/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
This paper is a survey of existing and upcoming industrial applications of terahertz technologies, comprising sections on polymers, paint and coatings, pharmaceuticals, electronics, petrochemicals, gas sensing, and paper and wood industries. Finally, an estimate of the market size and growth rates is given, as obtained from a comparison of market reports.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mira Naftaly
- National Physical Laboratory, Hampton Road, Teddington TW11 0LW, UK.
| | - Nico Vieweg
- TOPTICA Photonics AG, Lochhamer Schlag 19, 82166 Gräfelfing, Germany.
| | - Anselm Deninger
- TOPTICA Photonics AG, Lochhamer Schlag 19, 82166 Gräfelfing, Germany.
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10
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Kim HG, Oh IK, Lee S, Jeon S, Choi H, Kim K, Yang JH, Chung JW, Lee J, Kim WH, Lee HBR. Analysis of Defect Recovery in Reduced Graphene Oxide and Its Application as a Heater for Self-Healing Polymers. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2019; 11:16804-16814. [PMID: 30964978 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.8b19955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Reduced graphene oxide (RGO) obtained from graphene oxide has received much attention because of its simple and cost-effective manufacturing process. Previous studies have demonstrated the scalable production of RGO with relatively high quality; however, irreducible defects on RGO deteriorate the unique intrinsic physical properties of graphene, such as high-mobility electrical charge transport, limiting its potential applicability. Using the enhanced chemical reactivity of such defects, atomic layer deposition (ALD) can be a useful method to selectively passivate the defect sites. Herein, we analyzed the selective formation of Pt by ALD on the defect sites of RGO and investigated the effect of Pt formation on the electrical properties of RGO by using ultrafast terahertz (THz) laser spectroscopy. Time-resolved THz measurements directly corroborated that the degree of the defect-recovering property of ALD Pt-treated RGO appearing as Auger-type sub-picosecond relaxation, which is otherwise absent in pristine RGO. In addition, the conductivity improvement of Pt-recovered RGO was theoretically explained by density functional theory calculations. The ALD Pt-passivated RGO yielded a superior platform for the fabrication of a highly conductive and transparent graphene heater. By using the ALD Pt/RGO heater embedded underneath scratched self-healing polymer materials, we also demonstrated the effective recovery property of self-healing polymers with high-performance heating capability. Our work is expected to result in significant advances toward practical applications for RGO-based flexible and transparent electronics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyun Gu Kim
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering , Incheon National University , Incheon 22012 , Korea
| | - Il-Kwon Oh
- School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering , Yonsei University , Seoul 03722 , Korea
| | - Seungmin Lee
- School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering , Yonsei University , Seoul 03722 , Korea
| | - Sera Jeon
- Department of Physics , Pusan National University , Busan 46241 , Korea
| | - Hyunyong Choi
- School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering , Yonsei University , Seoul 03722 , Korea
| | - Kwanpyo Kim
- Department of Physics , Yonsei University , Seoul 03722 , Korea
| | - Joo Ho Yang
- Department of Organic Materials and Fiber Engineering , Soongsil University , Seoul 06978 , Korea
| | - Jae Woo Chung
- Department of Organic Materials and Fiber Engineering , Soongsil University , Seoul 06978 , Korea
| | - Jaekwang Lee
- Department of Physics , Pusan National University , Busan 46241 , Korea
| | - Woo-Hee Kim
- Department of Materials Science and Chemical Engineering , Hanyang University , Ansan 15588 , Korea
| | - Han-Bo-Ram Lee
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering , Incheon National University , Incheon 22012 , Korea
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11
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Meyer F, Hekmat N, Mansourzadeh S, Fobbe F, Aslani F, Hoffmann M, Saraceno CJ. Optical rectification of a 100 W average power mode-locked thin-disk oscillator. OPTICS LETTERS 2018; 43:5909-5912. [PMID: 30547967 DOI: 10.1364/ol.43.005909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2018] [Accepted: 10/25/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
We demonstrate terahertz (THz) generation at megahertz repetition rate by optical rectification in GaP crystals, using excitation average power levels exceeding 100 W. The laser source is a state-of-the-art diode-pumped Yb:YAG SESAM-mode-locked thin-disk laser, capable of generating 580 fs pulses at an average power up to 120 W and a repetition rate of 13.4 MHz directly from a one-box oscillator, without the need for any extra amplification stages. In this first demonstration, we measure a maximum THz average power of 78 μW at a central frequency of 0.8 THz. Our results show that optical rectification of state-of-the-art high average power ultrafast sources in nonlinear crystals is within reach and paves the way toward high average power, ultrafast laser pumped THz sources.
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12
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Nowak M, Jesionek M, Solecka B, Szperlich P, Duka P, Starczewska A. Contactless photomagnetoelectric investigations of 2D semiconductors. BEILSTEIN JOURNAL OF NANOTECHNOLOGY 2018; 9:2741-2749. [PMID: 30416925 PMCID: PMC6204781 DOI: 10.3762/bjnano.9.256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2018] [Accepted: 10/04/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Background: Applications of two-dimensional (2D) materials in electronic devices require the development of appropriate measuring methods for determining their typical semiconductor parameters, i.e., mobility and carrier lifetime. Among these methods, contactless techniques and mobility extraction methods based on field-effect measurements are of great importance. Results: Here we show a contactless method for determining these parameters in 2D semiconductors that is based on the photomagnetoelectric (PME) effect (also known as the photoelectromagnetic effect). We present calculated dependences of the PME magnetic moment, evoked in 2D Corbino configuration, on the magnetic field as well as on the intensity and spatial distribution of illumination. The theoretical predictions agree with the results of the contactless investigations performed on non-suspended single-layer graphene. We use the contactless PME method for determining the dependence of carrier mobility on the concentration of electrons and holes induced by a back-gate voltage. Conclusion: The presented contactless PME method, used in Corbino geometry, is complementary to the mobility extraction methods based on field-effect measurements. It can be used for determining the mobility and diffusion length of carriers in different 2D materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marian Nowak
- Institute of Physics, Center for Science and Education, Silesian University of Technology, Krasińskiego 8, 40-019 Katowice, Poland
| | - Marcin Jesionek
- Institute of Physics, Center for Science and Education, Silesian University of Technology, Krasińskiego 8, 40-019 Katowice, Poland
| | - Barbara Solecka
- Institute of Physics, Center for Science and Education, Silesian University of Technology, Krasińskiego 8, 40-019 Katowice, Poland
| | - Piotr Szperlich
- Institute of Physics, Center for Science and Education, Silesian University of Technology, Krasińskiego 8, 40-019 Katowice, Poland
| | - Piotr Duka
- Institute of Physics, Center for Science and Education, Silesian University of Technology, Krasińskiego 8, 40-019 Katowice, Poland
| | - Anna Starczewska
- Institute of Physics, Center for Science and Education, Silesian University of Technology, Krasińskiego 8, 40-019 Katowice, Poland
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Braeuninger-Weimer P, Funke S, Wang R, Thiesen P, Tasche D, Viöl W, Hofmann S. Fast, Noncontact, Wafer-Scale, Atomic Layer Resolved Imaging of Two-Dimensional Materials by Ellipsometric Contrast Micrography. ACS NANO 2018; 12:8555-8563. [PMID: 30080966 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.8b04167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Adequate characterization and quality control of atomically thin layered materials (2DM) has become a serious challenge particularly given the rapid advancements in their large area manufacturing and numerous emerging industrial applications with different substrate requirements. Here, we focus on ellipsometric contrast micrography (ECM), a fast intensity mode within spectroscopic imaging ellipsometry, and show that it can be effectively used for noncontact, large area characterization of 2DM to map coverage, layer number, defects and contamination. We demonstrate atomic layer resolved, quantitative mapping of chemical vapor deposited graphene layers on Si/SiO2-wafers, but also on rough Cu catalyst foils, highlighting that ECM is applicable to all application relevant substrates. We discuss the optimization of ECM parameters for high throughput characterization. While the lateral resolution can be less than 1 μm, we particularly explore fast scanning and demonstrate imaging of a 4″ graphene wafer in 47 min at 10 μm lateral resolution, i.e., an imaging speed of 1.7 cm2/min. Furthermore, we show ECM of monolayer hexagonal BN (h-BN) and of h-BN/graphene bilayers, highlighting that ECM is applicable to a wide range of 2D layered structures that have previously been very challenging to characterize and thereby fills an important gap in 2DM metrology.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sebastian Funke
- Accurion GmbH , Stresemannstraße 30 , Göttingen 37079 , Germany
| | - Ruizhi Wang
- Department of Engineering , University of Cambridge , Cambridge CB3 0FA , United Kingdom
| | - Peter Thiesen
- Accurion GmbH , Stresemannstraße 30 , Göttingen 37079 , Germany
| | - Daniel Tasche
- Faculty of Natural Sciences and Technology , University of Applied Sciences and Arts , Von-Ossietzky-Straße 99 , Göttingen 37085 , Germany
| | - Wolfgang Viöl
- Faculty of Natural Sciences and Technology , University of Applied Sciences and Arts , Von-Ossietzky-Straße 99 , Göttingen 37085 , Germany
| | - Stephan Hofmann
- Department of Engineering , University of Cambridge , Cambridge CB3 0FA , United Kingdom
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