Repellency Assessment of Nepeta cataria Essential Oils and Isolated Nepetalactones on Aedes aegypti

Efficient nepetalactone production in Saccharomyces cerevisiae via metabolic engineering and bioprocess optimization

Nepetalactone, a natural insect repellent comparable to N,N-diethyl-meta-toluamide (DEET), is challenging to produce through plant extraction or chemical synthesis. This study achieved the de novo synthesis of nepetalactone in Saccharomyces cerevisiae without expensive precursors or inducers. Initially, the metabolic pathway for nepetalactone synthesis was successfully established in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. A metabolic pathway was established using strategies such as iridoid synthase (ISY) source screening, enzyme fusion, and cofactor regeneration to optimize nepetalactone production. Bioprocess optimization through chromosomal integration and two-phase fermentation prevented its conversion to dihydronepetalactone, resulting in a high-yield strain, NTE21, with a titer of 2.5 g/L. A record titer of 4.5 g/L was achieved in 5.0 L fed-batch fermentation via continuous batch feeding. This study documents the potential of microbial platforms for the sustainable, cost-effective, and scalable production of nepetalactone, paving the way for its commercial application as a natural insect repellent.

Via Air or Rhizosphere: The Phytotoxicity of Nepeta Essential Oils and Malus Dihydrochalcones

Many specialized metabolites found in plants have significant potential for developing environmentally friendly weed management solutions. This review focuses on the phytotoxic effects of volatile terpenes and phenolic compounds, particularly nepetalactone, an iridoid monoterpenoid from Nepeta species, and phloretin, a dihydrochalcone predominantly found in the genus Malus. We highlight current findings on their herbicidal effects, including morphological, physiological, and biochemical responses in target plants. These results underscore their potential for developing sustainable herbicides that could control weeds with minimal environmental impact. We also discuss their soil persistence and methods to enhance their solubility, chemical stability, and bioavailability. Additionally, the possible effects on non-target organisms, such as pollinators, non-pollinating insects, and soil microbiota, are considered. However, further research and a deeper understanding of their long-term ecological impact, along with a resistance development risk assessment, is essential for the potential development of bioherbicides that could be applied in sustainable weed management practices.

Molecular background of the diverse metabolic profiles in leaves and inflorescences of naked catmint (Nepeta nuda L.)

Nepeta nuda L. shares a typical secondary chemistry with other Nepeta species (fam. Lamiaceae), characterized by the tendency to intensively produce monoterpenoid iridoids, whereas the phenylpropanoid chemistry is steered towards the production of a caffeic acid ester, rosmarinic acid. Combining complementary state-of-the-art analytical techniques, N. nuda metabolome was here comprehensively characterized in the quest for the organ-specific composition of phenolics and terpenoids that possess well-defined functions in plant-biotic interactions as well as therapeutic potential. N. nuda inflorescences showed generally higher constitutive levels of specialized metabolites, as compared to leaves, and the composition of major iridoids and phenolics in reproductive organs was found to be more conserved than in leaves across 13 populations from the Central Balkans. The results suggest that N. nuda plants most likely invest more in constitutive than inducible biosynthesis of functional metabolites in flowers, since they are of essential importance for both pollination and defense against herbivores and pathogens. Conversely, specialized metabolism of leaves is found to be more susceptible to reprograming in response to differential growth conditions. The defense strategy of leaves, primarily functioning in CO2 fixation during photosynthesis, more likely relies on the induction of metabolite levels following plant-environment interplay. Organ-specific biosynthesis of iridoids in N. nuda is found to be tightly regulated at the transcriptional level, and high constitutive levels of these compounds in inflorescences most likely result from the up-regulated expression of several key genes (NnG8H, NnNEPS1, NnNEPS2, and NnNEPS3) determining the metabolic flux through the pathway. The organ-specific content of rosmarinic acid and co-expression patterns of the corresponding biosynthetic genes were much less correlated, which suggests independent organ-specific transcriptional regulation of the iridoid and phenolic pathways. Knowledge gathered within the present study can assist growers to select productive genotypes and manipulate phenology of N. nuda towards maximizing yields and facilitating its integration into pest management systems and other applications related to human health.

In vivo mosquito repellency effect of citronella (Cymbopogon nardus (L.) Rendle) essential oil bath bomb formulation in dogs

Background and Aim

Mosquitoes carry numerous diseases of medical and veterinary significance. While citronella essential oil is safe as a mosquito repellent, extensive research does not document its ability to deter mosquitoes from animals. This study assessed the citronella essential oil bath bomb's ability to repel Culex quinquefasciatus mosquitoes in dogs.

Materials and Methods

Citronella essential oil's chemical composition was analyzed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Through freeze-thaw testing, a bath bomb formulation containing 6% w/w citronella essential oil was assessed for its physical and chemical stability. Thirty-two healthy client-owned mixed-breed dogs were employed to test the mosquito-repellency effects of citronella essential oil (treatment group) and olive oil (control group) bath bomb formulations. Bath bombs were tested for irritation effects on animal skin for 15-day post-application.

Results

Thirty-six compounds were identified through GC-MS, with citronellal (23.38%), δ-cadinene (12.25%), and geraniol (9.09%) being the most prevalent constituents. The bath bomb maintained its original physical properties after undergoing six freeze-thawing cycles and retained over 90% of its citronella essential oil. About 100%, 69.28%, and 65.58% mosquito repellency were displayed by the citronella essential oil bath bomb at 3 h, 6 h, and 8 h, respectively. None of the test animals exhibited skin irritation during the study.

Conclusion

The citronella bath bomb effectively repelled C. quinquefasciatus in dogs without irritating their skin. The formulation's physical and chemical stability is demonstrated by the results of freeze-thaw stability testing. Further studies should be conducted to evaluate the repelling activity against other mosquito species.

Implications of the Propagation Method for the Phytochemistry of Nepeta cataria L. throughout a Growing Season

Catnip (Nepeta cataria L.) plants produce a wide array of specialized metabolites with multiple applications for human health. The productivity of such metabolites, including nepetalactones, and natural insect repellents is influenced by the conditions under which the plants are cultivated. In this study, we assessed how field-grown catnip plants, transplanted after being propagated via either single-node stem cuttings or seeds, varied regarding their phytochemical composition throughout a growing season in two distinct environmental conditions (Pittstown and Upper Deerfield) in the state of New Jersey, United States. Iridoid terpenes were quantified in plant tissues via ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography with triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (UHPLC-QqQ-MS), and phenolic compounds (phenolic acids and flavonoids) were analyzed via UHPLC with diode-array detection (UHPLC-DAD). The highest contents of total nepetalactones in Pittstown were found at 6 weeks after transplanting (WAT) for both seedlings and cuttings (1305.4 and 1223.3 mg/100 g, respectively), while in Upper Deerfield, the highest contents for both propagules were at 11 WAT (1247.7 and 997.1 mg/100 g, respectively) for seed-propagated and stem cuttings). The highest concentration of nepetalactones was associated with floral-bud to partial-flowering stages. Because plants in Pittstown accumulated considerably more biomass than plants grown in Upper Deerfield, the difference in nepetalactone production per plant was striking, with peak productivity reaching only 598.9 mg per plant in Upper Deerfield and 1833.1 mg per plant in Pittstown. Phenolic acids accumulated in higher contents towards the end of the season in both locations, after a period of low precipitation, and flavone glycosides had similar accumulation patterns to nepetalactones. In both locations, rooted stem cuttings reached their maximum nepetalactone productivity, on average, four weeks later than seed-propagated plants, suggesting that seedlings have, overall, better agronomic performance.

Antimicrobial effects of catnip (Nepeta cataria L.) essential oil against canine skin infection pathogens

Background and Aim

Catnip essential oils have antimicrobial effects against bacteria, yeast, and fungi; however, there is limited information regarding their antimicrobial activity against pathogens that cause canine skin infections. This study aimed to identify the phytochemical constituents of catnip essential oil and assay its antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus pseudintermedius, Malassezia pachydermatis, Microsporum canis, Microsporum gypseum, Microsporum gallinae, and Trichophyton mentagrophytes.

Materials and Methods

Catnip essential oil was extracted by hydrodistillation, and its chemical constituents were analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). In vitro antimicrobial activity was investigated using broth microdilution and time-kill tests. To evaluate the effect of catnip essential oil on microbial morphology and cell membrane integrity, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and leakage studies were conducted.

Results

GC-MS analysis revealed that the principal components of catnip essential oil were cis- and trans-nepetalactone (57.09% of peak area), trans-, cis-nepetalactone (39.69% of peak area), trans-caryophyllene (1.88% of peak area), and caryophyllene oxide (1.34% of peak area). The minimum inhibitory concentration, minimum bactericidal concentration, and minimum fungicidal concentration values determined by broth microdilution ranged from 0.0625 mg/mL to 4.0 mg/mL. Time-kill testing showed that the germicidal effects of catnip essential oil were time and concentration-dependent, respectively. Environmental SEM and cell leakage analysis indicated that catnip essential oil disrupted the integrity of cell membranes in the tested microorganisms.

Conclusion

Catnip essential oil has potential as an alternative antimicrobial against a wide range of canine skin infection pathogens, including S. pseudintermedius, M. pachydermatis, Mi. canis, Mi. gypseum, Mi. gallinae, and T. mentagrophytes.

Evaluating repellence properties of catnip essential oil against the mosquito species Aedes aegypti using a Y-tube olfactometer

The mosquito species Aedes aegypti (L.) is known to act as a vector in the transmission of various diseases, including dengue fever and yellow fever. The use of insect repellents is one of precautionary measures used to mitigate the risk of these diseases in humans by reducing mosquito biting. Nepetalactone, a potent natural insect repellent primarily found in catnip (Nepeta cataria) essential oil, has emerged as a promising candidate for mosquito repellence. Here, we evaluated the potential of catnip essential oil (> 95% nepetalactone) for use as a mosquito repellent. Using a Y-tube olfactometer and human hands as an attractant, we analysed the effectiveness of catnip oil at repelling the mosquito species Aedes aegypti. We tested a range of dilutions of catnip essential oil and found that concentrations as low as 2% were effective at repelling > 70% of mosquitoes for between one and four hours after repellent application. These findings suggest that nepetalactone could potentially be used as a natural, effective alternative to synthetic mosquito repellents, thereby offering protection against vector-borne diseases.

Efficacy Evaluation of Medium-Chain Fatty Acids as Skin and Spatial Repellents Against Aedes aegypti (Diptera:Culicidae) Mosquitoes

Fatty acids derived from natural oils are considered as perspective products for adoption as repellents. Fatty acids derived from coconut oil have shown promise as repellents. This study consisted of an olfactometer evaluation of new formulations containing medium-chain fatty acids for spatial repellency and an in laboratory arm-in cage study for contact repellency against Aedes aegypti L. mosquitoes. Six formulations each of capric acid and lauric acid were evaluated for spatial repellency. These formulations contained 0.28-10% of either capric acid or lauric acid as the active ingredients in a consumer friendly skin care formulation. Base formula without fatty acids was evaluated as control in spatial repellency evaluation. For the arm-in cage evaluations, six formulations of capric acid, one base formulation, and a 7% N,N-diethyl-m-toluamide (DEET) product were tested for contact repellency. For contact repellency, United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) standard repellent test cages were used to determine the complete protection time (CPT) of the different formulated repellents. Among all capric acid formulations tested, the concentration of 2.25% (wt) indicated the best level of spatial repellency, but not significantly different from other concentrations. None of the lauric acid concentrations showed any level of spatial repellency. In the arm-in-cage evaluations, the highest contact repellency resulted from 4.5% capric acid, which was significantly higher than 7% DEET and base formula.

Bioactive Molecules Derived from Plants in Managing Dengue Vector Aedes aegypti (Linn.)

Mosquitoes are the potential vectors of several viral diseases such as filariasis, malaria, dengue, yellow fever, Zika fever and encephalitis in humans as well as other species. Dengue, the most common mosquito-borne disease in humans caused by the dengue virus is transmitted by the vector Ae. aegypti. Fever, chills, nausea and neurological disorders are the frequent symptoms of Zika and dengue. Thanks to various anthropogenic activities such as deforestation, industrialized farming and poor drainage facilities there has been a significant rise in mosquitoes and vector-borne diseases. Control measures such as the destruction of mosquito breeding places, a reduction in global warming, as well as the use of natural and chemical repellents, mainly DEET, picaridin, temephos and IR-3535 have proven to be effective in many instances. Although potent, these chemicals cause swelling, rashes, and eye irritation in adults and children, and are also toxic to the skin and nervous system. Due to their shorter protection period and harmful nature towards non-target organisms, the use of chemical repellents is greatly reduced, and more research and development is taking place in the field of plant-derived repellents, which are found to be selective, biodegradable and harmless to non-target species. Many tribal and rural communities across the world have been using plant-based extracts since ancient times for various traditional and medical purposes, and to ward off mosquitoes and various other insects. In this regard, new species of plants are being identified through ethnobotanical surveys and tested for their repellency against Ae. aegypti. This review aims to provide insight into many such plant extracts, essential oils and their metabolites, which have been tested for their mosquitocidal activity against different life cycle forms of Ae. Aegypti, as well as for their efficacy in controlling mosquitoes.

Volatile metabolites from new cultivars of catnip and oregano as potential antibacterial and insect repellent agents

Plant based natural products have been widely used as antibacterial and insect repellent agents globally. Because of growing resistance in bacterial plant pathogens and urban pests to current methods of control, combined with the long- and short-term negative impact of certain chemical controls in humans, non-target organisms, and the environment, finding alternative methods is necessary to prevent and/or mitigate losses caused by these pathogens and pests. The antibacterial and insect repellent activities of essential oils of novel cultivars of catnip (Nepeta cataria L. cv. CR9) and oregano (Origanum vulgare L. cv. Pierre) rich in the terpenes nepetalactone and carvacrol, respectively, were evaluated using the agar well diffusion assay and petri dish repellency assay. The essential oils exhibit moderate to high antibacterial activity against three plant pathogens, Pseudomonas cichorii, Pseudomonas syringae and Xanthomonas perforans of economic interest and the individual essential oils, their mixtures and carvacrol possess strong insect repellent activity against the common bed bug (Cimex lectularius L.), an urban pest of major significance to public health. In this study, the essential oils of catnip and oregano were determined to be promising candidates for further evaluation and development as antibacterial agents and plant-based insect repellents with applications in agriculture and urban pest management.

Successive harvests affect the aromatic and polyphenol profiles of novel catnip (Nepeta cataria L.) cultivars in a genotype-dependent manner

INTRODUCTION

Catnip (Nepeta cataria L.) produces volatile iridoid terpenes, mainly nepetalactones, with strong repellent activity against species of arthropods with commercial and medical importance. Recently, new catnip cultivars CR3 and CR9 have been developed, both characterized by producing copious amounts of nepetalactones. Due to its perennial nature, multiple harvests can be obtained from this specialty crop and the effects of such practice on the phytochemical profile of the plants are not extensively studied.

METHODS

In this study we assessed the productivity of biomass, chemical composition of the essential oil and polyphenol accumulation of new catnip cultivars CR3 and CR9 and their hybrid, CR9×CR3, across four successive harvests. The essential oil was obtained by hydrodistillation and the chemical composition was obtained via gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Individual polyphenols were quantified by Ultra-High-Performance Liquid Chromatography- diode-array detection (UHPLC-DAD).

RESULTS

Although the effects on biomass accumulation were independent of genotypes, the aromatic profile and the accumulation of polyphenols had a genotype-dependent response to successive harvests. While cultivar CR3 had its essential oil dominated by E,Z-nepetalactone in all four harvests, cultivar CR9 showed Z,E-nepetalactone as the main component of its aromatic profile during the 1^st, 3^rd and 4^th harvests. At the second harvest, the essential oil of CR9 was mainly composed of caryophyllene oxide and (E)-β-caryophyllene. The same sesquiterpenes represented the majority of the essential oil of the hybrid CR9×CR3 at the 1^st and 2^nd successive harvests, while Z,E-nepetalactone was the main component at the 3^rd and 4^th harvests. For CR9 and CR9×CR3, rosmarinic acid and luteolin diglucuronide were at the highest contents at the 1^st and 2^nd harvest, while for CR3 the peak occurred at the 3^rd successive harvest.

DISCUSSION

The results emphasize that agronomic practices can significantly affect the accumulation of specialized metabolites in N. cataria and the genotype-specific interactions may indicate differential ecological adaptations of each cultivar. This is the first report on the effects of successive harvest on these novel catnip genotypes and highlights their potential for the supply of natural products for the pest control and other industries.

Prolonged Repellent Activity of Plant Essential Oils against Dengue Vector, Aedes aegypti

Repellents are effective personal protective means against outdoor biting mosquitoes. Repellent formulations composed of EOs are finding increased popularity among consumers. In this study, after an initial screening of 11 essential oils (EOs) at the concentration of 33 μg/cm², five of the most repellent EOs, Perovskia atriplicifolia, Citrus reticulata (fruit peels), C. reticulata (leaves), Mentha longifolia, and Dysphania ambrosioides were further investigated for repellent activity against Aedes aegypti mosquitoes in time span bioassays. When tested at the concentrations of 33 μg/cm², 165 μg/cm² and 330 μg/cm², the EO of P. atriplicifolia showed the longest repellent effect up to 75, 90 and 135 min, respectively, which was followed by C. reticulata (peels) for 60, 90 and 120 min, M. longifolia for 45, 60 and 90 min, and C. reticulata (leaves) for 30, 45 and 75 min. Notably, the EO of P. atriplicifolia tested at the dose of 330 μg/cm² showed complete protection for 60 min which was similar to the commercial mosquito repellent DEET. Gas chromatographic-mass spectrometric analyses of the EOs revealed camphor (19.7%), limonene (92.7%), sabinene (24.9%), carvone (82.6%), and trans-ascaridole (38.8%) as the major constituents of P. atriplicifolia, C. reticulata (peels), C. reticulata (leaves), M. longifolia, and D. ambrosioides, respectively. The results of the present study could help develop plant-based commercial repellents to protect humans from dengue mosquitoes.

Repellency of novel catnip (Nepeta cataria) cultivar extracts against Ixodes scapularis and Haemaphysalis longicornis (Acari: Ixodida: Ixodidae)

Tick bites are a major public health concern due to the vector role that many tick species have in transmitting human pathogens. Synthetic repellents such as N‑diethyl-meta-toluamide (DEET) remain the standard for repellency. Still, there is a need for natural commercial alternatives with similar or better properties than DEET. We evaluated the repellency of two extracts, CR3 and CR9, derived for newly developed catnip cultivars on two tick species, Ixodes scapularis and Haemaphysalis longicornis. Dose-response in vitro assays showed that CR3 and CR9 extracts have similar repellency properties to DEET. At a 20% concentration, both CR3 and CR9 extracts exhibited a repellency of 100%. Catnip extracts maintained their repellency properties for at least 8 h. In a two-choice assay, I. scapularis, but not H. longicornis, was more sensitive to CR3 than DEET. In addition, CR3 reduces the life span of I. scapularis, suggesting that it has an acaricidal effect on ticks. In summary, CR3 and CR9 catnip extracts are promising tick repellents that should be further developed, alone or in combination with other tick repellents, and tested for their use as tick repellents for humans.

Investigation of Volatile Iridoid Terpenes in Nepeta cataria L. (Catnip) Genotypes

Catnip (Nepeta cataria L.) is of scientific interest largely due to the production of nepetalactones, volatile iridoid terpenes with strong arthropod repellent activity. However, the plant can also produce other bioactive volatile iridoids, such as nepetalic acid (NA), nepetalactam (NT) and dihydronepetalactone (DHNL) that have not been studied extensively. Germplasm studies on plants that can produce such compounds are scarce. The present study evaluated the chemical diversity of catnip genotypes with a focus on NA, NT and DHNL. A total of 34 genotypes were harvested at different times over two years. The ethanolic extract of the plants was screened for iridoids by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography/triple quadrupole mass spectrometry. CR9 × CR3 genotype had the highest value for biomass yield, while cultivar CR9 had the highest value for accumulated NA. Genotype UK.2 had the highest value for accumulated NT yield and CR5 had the highest value for accumulated DHNL. Overall, patented cultivars and elite selections performed better than other less studied genotypes. Harvest time influenced the accumulation of secondary metabolites differentially for the genotypes. This is the first germplasm study with a focus on these iridoid compounds, yet more studies are necessary as genotype characterization is essential for breeding and standardization of products for industry.

In vivo characterization of key iridoid biosynthesis pathway genes in catnip (Nepeta cataria)

Using virus-induced gene silencing, we demonstrated that the enzymes GES, ISY, and MLPL are responsible for nepetalactone biosynthesis in Nepeta cataria. Nepetalactone is the main iridoid that is found in the Nepeta genus and is well-known for its psychoactive effect on house cats. Moreover, there is a burgeoning interest into the effect of nepetalactone on insects. Although the enzymes for nepetalactone biosynthesis have been biochemically assayed in vitro, validation of the role that these enzymes have in planta has not been demonstrated. Virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS) is a silencing method that relies on transient transformation and is an approach that has been particularly successful when applied to a variety of non-model plants. Here, we use a recently designed visual-marker dependent VIGS system to demonstrate that the nepetalactone biosynthetic enzymes GES, ISY, and MLPL impact nepetalactone biosynthesis in Nepeta cataria.

Phytochemical profiling of antimicrobial and potential antioxidant plant: Nepeta cataria

Traditional and phytochemical studies have confirmed the richness and diversity of medicinal plants such as Nepeta cataria (N. cataria), but more studies are needed to complete its metabolite profiling. The objective of this research was to enhance the metabolomic picture and bioactivity of N. cataria for better evaluation. Phytochemical analysis was performed by bio-guided protocols and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC/MS). For this, solvents such as methanol, ethanol, water, acetone, and hexane were used to extract a wide number of chemicals. Antibacterial analysis was performed using the 96-well plate test, Kirby Bauer's disk diffusion method, and the resazurin microdilution test. Antioxidant activity was determined by the DPPH assay and radical scavenging capacity was evaluated by the oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) assay. GC/MS analysis revealed a total of 247 identified and 127 novel metabolites from all extracts of N. cataria. Water and acetone extracts had the highest identified metabolites (n = 79), whereas methanol extract was the highest in unidentified metabolites (n = 48). The most abundant phytochemicals in methanol extract were 1-isopropylcyclohex-1-ene (concentration = 27.376) and bicyclo [2.2.1] heptan-2-one (concentration = 20.437), whereas in ethanol extract, it was 9,12,15-octadecatrienoic acid (concentration = 27.308) and 1-isopropylcyclohex-1-ene (concentration = 25.854). An abundance of 2 methyl indoles, conhydrin, and coumarin was found in water extracts; a good concentration of eucalyptol was found in acetone extract; and 7,9-di-tert-butyl-1-oxaspiro is the most abundant phytochemicals in hexane extracts. The highest concentration of flavonoids and phenols were identified in hexane and methanol extracts, respectively. The highest antioxidant potential (DPPH assay) was observed in acetone extract. The ethanolic extract exhibited a two-fold higher ORAC than the methanol extract. This examination demonstrated the inhibitory effect against a set of microbes and the presence of polar and non-polar constituents of N. cataria. The results of this study provide a safe resource for the development of food, agriculture, pharmaceutical, and other industrial products upon further research validation.

Domestic cat damage to plant leaves containing iridoids enhances chemical repellency to pests

Catnip (Nepeta cataria) and silver vine (Actinidia polygama) produce iridoids with arthropod-repellent effects. Cats rub and roll against these plants, transferring iridoids to their fur that repels mosquitoes. Cats also lick and chew plant leaves during this response, although the benefit of this additional behavior has remained unknown. Here, we show that feline leaf damage substantially increases iridoid emission from both plants while also diversifying iridoids in silver vine. Cats show an equivalent duration of response to the complex cocktail of iridoids in damaged silver vine and to the much higher level of a single iridoid produced by damaged catnip. The more complex iridoid cocktail produced when silver vine is licked and chewed by cats increases mosquito repellency at low concentration. In conclusion, feline leaf damage contributes by releasing more mosquito-repellent iridoids. Feline olfactory and behavioral sensitivity is fine-tuned to plant-specific iridoid production for maximizing the mosquito repellency gained.

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Feline damage of specific plants increases release of iridoids that repel mosquitoes

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Damaged silver vine emits a relatively low amount of complex iridoids

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Damaged catnip emits a high amount of the predominant iridoid nepetalactone

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Cat responsiveness to these damaged plants is similar despite different iridoid emissions

Novel β-Cyclodextrin and Catnip Essential Oil Inclusion Complex and Its Tick Repellent Properties

Cyclodextrin inclusion complexes have been successfully used to encapsulate essential oils, improving their physicochemical properties and pharmacological effects. Besides being well-known for its effects on cats and other felines, catnip (Nepeta cataria) essential oil demonstrates repellency against blood-feeding pests such as mosquitoes. This study evaluates the tick repellency of catnip oil alone and encapsulated in β-cyclodextrin, prepared using the co-precipitation method at a 1:1 molar ratio. The physicochemical properties of this inclusion complex were characterized using GC-FID for encapsulation efficiency and yield and SPME/GC-MS for volatile emission. Qualitative assessment of complex formation was done by UV-Vis, FT-IR, ¹H NMR, and SEM analyses. Catnip oil at 5% (v/v) demonstrated significant tick repellency over time, being comparable to DEET as used in commercial products. The prepared [catnip: β-CD] inclusion complex exerted significant tick repellency at lower concentration of the essential oil (equivalent of 1% v/v). The inclusion complex showed that the release of the active ingredient was consistent after 6 h, which could improve the effective repellent duration. These results demonstrated the effective tick repellent activity of catnip essential oil and the successful synthesis of the inclusion complex, suggesting that β-CDs are promising carriers to improve catnip oil properties and to expand its use in repellent formulations for tick management.

The genus Nepeta: Traditional uses, phytochemicals and pharmacological properties

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Nepeta is a multiregional genus of the "Lamiaceae" (Labiatae or Mint) family. Species of Nepeta are a valuable part of traditional medicine and used extensively, particularly in the Himalayan region of India (Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Leh-Ladakh), Pakistan (Khyber Pakhtunkhwaand Pakistani Kashmir), Nepal (Baglund district), also in China and hilly regions of Turkey and Iran. Nepeta species are extensively used as a remedy against a variety of ailments and conditions like chicken pox, tuberculosis, malaria, pneumonia, influenza, measles, stomach disorders, eye complaints, respiratory disorders, asthma, colds, coughs etc. AIM OF THE REVIEW: The main aim of this review is to present a comprehensive and detailed study on traditional uses, pharmacology, phytochemistry, toxicology of Nepeta species and suggest future direction on the design and conduct of various preparations, either alone or in blends with prevailing conventional remedies. The review also emphasizes encouraging researchers towards the wide range of pharmaceutical applications of the various species of Nepeta for their better use and exploration in the future.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

All the relevant data and information on different species of Nepeta were assembled using different databases, such as Science Direct, Springer, PubMed, Taylor and Francis imprints, Chemspider, Google scholar, review and research articles from peer-reviewed journals and unpublished data. Some select 'grey literature' sources viz. ethnobotanical books, chapters, Wikipedia and webpages were also studied.

RESULTS

A variety of bioactive secondary metabolites and nutraceuticals has been isolated from various species of Nepeta. These bioactive compounds belong to different classes of secondary metabolites, such as phenolic acids and their glycosides (rosmarinic acid, gallic acid, caffeic acid), flavonoids and their glycosides (cirsimaritin, salvigenin, luteolin, apigenin), iridoids (nepetalactones and their derivatives), terpenoids (1,8-cineole, linalool, β-caryophyllene, germacrene D, parnapimaro, β-amyrin, oleanolic acid, ursolic acid), steroids (β-sitosterol, stigmasterol), lignans, amino acids, carbohydrates, volatile oils, etc. The species of the genus Nepeta possess a variety of pharmacological activities namely anti-inflammatory, anti-nociceptive, anti-alzheimer, anticancer and cytotoxic, antioxidant, immunomodulatory, antimicrobial, antifungal, insecticidal and along with other biological activities.

CONCLUSION

The species of the genus Nepeta contains a rich source of various bioactive compounds, which are well tolerated as traditional medicines. In fact, different species of Nepeta are widely used in a variety of traditional medicinal systems all around the world. Owing to the variety of pharmacological properties of Nepeta species, more comprehensive and inclusive clinical trials are necessary for the utilization of different Nepeta species against the treatment of a wide range of ailments. There are also various other uses such as food, cosmetic and agriculture that can be investigated or explored in future. Some of the major domains that can be explored within this genus are the investigation of different species for their unexplored biological potential, isolation and characterization of new bioactive constituents and finally, investigation of new applications and possible commercialization of these bioactive leads. No doubt, there are various viable research domains outside those discussed above, but presently for the purposes of this review we will only emphasize the activities herein.

Evaluation of Lotions of Botanical-Based Repellents Against Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae)

Thirteen botanical product repellent compounds such as 2-undecanone, capric, lauric, coconut fatty acids (and their methyl ester derivatives), and catnip oil were formulated in either Coppertone or Aroma Land lotions and evaluated against laboratory-reared Aedes aegypti L. (Diptera: Culicidae) mosquitoes. These formulations contained 7-15 wt/wt of the botanical repellent as the major active ingredient either pure or as mixtures. USDA standard repellent test cages were used to determine the complete protection time (CPT) of the different formulated repellents. Two of the evaluated formulations, a 7% capric acid in Coppertone (CPT 2.7 ± 0.6 h) and 7% coconut fatty acids containing carrylic acid, capric acid, and lauric acid in Coppertone (CPT 2.3 ± 2.0 h), provided strong repellency against mosquitoes up to 3 h, which was equivalent to the (N,N-diethyl-m-toluamide) DEET control (CPT 2.7 ± 0.6 h). This work suggests future potential for these botanical product-based repellents as alternatives to commercial DEET-containing products.

Repellency of Novel Catnip Oils Against the Bed Bug (Hemiptera: Cimicidae)

The common bed bug, Cimex lectularius L., resurged as an important urban pest in the last 20 yr. Yet, there are no commercial repellent products labeled for bed bugs available in the United States. We evaluated the repellency of two catnip oils from newly developed cultivars, CR3 and CR9, and compared each to 10 and 25% N,N-diethyl-meta-toluamide (DEET). CR3 contains 63.4% E,Z-nepatalactone and 27.5% Z,E-nepatalactone, and CR9 contains 94.9% Z,E-nepatalactone. Arena studies showed that CR3 and CR9 oils were more effective than DEET within a 24-h period. At 10% concentration, both CR3 and CR9 oils exhibited a repellency of over 94% during the first 8 h. At 25% concentration, the repellency of CR3 and CR9 oils increased to 100%, and repellency of DEET was 92% during the first 24 h. Repellency of 25% CR3 and CR9 oils became lower than 25% DEET after being aged for 3 d. After 28-d aging, repellency of 25% CR3, CR9, and DEET reduced to 25, 64, and 92%, respectively. Soiled socks were placed above repellent treated bands to determine if the repellent can protect soiled socks from being infested. The 20% CR3 oil prevented 100% of bed bugs from infesting soiled socks showing that it was more effective than DEET. These results indicate that catnip oils from CR3 and CR9 cultivars are more repellent than DEET over a 24-h period following application, but their longevity is shorter than DEET after 72 h.

The irritant receptor TRPA1 mediates the mosquito repellent effect of catnip

Catnip (Nepeta cataria) is a common garden herb well known for its euphoric and hallucinogenic effects on domestic cats,^1–3 for its medicinal properties,^4,5 as well as for its powerful repellent action on insects.^6,7 Catnip extracts have been proposed as a natural alternative to synthetic insect repellents, such as N,N-diethyl-3-methylbenzamide (DEET),^8,9 but how catnip triggers aversion in insects is not known. Here, we show that, both in Drosophila melanogaster flies and Aedes aegypti mosquitoes, the major mediator of catnip repellency is the widely conserved chemical irritant receptor TRPA1. In vitro, both catnip extract and its active ingredient nepetalactone can directly activate fly and mosquito TRPA1. In vivo, D. melanogaster and Ae. aegypti TRPA1 mutants are no longer repelled by catnip and nepetalactone. Interestingly, our data show that some, but not all, fly and mosquito TRPA1 variants are catnip targets. Moreover, unlike the broad TRPA1 agonist allyl isothiocyanate (AITC) (an active ingredient of tear gas and wasabi), catnip does not activate human TRPA1. Our results support the use of catnip and nepetalactone as insect-selective irritants and suggest that, despite TRPA1’s broad conservation, insect TRPA1 can be targeted for the development of safe repellents.

Catnip has been used for millennia as an insect repellent. Melo et al. find that catnip and its major iridoid component nepetalactone activate insect isoforms of the irritant receptor TRPA1. Mosquitoes lacking TRPA1 are no longer repelled by catnip. Catnip does not activate human TRPA1, and this supports its use as a safe natural mosquito repellent.

Larvicididal Activity of Natural Repellents Against the Dengue Vector, Aedes aegypti

The present research aimed to evaluate the larvicidal activity of several recently discovered natural repellents formulated in lotions against larvae of Aedes aegypti. We used a modified larval bioassay method by the World Health Organization standards in evaluating larval mortality at 24-, 48-, and 72-h exposure. Among the test repellents, 2-undecanone showed 100% mortality of Ae. aegypti larvae, followed by catnip oil, capric acid, coconut oil fatty acids, methyl caprate, methyl laurate, and coconut oil methyl esters. The repellent, 2-undecanone showed median lethal concentration (LC50) values of 73.07, 26.45, and 15.68 ppm at 24-, 48-, and 72-h exposure, respectively. Larvicidal activity varied among the other repellents tested.

Alterations in nepetalactone metabolism during polyethylene glycol (PEG)-induced dehydration stress in two Nepeta species

A number of Nepeta species (fam. Lamiaceae) are interesting medicinal crops for arid and semi-arid areas, due to their ability to maintain essential developmental and physiological processes and to rationalize their specialized metabolism under water deficit growth conditions. The present research is, to our knowledge, the first attempt to investigate the molecular background of the dehydration-induced changes in specialized metabolism of Nepeta species, which will help to understand relations between dehydration stress on one hand and biomass production and yield of nepetalactone (NL) on the other. During the 6 days exposure of Nepeta rtanjensis Diklić & Milojević and Nepeta argolica Bory & Chaub. ssp. argolica plants to PEG-induced dehydration stress under experimental in vitro conditions, decrease in transcript levels of the majority of 10 NL biosynthetic genes, and some of the 5 transcription factors (TFs) were recorded, simultaneously with the initial reduction in NL content. The two model species evidently employ similar strategies in response to severe dehydration stress; however N. rtanjensis is highlighted as the species more efficient in maintaining NL amounts in tissues. The results suggest trichome-specific and co-ordinately regulated NL biosynthesis at the level of gene expression, with trichome enriched MYC2 and YABBY5 TFs being the potential positive regulators. Manipulation of such TFs can be effective for engineering the NL biosynthetic pathway, and for the increased production of cis,trans-NL in N. argolica ssp. argolica and trans,cis-NL in N. rtanjensis.

Chemical composition and larvicidal activity of essential oils from Peganum harmala, Nepeta cataria and Phellodendron amurense against Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae)

Essential oils from aerial parts of the herbs Peganum harmala and Nepeta cataria, and leaves of the tree Phellodendron amurense were analyzed by GC-FID and GC-MS, and their larvicidal activities were assayed on the early fourth instar larvae of Aedes aegypti. The major constituents of the oils were limonene (14.5%) and thymol (11.5%) in P. harmala, thymol (46.5%), 4aα,7α,7aβ-nepetalactone (18.3%) and 4aα,7β,7aα-neptalactone (19.7%) in N. cataria, eugenol (14.5%) andγ-eudesmol (9.5%) in P. amurense.The oil of N. cataria had a strong larvicidal activity (LC50 < 50 µg/mL; LC90 < 86.8 µg/mL) on A. aegypti while the remaining oils showed a moderated killing effect. The larvicidal activity of N. cataria oil was associated to the contents of 1,8-cineol, camphor, 4aα,7α,7aβ-Nepetalactone, 4aα,7β,7aα-Nepetalactone and thymol. Our results indicate that the oil of N. catariadeserves to be used as a source of larvicidal agents against A. aegypti.

Enantiospecific Synthesis of Nepetalactones by One-Step Oxidative NHC Catalysis

An efficient oxidative NHC-catalyzed one-step transformation of (S)- or (R)-8-oxocitronellal to nepetalactone (NL) in enantio- and diastereomerically pure form has been developed. Several new and "easy to make" N-Mes- or N-Dipp-substituted 1,2,4-triazolium salts carrying nitroaromatic groups on N1 were synthesized and evaluated as precatalysts in combination with base and stoichiometric organic oxidant. Under optimized conditions, NLs are accessible in very good yields and diastereomerically pure under mild conditions. The oxidant used could be recovered and recycled under operationally simple conditions.