Relationship between age, BMI, head posture and superficial neck muscle stiffness and elasticity in adult women

Does Forward Head Posture Influence Muscle Tone, Stiffness, and Elasticity in University Students?

Background/Objectives: The present study aimed to investigate the relationship between forward head posture (FHP) and the mechanical properties of muscles as well as the influence of FHP on them. Methods: To define participants with FHP, craniovertebral angle (CVA) was measured. All participants were divided into two groups in accordance with their CVA: the experimental group (FHP) consisting of participants with a CVA below 50°, and the control group (CON) consisting of participants with a CVA above 50°. The tone, stiffness, and elasticity of the upper trapezius muscle (UT), the middle trapezius muscle (MT), the lower trapezius muscle (LT), the sternocleidomastoid muscle (SCM), the splenius capitis muscle (SC), the pectoralis major muscle (PM), and the serratus anterior muscle (SA) were measured using MyotonPro (Myoton AS, Tallinn, Estonia). Results: Both tone and stiffness in the UT were statistically significant (p < 0.05). In addition, stiffness in the LT was statistically significant (p < 0.05). No significant differences were found in tone, stiffness, and elasticity of the MT, SCM, SC, PM, and SA muscles (p > 0.05). A significant correlation was found between FHP and both tone and stiffness in the UT (r = -0.731, p = 0.000; r = -0.749, p = 0.000, respectively). No significant correlation was found between FHP and tone, stiffness, and elasticity of the MT, LT, SCM, SC, PM, and SA muscles. Conclusions: Since the UT was the muscle in which changes in mechanical properties were first induced by FHP, an approach targeting UT is necessary as a priority when treating patients with FHP.

Movement control of the cervical spine declines with aging: a cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

Previous studies suggest that cervical spine position sense declines with age, while the relationship between aging and cervical spine movement control remains unknown.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the relationship between age and cervical spine movement control in asymptomatic adults.

METHODS

One hundred five asymptomatic adults (21-79 years old) were included. The Butterfly test (performed with an inertial measurement unit) was used to assess movement control of the cervical spine, in which participants tracked an unpredictable moving target with active head and neck movements at three different movement path difficulty levels (3 repetitions each). The determined parameters were amplitude accuracy (AA), time on target (ToT), undershoot (U) and overshoot (O). Spearman's rank correlation coefficient and simple linear regression analysis were used to assess the relationship between age and each parameter.

RESULTS

A significant relationship was demonstrated between advancing age and the AA, ToT and U parameters for all three movement path difficulty levels (p ≤ .001), but not for the O parameter (p > .05). Advancing age explained 19.8-30.4%, 24.5-30.8% and 33.7-37.2% of the variance in the AA, ToT, and U parameters, respectively.

CONCLUSION

The results suggest that cervical spine movement control declines with aging in an asymptomatic population. Clinicians may need to monitor potential deficits in cervicocephalic kinesthesia in older asymptomatic adults, as these impairments may have a considerable impact on their functional abilities.

Intramuscular condition of swallowing-related muscles using shear-wave elastography: A preliminary study in healthy adults

BACKGROUND

Assessing the internal condition of swallowing-related muscles and muscle strength and size is important because their deterioration may lead to dysphagia. However, there are few reports on stiffness of swallowing-related muscles measured using shear-wave elastography (SWE) and their qualitative characteristics.

OBJECTIVES

We measured stiffness of swallowing-related muscles using SWE to investigate the relationship between muscle stiffness and body composition as well as other relevant variables in healthy adults.

METHODS

Thirty healthy adults were included in this cross-sectional study. We evaluated stiffness of the genioglossus muscle (GGM) and geniohyoid muscle (GHM) using SWE. Skeletal muscle mass index, body mass index (BMI), handgrip strength, tongue pressure, and cross-sectional areas of the muscles were measured, and we determined their relationship with muscle stiffness.

RESULTS

For muscle stiffness, the mean value for the middle GGM was 7.08 ± 1.92 kPa, that for the posterior GGM was 9.31 ± 2.68 kPa, and that for the GHM was 8.84 ± 2.15 kPa. In multiple regression analysis, with stiffness of the posterior GGM as the dependent variable, BMI (β = -.473, p = .039) was a significant negative explanatory variable. However, with the GHM stiffness as the dependent variable, BMI (β = .419, p = .033) was a significant positive explanatory variable.

CONCLUSION

Stiffness of the posterior GGM was positively correlated with BMI and that of the GHM was negatively correlated with BMI. Stiffness, as measured using SWE, has the potential to capture the intramuscular characteristics of swallowing-related muscles, particularly the posterior GGM.

Inter-rater reliability and test-retest reliability of the foot posture index (FPI-6) for assessing static foot posture in elderly female patients with knee osteoarthritis and its association with quadriceps muscle tone and stiffness

Objective

1. To assess the Inter-rater reliability and test-retest reliability of FPI-6 total score and individual scores in static foot posture evaluation among elderly female patients with knee osteoarthritis (KOA), aiming to establish the reliability of the FPI-6 scale. 2. To investigate the disparity between dominant and non-dominant quadriceps characteristics in elderly female KOA patients, as well as explore the correlation between quadriceps characteristics and abnormal foot posture, thereby offering novel insights for the prevention and treatment of KOA.

Methods

The study enrolled a total of 80 lower legs of 40 participants (all female) with unilateral or bilateral KOA, who were assessed by two raters at three different time points. The inter-rater and test-retest reliability of the FPI-6 was evaluated using the intra-class correlation coefficient (ICC), while the absolute reliability of FPI-6 was examined using the standard error of measurement (SEM), minimum detectable change (MDC), and Bland-Altman analysis. The internal consistency of FPI-6 was assessed using Spearman's correlation coefficient. Additionally, MyotonPRO was employed to assess quadriceps muscle tone and stiffness in all participants, and the association between quadriceps muscle tone/stiffness and the total score of FPI-6 was analyzed.

Result

Our study found excellent inter-rater and test-retest reliability (ICC values of 0.923 and 0.931, respectively) for the FPI-6 total score, as well as good to excellent reliability (ICC values ranging from 0.680 to 0.863 and 0.739-0.883) for individual items. The SEM and MDC values for the total score of FPI-6 among our study inter-rater were 0.78 and 2.15, respectively. and the SEM and MDC values for the test-retest total score of FPI-6 were found to be 0.76 and 2.11, respectively. Furthermore, the SEM and MDC values between inter-rater and test-retest across six individual items ranged from 0.30 to 0.56 and from 0.84 to 1.56. The Bland-Altman plots and respective 95% LOA showed no evidence of systematic bias. In terms of the mechanical properties of the quadriceps on both sides, the muscle tone and stiffness of rectus femoris (RF), vastus medialis (VM), and vastus lateralis (VL) were significantly higher in the non-dominant leg compared to the dominant leg. Additionally, in the non-dominant leg, there was a significant positive correlation between the muscle tone and stiffness of VM, VL, RF and the total score of FPI-6. However, in the dominant leg, only VM's muscle tone and stiffness showed a significant positive correlation with the total score of FPI-6.

Conclusion

The reliability of the FPI-6 total score and its six individual items was good to excellent. Our findings offer a straightforward and dependable approach for researchers to assess foot posture in elderly female patients with KOA. Furthermore, we observed significantly greater quadriceps tension and stiffness in the non-dominant leg compared to the dominant leg. The FPI-6 total score exhibited a significant correlation with changes in quadriceps muscle performance among KOA patients. These observations regarding the relationship between changes in quadriceps muscle performance and foot posture in elderly female KOA patients may provide novel insights for disease prevention, treatment, and rehabilitation.

Regional variations and sex-related differences of stiffness in human tracheal ligaments

PURPOSE

There have been numerous studies focused on the stiffness of tracheal cartilage. However, no research has been conducted specifically on the annular ligament, nor have any regional differences in the annular ligament been identified. The purpose of this study was to investigate the stiffness of the ligaments present between the thyroid, cricoid and tracheal cartilages.

METHODS

The ligaments were identified in the cervical region of living subjects with ultrasonography. The stiffness of the ligaments was measured from the body surface using a digital palpation device (MyotonPRO). Since it is impossible to measure the entire trachea in a living subject, an additional measurement was performed on human cadavers.

RESULTS

Both in vivo and cadaveric investigations found that the stiffness of annular ligaments decreased gradually from the superior to inferior parts. There was no difference in the stiffness between males and females in the superior part of the trachea. However, the stiffness of the middle and inferior parts was predominantly higher in females than in males. Furthermore, males showed significant differences in stiffness between the superior and middle parts, while females showed no significant differences.

CONCLUSION

These results reveal that there are regional and sex-related differences in the stiffness of human tracheal ligaments.

Identifying Predictors of Neck Disability in Patients with Cervical Pain Using Machine Learning Algorithms: A Cross-Sectional Correlational Study

(1) Background: Neck pain intensity, psychosocial factors, and physical function have been identified as potential predictors of neck disability. Machine learning algorithms have shown promise in classifying patients based on their neck disability status. So, the current study was conducted to identify predictors of neck disability in patients with neck pain based on clinical findings using machine learning algorithms. (2) Methods: Ninety participants with chronic neck pain took part in the study. Demographic characteristics in addition to neck pain intensity, the neck disability index, cervical spine contour, and surface electromyographic characteristics of the axioscapular muscles were measured. Participants were categorised into high disability and low disability groups based on the median value (22.2) of their neck disability index scores. Several regression and classification machine learning models were trained and assessed using a 10-fold cross-validation method; also, MANCOVA was used to compare between the two groups. (3) Results: The multilayer perceptron (MLP) revealed the highest adjusted R2 of 0.768, while linear discriminate analysis showed the highest receiver characteristic operator (ROC) area under the curve of 0.91. Pain intensity was the most important feature in both models with the highest effect size of 0.568 with p < 0.001. (4) Conclusions: The study findings provide valuable insights into pain as the most important predictor of neck disability in patients with cervical pain. Tailoring interventions based on pain can improve patient outcomes and potentially prevent or reduce neck disability.

Scapular muscle dynamic stiffness of asymptomatic subjects and subjects with chronic shoulder pain, at rest and isometric contraction conditions

Muscle stiffness had a crucial role in joint stability, particularly, at the shoulder complex. Although changes in upper trapezius muscle stiffness have been described for shoulder pain, contradictory findings have been obtained. Also, existing data regarding scapular muscles are, majorly, about trapezius. Myotonometry is a method used to assess stiffness; however, the reliability values of scapular muscle stiffness through this method have not been assessed in shoulder pain conditions. The present study aims to compare scapular muscles' stiffness (trapezius, serratus anterior, and levator scapulae) between subjects with and without chronic shoulder pain and to evaluate the related test-retest reliability. Twenty-two symptomatic and twenty-two asymptomatic subjects participated in a cross-sectional study. The dynamic muscular stiffness of scapular muscles, at rest and during an isometric contraction, was measured bilaterally with myotonometry, in two moments. The differences in bilateral averaged values between symptomatic and asymptomatic subjects and the effect of the group (group presenting pain in the dominant or non-dominant side, and asymptomatic group) and of the limb (unilateral painful or asymptomatic limb, and bilateral asymptomatic limbs) were investigated. Test-retest intra-rater reliability was determined. An effect of the group was observed at rest, for middle trapezius stiffness, and during contraction, for middle and lower trapezius stiffness. For middle trapezius, increased values were observed in the group presenting pain in non-dominant side comparing to both groups or to group presenting pain in dominant side. The intraclass correlation coefficient, majorly, ranged between 0.775 and 0.989. Participants with pain in the non-dominant side presented an increased middle trapezius' stiffness. Globally, high reliability was observed for scapular muscles dynamic stiffness.

Analysis of Clinical Pattern of Musculoskeletal Disorders in the Cervical and Cervico-Thoracic Regions of the Spine

Background: Cervical spine disorders (CSDs) are a common cause of neck pain. Proper diagnosis is of great importance in planning the management of a patient with neck pain. Hence, the aim of this study is to provide an overview of the clinical pattern of early-stage functional disorders affecting the cervical and cervico-thoracic regions of the spine, considering the age and sex of the subjects. Methods: Two hundred adult volunteers were included in the study. Manual examination of segments C0/C1-Th3/Th4 was performed according to the methodology of the Katenborn-Evjenth manual therapy concept and the spine curvatures were assessed (cervical lordosis and thoracic kyphosis). Results: The most common restricted movement was lateral flexion to the left, and the least disturbed movement were observed in the sagittal plane (flexion and extension). The most affected segment was C7/Th1 (71.5% participants had problems in this segment), and the least affected segment was Th3/Th4 (69.5% participants had no mobility disorders in this segment). The number of disturbed segments did not differ between men and women (p > 0.05), but increased with age (r = 0.14, p = 0.04). Conclusions: Cervical mobility in adult population is frequently restricted. The number of affected segments increased with age and was not sex-dependent.

Comparison of the activation and mechanical properties of scapulothoracic muscles in young tennis players with and without scapular dyskinesis: an observational comparative study

BACKGROUND

In tennis athletes with scapular dyskinesis, the activation of the scapulothoracic muscles during serve is not known. Also, the mechanical properties (tone, elasticity, and stiffness) of the scapulothoracic muscles of the tennis athletes with scapular dyskinesis are likely to change. The study aimed to evaluate the activation of the scapulothoracic muscles while performing tennis serve and to determine the changes in the mechanical properties of the same muscles in young tennis athletes with scapular dyskinesis.

METHODS

Seventeen tennis athletes with scapular dyskinesis aged between 11 and 18 years (the scapular dyskinesis group) and age- and gender-matched 17 asymptomatic tennis athletes (the control group) were included in the study. Activation of scapulothoracic muscles (descending-transverse-ascending trapezius and serratus anterior) in the 3 phases (preparation, acceleration, and follow-through) of the serve was evaluated using surface electromyography, and the mechanical properties of the same muscles were measured at rest by myotonometry.

RESULTS

Ascending trapezius activation in the follow-through phase was lower in the scapular dyskinesis group compared with the control group (mean difference 95% confidence interval: -22.8 [-41.2 to -4.5]) (P = .017). The tone and stiffness of the transverse trapezius (P = .043 and P = .017, respectively) were higher, whereas the same parameters of the ascending trapezius were lower (P = .008 and P = .010, respectively) in the scapular dyskinesis group compared with the control group.

CONCLUSIONS

Activation of the ascending trapezius and the tone and stiffness of the transverse-ascending trapezius were altered in tennis athletes with scapular dyskinesis. Implementations to improve these changes can be included in the rehabilitation or training programs of young tennis athletes with scapular dyskinesis.

Examination of Myofascial Stiffness and Elasticity in the Upper Trapezius Region in Patients with Unilateral Neck Pain: A Cross-Sectional Study

(1) Background: Globally, neck pain is prevalent, affecting around thirty percent of the population annually. To better understand the influence of pain on the myofascial layers, the present study investigated these on the upper trapezius muscle in unilateral, more severe neck pain. (2) Methods: This study was a cross-sectional study. Forty patients (42.2 ± 14.7) with a confirmed diagnosis of unilateral neck pain were examined using durometry and indentometry. This study evaluated the stiffness, elasticity, and pressure pain threshold of both sides of the neck (symptomatic side: SS; healthy side: HS). Furthermore, the range of motion of the cervical spine (lateral flexion, rotation) was quantified using a digital goniometer. (3) Results: A significant lateral discrepancy was observed in stiffness between groups (durometry: SS-33.76 ± 7.78, HS-29.75 ± 7.45, p < 0.001; indentometry: SS-59.73 ± 33.93, HS-4.18 ± 12.69, p = 0.024). In contrast, no differences were found between the comparison sides of the upper trapezius for the parameter's elasticity (SS-0.101 ± 1.09, HS--0.006 ± 0.29, p = 0.416), cervical spine mobility (lateral flexion: SS-37.08 ± 8.15, HS-37.73 ± 7.61, p = 0.559; rotation: SS-73.55 ± 12.37, HS-72.85 ± 11.10, p = 0.660), and algometry (SS-36.41 ± 17.53, HS-37.22 ± 17.00, p = 0.657). (4) Conclusion: Overall, it can be concluded that more severe neck pain unilaterally shows differences in stiffness on the same side. Future research is needed to investigate the links.

Relationship between morphometric and mechanical properties of superficial lumbosacral soft tissue layers in healthy young adults

Introduction: It is commonly considered that myotonometry is a non-invasive method capable of quantifying linear elastic and viscoelastic properties of the myofascial tissue through the application of a weak mechanical impulse to the surface of the skin. However, before the impulse can reach the myofascial tissue, it must cross more superficial tissues such as the skin and subcutaneous tissue (ST). All these superficial tissues have different distributions and organizations of structural components. Therefore, the study aimed to examine the potential relationships between the mechanical and morphometric properties of various superficial soft tissues surrounding the lumbar multifidus muscle (LM). Methods: Myotonometric measurements of dynamic stiffness, logarithmic decrement, and creep, and ultrasonographic measurements of thickness and echogenicity of cutaneous, subcutaneous, perimuscular tissue, and LM were obtained from 50 healthy individuals in the resting prone position and during contralateral arm lift. Results: The most important findings were that in both the relaxed and contracted LM state, the dynamic stiffness strongly negatively (r = -0.69; p < 0.001 in relaxation, r = -0.83; p < 0.001 in contraction) and creep strongly positively (r = 0.79; p < 0.001 in relaxation, r = 0.85; p < 0.001 in contraction) correlated with the thicknesses of the ST. Similar but weaker correlations were noticed between both these measures and the perimuscular tissue thickness. Elasticity was uncorrelated to the thicknesses of the tissues. With LM contraction (change from the relaxed to contracted state), the relative increase in dynamic stiffness was correlated with the relative decrease in dermis (r = -0.51; p < 0.001) and ST (r = -0.47; p = 0.001) thickness, and with the relative increase in LM (r = 0.36; p = 0.010) thickness. Moreover, the relative decrease (thinning) in the ST thickness was correlated with the relative increase in logarithmic decrement (i.e., decrease in soft tissue elasticity, r = -0.37, p = 0.011). The mechanical properties of the soft tissues were not related to their echogenicity. Discussion: In conclusion, the thicker the subcutaneous and perimuscular layers, the lesser the stiffness and the greater the time-dependent deformation to the external force of the tissues surrounding the LM during its relaxation and isometric contraction. Moreover, the greater the thinning of the ST and the thickening of the LM during its contraction, the higher the increase in lumbosacral tissue stiffness and the decrease in elasticity. Therefore, one should consider the thickness of the ST before planning or analyzing the outcomes of myotonometric or other external biomechanical measurements to avoid drawing the wrong conclusions about the mechanical properties of the myofascial tissue.

Machine Learning and Explainable Artificial Intelligence Using Counterfactual Explanations for Evaluating Posture Parameters

Postural deficits such as hyperlordosis (hollow back) or hyperkyphosis (hunchback) are relevant health issues. Diagnoses depend on the experience of the examiner and are, therefore, often subjective and prone to errors. Machine learning (ML) methods in combination with explainable artificial intelligence (XAI) tools have proven useful for providing an objective, data-based orientation. However, only a few works have considered posture parameters, leaving the potential for more human-friendly XAI interpretations still untouched. Therefore, the present work proposes an objective, data-driven ML system for medical decision support that enables especially human-friendly interpretations using counterfactual explanations (CFs). The posture data for 1151 subjects were recorded by means of stereophotogrammetry. An expert-based classification of the subjects regarding the presence of hyperlordosis or hyperkyphosis was initially performed. Using a Gaussian progress classifier, the models were trained and interpreted using CFs. The label errors were flagged and re-evaluated using confident learning. Very good classification performances for both hyperlordosis and hyperkyphosis were found, whereby the re-evaluation and correction of the test labels led to a significant improvement (M_PRAUC = 0.97). A statistical evaluation showed that the CFs seemed to be plausible, in general. In the context of personalized medicine, the present study's approach could be of importance for reducing diagnostic errors and thereby improving the individual adaptation of therapeutic measures. Likewise, it could be a basis for the development of apps for preventive posture assessment.

Reference Values for Sagittal Clinical Posture Assessment in People Aged 10 to 69 Years

Poor posture is a well-known problem in all age groups and can lead to back pain, which in turn can result in high socio-economic costs. Regular assessment of posture can therefore help to identify postural deficits at an early stage in order to take preventive measures and can therefore be an important tool for promoting public health. We measured the posture of 1127 symptom-free subjects aged 10 to 69 years using stereophotogrammetry and determined the sagittal posture parameters flèche cervicale (FC), flèche lombaire (FL), and kyphosis index (KI) as well as the values standardized to the trunk height (FC%, FL%, KI%). FC, FC%, KI, and KI% showed an increase with age in men but not in women, and a difference between the sexes. FL remained largely constant with age, although FL% had significantly greater values in women than men. Postural parameters correlated only moderately or weakly with body mass index. Reference values were determined for different age groups and for both sexes. Since the parameters analyzed can also be determined by simple and non-instrumental methods in medical office, they are suitable for performing preventive checks in daily medical or therapeutic practice.

Cervical Paraspinal Muscle Fatty Infiltration is Directly Related to Extension Reserve in Patients With Cervical Spine Pathology

STUDY DESIGN/SETTING

Retrospective review of a prospectively collected database.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to determine the relationship between paracervical muscle area, density, and fat infiltration and cervical alignment among patients presenting with cervical spine pathology.

BACKGROUND CONTEXT

The impact of cervical spine alignment on clinical outcomes has been extensively studied, but little is known about the association between spinal alignment and cervical paraspinal musculature.

METHODS

We examined computed tomography scans and radiographs for patients presenting with cervical spine pathology. The posterior paracervical muscle area, density, and fat infiltration was calculated on axial slices at C2, C4, C6, and T1. We measured radiographic parameters including cervical sagittal vertical axis, cervical lordosis, T1 slope (T1S), range of motion of the cervical spine. We performed Pearson correlation tests to determine if there were significant relationships between muscle measurements and alignment parameters.

RESULTS

The study included 51 patients. The paracervical muscle area was higher for males at C2 ( P =0.005), C4 ( P =0.001), and T1 ( P =0.002). There was a positive correlation between age and fat infiltration at C2, C4, C6, and T1 (all P <0.05). The cervical sagittal vertical axis positively correlated with muscle cross-sectional area at C2 ( P =0.013) and C4 ( P =0.013). Overall cervical range of motion directly correlated with muscle density at C2 ( r =0.48, P =0.003), C4 ( r =0.41, P =0.01), and C6 ( r =0.53. P <0.001) and indirectly correlated with fat infiltration at C2 ( r =-0.40, P =0.02), C4 ( r =-0.32, P =0.04), and C6 ( r =-0.35, P =0.02). Muscle density correlated directly with reserve of extension at C2 ( r =0.57, P =0.009), C4 ( r =0.48, P =0.037), and C6 ( r =0.47, P =0.033). Reserve of extension indirectly correlated with fat infiltration at C2 ( r =0.65, P =0.006), C4 ( r =0.47, P =0.037), and C6 ( r =0.48, P =0.029).

CONCLUSIONS

We have identified specific changes in paracervical muscle that are associated with a patient's ability to extend their cervical spine.

The therapeutic effect of Värska mud and Värska mineral water baths on the overuse pain and muscle tension syndromes in the working age population

The effects of bath therapy are complex and result from a unique interaction between the aquatic environment and the human body functions. The effect of bath therapy depends on both water temperature and chemical additives (mineral substances and humic substances). Värska Resort Centre, in south-eastern Estonia, uses for the balneotherapy the local curative mud and mineral water. The aim of the study was to evaluate and compare the effects of Värska's local mud bath and mineral water bath on moderate musculoskeletal pains in working-age people. The study involved 64 working-age subjects: within two weeks, 32 of them received five general mineral water baths, and another 32 received five general curative mud baths. Pain was assessed with the Nordic Musculosceletal Questionnaire, and muscle tension was measured with a myotonometer in m. erector spinae and m. trapezius. Measurements were performed three times: before the start of the study, immediately after the last procedure, and 2-3 weeks after the last procedure. Both the Värska curative mud bath and the Värska mineral water bath showed a positive effect on musculoskeletal pain and muscle tension. Both procedures can be recommended as drug-free interventions for mild to moderate musculoskeletal pain syndrome and muscle tensions, in both prevention and treatment.

Intermittent Fasting versus Continuous Calorie Restriction: Which Is Better for Weight Loss?

We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials and pilot trial studies to compare the effectiveness of intermittent fasting (IF) and continuous calorie restriction (CCR) in overweight and obese people. The parameters included body mass index (BMI), body weight, and other metabolism-related indicators. A systematic search in PubMed, Embase, Cochrane Library, and Web of Science was conducted up to January 2022. Standardized mean differences (SMDs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were used to measure the effectiveness. Publication bias was assessed using Egger’s test. The stability of the results was evaluated using sensitivity analyses. The significance of body weight change (SMD = −0.21, 95% CI (−0.40, −0.02) p = 0.028) was more significant after IF than CCR. There was no significant difference in BMI (SMD = 0.02, 95% CI (−0.16, 0.20) p = 0.848) between IF and CCR. These findings suggest that IF may be superior to CCR for weight loss in some respects.

Scapular Dynamic Muscular Stiffness Assessed through Myotonometry: A Narrative Review

Several tools have been used to assess muscular stiffness. Myotonometry stands out as an accessible, handheld, and easy to use tool. The purpose of this review was to summarize the psychometric properties and methodological considerations of myotonometry and its applicability in assessing scapular muscles. Myotonometry seems to be a reliable method to assess several muscles stiffness, as trapezius. This method has been demonstrated fair to moderate correlation with passive stiffness measured by shear wave elastography for several muscles, as well as with level of muscle contraction, pinch and muscle strength, Action Research Arm Test score and muscle or subcutaneous thickness. Myotonometry can detect scapular muscles stiffness differences between pre- and post-intervention in painful conditions and, sometimes, between symptomatic and asymptomatic subjects.

Upper Quadrant Pain and Disability Associated with a Cross-Sectional Area of Deep and Superficial Neck Muscles: A Computed Tomography Study

STUDY DESIGN

An analytical cross-sectional computed tomography (CT) study.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the association of the cross-sectional area (CSA) and density of neck muscles (sternocleidomastoid, upper trapezius, levator scapulae, anterior scalene, longus coli, longus capitis) with upper quadrant pain and disability.

SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA

Neck pain, a common condition, causes substantial disability to individuals. The deep cervical flexor muscles are impaired in persons with neck pain. These muscles play a greater role in maintaining stable head postures, whereas, superficial muscles are responsible for peak exertions and reinforcing spinal stability at terminal head postures.

METHODS

Two hundred thirty consecutive individuals suffering from neck pain were referred to CT scans; 124/230 complied with the inclusion and exclusion criteria. Subjects were interviewed and the measurements of the CSA and muscle density were extracted from the scans.

RESULTS

Muscles associated with quick disability of the arms, shoulders, and hand questionnaire (QDASH) were the lateral posterior group (LPG) CSA C3-C4 on the right side (beta = -0.31, P = 0.029); the sternocleidomastoid (SCM) CSA C3-C4 on the left side (beta = 0.29, P = 0.031); the LPG CSA C3-C4 on the left side (beta = -0.49, P = 0.000); the LCM CSA C5-C6 on the right side (beta = -0.19, P = 0.049); the LPG CSA C5-C6 on the right side (beta = -0.36, P = 0.012); and the LPG CSA C5-C6 on the left side (beta = -0.42, P = 0.002). Further analyses with radiculopathy acting as an augmenting/enhancing variable (moderator), showed an increase in the model strength (r2 = 0.25) with a stronger prediction of pain and disability. Muscle measurements did not predict neck disability index (NDI) scores.

CONCLUSION

By using an accurate measuring tool, we found an association of the deep and superficial neck muscles' CSA with upper extremities' pain and disability. When performing manual work, a special load is placed on the shoulders and neck muscles. Future research should focus on examining the effectiveness of exercise-type intervention programs to strengthen the deep neck and upper extremities' muscles in order to prevent muscle fatigue.Level of Evidence: 2.

Assessments of Muscle Thickness and Tonicity of the Masseter and Sternocleidomastoid Muscles and Maximum Mouth Opening in Patients with Temporomandibular Disorder

The purpose of this study was to compare the muscle thickness and tone of the masseter and sternocleidomastoid (SCM) muscles and maximum mouth opening (MMO) in subjects with and without temporomandibular disorders (TMD), and perform a correlation comparison on the results of the TMD group. Sixty patients were allocated to the TMD group (n = 30) or the non-TMD group (n = 30). Ultrasound imaging, myotonometer, and vernier calipers were used to determine the related changes in muscle thickness and muscle tone in masseter and SCM, and MMO, respectively. The TMD group revealed a significant decrease than the non-TMD group in the muscle thickness of masseter and SCM, respectively (p < 0.001), with a significant increase in frequency (p < 0.001) and stiffness (p < 0.001) in the masseter muscle tone, with a significant increase in frequency (p < 0.001) and stiffness (p = 0.005) in the SCM muscle tone, a significant decrease in the MMO (p < 0.001). There was a moderate negative correlation between the relaxed state of masseter muscle thickness and stiffness of SCM muscle tone (r = −0.40, p = 0.002), and a moderate negative correlation between the relaxed state of SCM muscle thickness and frequency of SCM muscle tone (r = −0.42, p = 0.001). There was a moderate negative correlation between the clenching state of SCM muscle thickness and the frequency of SCM muscle tone (r = −0.47, p < 0.001). In addition, a moderate negative correlation between MMO and frequency of SCM muscle tone (r = −0.44, p < 0.001). The muscle thickness was decreased, and the muscle tone was increased in the masseter and SCM muscle, respectively. Additionally, MMO was decreased in patients with TMD compared with non-TMD.

Paravertebral Muscle Mechanical Properties in Patients with Axial Spondyloarthritis or Low Back Pain: A Case-Control Study

Different musculoskeletal disorders are a source of pain in the spinal region; most of them can be divided into mechanical, such as low back pain (LBP), or inflammatory origins, as is the case of axial spondyloarthritis (axSpA). Nevertheless, insufficient information is available about the muscle negative consequences of these conditions. Thus, the objective of this study was to identify whether mechanical muscle properties (MMPs) of cervical and lumbar muscles are different between patients with axSpA, subacute LBP (sLBP), and healthy controls. Furthermore, we aimed identify whether MMPs were related to sociodemographic and clinical variables in various study groups. The MMPs, sociodemographic, and clinical variables were obtained in 43 patients with axSpA, 43 subjects with sLBP, and 43 healthy controls. One-way ANOVAs and ROC curves were applied to identify whether the MMPs could differentiate between the study groups. Intra-group Pearson r coefficients to test the associations between MMPs and the rest of the variables were calculated. The results showed that axSpA subjects have a higher tone and stiffness and a lower relaxation and creep than sLBP and healthy ones (p < 0.05). All lumbar and cervical MMPs, except for decrement, could correctly classify axSpA and healthy subjects and axSpA and sLBP patients (in both cases, Area Under the Curve > 0.8). However, no MMP could differentiate between sLBP and healthy subjects. Each group had a different pattern of bivariate correlations between MMPs and sociodemographic and clinical data, with a worse state and progression of the axSpA group associated with a higher tone and stiffness in both spinal regions. This study supports that MMPs are different and show different patterns of correlations depending on the type of spinal pain.

Effects of Age and Sex on Properties of Lumbar Erector Spinae in Healthy People: Preliminary Results From a Pilot Study

Background: The influences of age and sex on properties of lumbar erector spinae have not been previously studied. Changes in the performance of lumbar erector spinae properties associated with age represent a valuable indicator of risk for lower-back-related disease.

Objective: To investigate the lumbar erector spinae properties with regard to age and sex to provide a reference dataset.

Methods: We measured muscle tone and stiffness of the lumbar erector spinae (at the L3–4 level) in healthy men and women (50 young people, aged 20–30 years; 50 middle-aged people, aged 40–50 years; and 50 elderly people, aged 65–75 years) using a MyotonPRO device.

Results: In general, there are significant differences in muscle tone and stiffness among young, middle-aged, and elderly participants, and there were significant differences in muscle tone and stiffness between men and women, and there was no interaction between age and sex. The muscle tone and stiffness of the elderly participants were significantly higher than those of the middle-aged and young participants (P < 0.01), and the muscle tone and stiffness of the middle-aged participants were significantly higher than those of the young participants (P < 0.01). In addition, the muscle tone and stiffness of men participants were significantly higher than that of women participants (P < 0.01).

Conclusion: Our results indicate that muscle tone and stiffness of the lumbar erector spinae increase with age. The muscle tone and stiffness of the lumbar erector spinae in men are significantly higher than in women. The present study highlights the importance of considering age and sex differences when assessing muscle characteristics of healthy people or patients.

The Relation of Body Mass Index to Muscular Viscoelastic Properties in Normal and Overweight Individuals

Background: The body mass index (BMI) is closely related to fat tissue, which may have direct or indirect effects on muscle function. Previous studies have evaluated BMI and muscle viscoelastic properties in vivo in older people or individual sexes; however, the relationship between BMI and muscular viscoelastic properties is still unknown. Aims: The purpose of this study was to determine the correlation of BMI with muscular viscoelastic properties, and to compare these properties in a young sedentary population with normal and overweight individuals. Methods: A total of 172 healthy sedentary individuals (mean age, 26.00 ± 5.45 years) were categorized by sex (male and female) and BMI classification (normal (BMI, 18.50-24.99 kg/m²), overweight (BMI = 25.00-29.99 kg/m²)). Body weight was evaluated using an electronic scale, while height was measured using a standard stadiometer. BMI was calculated by dividing the weight in kilograms by the square of height in meters. The viscoelastic properties (tone, stiffness, and elasticity) of the biceps brachii (BB) and biceps femoris (BF) muscles were measured bilaterally using the MyotonPRO device at rest. Results: The bilateral BF tone and stiffness, right BB stiffness, and elasticity showed weak correlations with BMI in all participants. Furthermore, the bilateral BF tone and stiffness, right BB stiffness and elasticity, and left BB stiffness were weakly positively correlated with male sex. Only the right BB elasticity was weakly positively correlated with BMI in females (p < 0.05). No correlation with BMI was determined for other viscoelastic properties (p > 0.05). The overweight group showed increased bilateral BF stiffness and tone, right BB stiffness, and reduced bilateral BB elasticity compared to the normal-weight group (p < 0.05), while other viscoelastic properties were similar (p > 0.05). Greater bilateral BB tone, BF tone and stiffness, and lower BF elasticity were observed in males than in females (p < 0.05), but other viscoelastic properties were not significantly different (p < 0.05). No effect of BMI-sex interactions was found on viscoelastic properties (p > 0.05). Conclusions: The BB and BF viscoelastic properties were weakly correlated with BMI. Males showed greater muscle tone and stiffness, and lower elasticity. The overweight individuals showed increased stiffness and tone, particularly in lower extremities, and reduced elasticity in upper extremities. The effect of BMI-sex interactions on the viscoelastic properties was not clear. Higher BMI (increased mechanical load) might cause the human body to develop different muscular viscoelastic adaptations in the extremities.

Mechanical Properties of Lumbar and Cervical Paravertebral Muscles in Patients with Axial Spondyloarthritis: A Case-Control Study

Background: Axial spondyloarthritis (axSpA) affects spinal muscles, due to inflammation and structural damage. The mechanical properties of the muscles, such as tone or stiffness, could be altered in axSpA. The aim of this work is to analyze the mechanical properties of cervical and lumbar spine muscles in axSpA patients and their relationship with metrology measures, function, disease activity, structural damage and quality of life. Methods: axSpA patients and age/gender/BMI matched healthy controls were recruited. The muscle mechanical properties (MMPs), such as tone or frequency, stiffness, decrement (linear elastic properties), relaxation and creep (viscoelastic properties), of cervical (semispinalis capitis) and lumbar (erector spinae) muscles were bilaterally measured at rest using myotonometry. Additionally, conventional metrology, BASMI (metrology index), BASDAI (disease activity index), mSASSS (radiological structural damage index) and SF-12 (health-related quality of life questionnaire) were used in the axSpA group. Between-groups comparison, intra-group correlations and multivariable regression analyses were performed to achieve the study aims. Results: Thirty-four axSpA patients (mean age: 46.21 ± 8.53 y) and 34 healthy volunteers (mean age: 43.97 ± 8.49 y) were recruited. Both in cervical and lumbar spine, linear elastic parameters were significantly higher in axSpA patients in comparison with controls, while viscoelastic parameters were significantly lower. Lumbar muscle frequency, stiffness, relaxation, creep and cervical muscle elasticity were fair to strongly correlated (|0.346| < r < |0.774|) with age, functional status, activity of disease, structural damage and quality of life in axSpA patients. Furthermore, moderate to good fitted multivariate models (0.328 < R² < 0.697) were obtained combining age, conventional metrology, activity of the disease and function for the estimation of cervical and lumbar MMPs. Conclusion: Mechanical properties of spinal muscles of axSpA patients differ from controls. Lumbar and cervical muscles exhibit greater linear elastic properties and lower viscoelastic properties, which are related with age, clinical and psychophysiological features of axSpA.

Intramuscular pressure of human tibialis anterior muscle detects age-related changes in muscle performance

Intramuscular pressure (IMP) reflects forces produced by a muscle. Age is one of the determinants of skeletal muscle performance. The present study aimed to test whether IMP mirrors known age-related muscular changes. We simultaneously measured the tibialis anterior (TA) IMP, compound muscle action potential (CMAP), and ankle torque in thirteen older adults (60-80 years old) in vivo by applying different stimulation intensities and frequencies. We found significant positive correlations between the stimulation intensity and IMP and CMAP. Increasing stimulation frequency caused ankle torque and IMP to increase. The electromechanical delay (EMD) (36 ms) was longer than the onset of IMP (IMPD) (29 ms). Compared to the previously published data collected from young adults (21-40 years old) in identical conditions, the TA CMAP and IMP of older adults at maximum intensity of stimulation were 23.8% and 39.6% lower, respectively. For different stimulation frequencies, CMAP, IMP, as well as ankle torque of older adults were 20.5%, 24.2%, and 13.2% lower, respectively. Surprisingly, the EMD did not exhibit any difference between young and older adults and the IMPD was consistent with the EMD. Data supporting the hypotheses suggest that IMP measurement is an indicator of muscle performance in older adults.

Biomechanical properties of the lips in a pre-orthodontic sample of adolescents and young adults

OBJECTIVES

To assess biomechanical properties of the lip muscles and to investigate their relationship with sex, age, body mass index (BMI), and cephalometric variables.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Demographic information and BMI were collected from 83 study participants seeking orthodontic treatment at the University of Otago. Tone, stiffness, and elasticity of the lip muscles were measured thrice at four different anatomical sites using a digital palpation device. To estimate method error, a duplicate set of measurements in a subsample of 20 participants was taken a week later. Sagittal and vertical cephalometric classifications were based on ANB and FMPA angles, respectively. Data were analysed using mixed models.

RESULTS

Biomechanical properties of lip muscles were remarkably consistent both within and between different recording sessions. The lower lip had higher tone and stiffness than the upper lip. Both the upper and lower lip stiffness and tone were higher in females than in males, whereas upper lip elasticity was higher in males. Thinner upper lips had higher tone and were stiffer than thicker upper lips, whereas thinner lower lips were less elastic than thicker lower lips. Muscle tone and stiffness of both the upper and lower lips were lower in Class III than in Class I and Class II individuals. The upper lip of hyperdivergent individuals was less elastic than that of normodivergent and hypodivergent individuals, and stiffer than that of hypodivergent individuals.

CONCLUSIONS

The biomechanical properties of perioral soft tissues can be reliably measured and vary with anatomical site, sex, and cephalometric measurements.

Biomechanical and viscoelastic properties of the ankle muscles in men with previous history of ankle sprain

In this study, we aimed to explore the impact of previous history of lateral ankle sprain on the mechanical and viscoelastic properties of the tibialis anterior (TA), peroneus longus (PL) and gastrocnemius lateralis (GL) and medialis (GM) in asymptomatic men. For this purpose, a group of 26 men with previous history of lateral ankle sprain (ASG) and a control group (CG) of 29 healthy counter-parts participated in this study. Tone, stiffness, elasticity and mechanical stress relaxation time were measured using a myotonometer in a single session. Higher tone was noted for TA and GL in ASG as compared to CG (effect size of Cohen's d = 0.57 [p = 0.04] and 0.59 [p = 0.04], respectively). Further, stiffness was higher in ASG than in CG for TA (d = 0.56; p = 0.04), PL (d = 0.58; p = 0.04) and GL (d = 0.63; p = 0.02). Stress relaxation time was also lower for the ASG compared to the CG for TA (d = 0.61; p = 0.03), PL (d = 0.55; p = 0.04) and GL (d = 0.68; p = 0.02). There were no significant differences between groups in elasticity (p > 0.05). GM experienced no significant changes after ankle sprain in any of the variables (p > 0.05). To conclude, previous history of lateral ankle sprain results in higher TA and GL muscle tone. Likewise, these muscles in addition to PL exhibit less deformation against resistance due to their increased stiffness, thus needing a shorter time to restore to their original shape after deformation.

The Rolf Method of Structural Integration on Fascial Tissue Stiffness, Elasticity, and Superficial Blood Perfusion in Healthy Individuals: The Prospective, Interventional Study

Introduction: There are multiple theories surrounding the physiological impact of structural integration (SI) with little evidence or research corroborating any of these. The aim of the study was to assess the effectiveness of 10 sessions of SI on fascial tissue (FT) superficial blood perfusion, stiffness, and elasticity in 13 healthy women.

Methods: This was a prospective, interventional study. The primary outcome measures were FTs’ superficial blood perfusion, stiffness, and elasticity of bilateral selected FT points on the body. Data were collected before and after 10 sessions of SI intervention. Statistical analysis was performed using the non-parametric Wilcoxon test (intragroup comparison).

Results: The superficial blood perfusion increased significantly in the most selected FT points on the body (p < 0.05). SI interventions produced significant decreases in selected points (brachioradialis, biceps brachii, and trapezius; p < 0.05) of FT stiffness and significant increases in elasticity (brachioradialis, biceps brachii, triceps surae, and trapezius; p < 0.05), especially in the FT of the right (dominant) upper limb.

Conclusion: A 10-session of SI demonstrated positive effects on increasing superficial blood perfusion contributed to a decrease in FT stiffness and an increase in elasticity properties in the dominant upper limb. Data collection for this study is currently underway, and the trial is registered at ISRCTN.com with the identifier: ISRCTN46707309.

Genetics of Muscle Stiffness, Muscle Elasticity and Explosive Strength

Muscle stiffness, muscle elasticity and explosive strength are the main components of athletes' performance and they show a sex-based as well as ethnicity variation. Muscle stiffness is thought to be one of the risk factors associated with sports injuries and is less common in females than in males. These observations may be explained by circulating levels of sex hormones and their specific receptors. It has been shown that higher levels of estrogen are associated with lower muscle stiffness responsible for suppression of collagen synthesis. It is thought that these properties, at least in part, depend on genetic factors. Particularly, the gene encoding estrogen receptor 1 (ESR1) is one of the candidates that may be associated with muscle stiffness. Muscle elasticity increases with aging and there is evidence suggesting that titin (encoded by the TTN gene), a protein that is expressed in cardiac and skeletal muscles, is one of the factors responsible for elastic properties of the muscles. Mutations in the TTN gene result in some types of muscular dystrophy or cardiomyopathy. In this context, TTN may be regarded as a promising candidate for studying the elastic properties of muscles in athletes. The physiological background of explosive strength depends not only on the muscle architecture and muscle fiber composition, but also on the central nervous system and functionality of neuromuscular units. These properties are, at least partly, genetically determined. In this context, the ACTN3 gene code for α-actinin 3 has been widely researched.

Musculoskeletal stiffness is common in healthy adults and increases with age

INTRODUCTION/OBJECTIVE

Musculoskeletal stiffness is a common feature in rheumatologic inflammatory diseases but little is known about background joint stiffness in the healthy population. The aim of this survey was to determine the variation in musculoskeletal stiffness with age in a cohort of healthy adults using a patient reported outcome instrument designed to assess stiffness in rheumatoid arthritis.

METHODS

Healthy subjects ≥18 years old were enrolled at two sites. Those with a diagnosis of rheumatological disease were excluded. Each subject completed a 21-item questionnaire designed to evaluate the severity of musculoskeletal stiffness, its physical impact and psychosocial impact, and to provide an overall stiffness score, expressed as a percentage. Scores were analyzed by age group.

RESULTS

Two hundred eighty-two subjects were included with a mean age of 42 years (±17, range 18-85). More than 50% of subjects reported stiffness in each age group but with a low median overall stiffness score of 5.4% (IQR 0, 12.6). Scores were markedly higher in those aged ≥60 years, median 10.0% (IQR 2.6, 21.9), and only in this age group did the majority of subjects report a physical or psychosocial impact of stiffness. Scores in males and females were similar.

CONCLUSION

The prevalence of musculoskeletal stiffness in healthy subjects of all ages is not negligible, and the high frequency of stiffness and greater severity in the upper age cohort suggest that the background joint stiffness amongst older subjects should be considered when interpreting stiffness in rheumatologic patients.

Effect of forward head and rounded shoulder posture on hand grip strength in asymptomatic young adults: a cross-sectional study

Background

Forward head and rounded shoulder posture (FHRSP) is a common clinical postural misalignment. It leads to flexion posture of the spine which increases the amount of tension on the nerve roots, which inversely affects muscle strength and function of the upper extremity. So, this study was conducted to examine the effect of FHRSP on hand grip strength in asymptomatic young adults and to explore the relationship between the craniovertebral angle (CVA) and hand grip strength.

Results

There was no significant difference in hand grip strength between the groups (p = 0.812). There was no correlation between the CVA and right and left hand grip of the normal group (p = 0.840, 0.816 respectively), rounded shoulder posture (RSP) group (p = 0.523, 0.650 respectively), and FHRSP group (p = 0.855, 0.736 respectively). Regarding the right and left hand grip strength, there was no significant difference between the groups (p = 0.798, 0.826 respectively). The right hand grip strength was significantly higher than the left hand for all groups (p = 0.001).

Conclusion

This study displayed that hand grip strength was not affected by FHRSP nor RSP in asymptomatic young adults. Moreover, the degree of the CVA was not associated with an inverse effect on hand grip strength.

Structural and Functional Changes in the Coupling of Fascial Tissue, Skeletal Muscle, and Nerves During Aging

Aging is a one-way process associated with profound structural and functional changes in the organism. Indeed, the neuromuscular system undergoes a wide remodeling, which involves muscles, fascia, and the central and peripheral nervous systems. As a result, intrinsic features of tissues, as well as their functional and structural coupling, are affected and a decline in overall physical performance occurs. Evidence from the scientific literature demonstrates that senescence is associated with increased stiffness and reduced elasticity of fascia, as well as loss of skeletal muscle mass, strength, and regenerative potential. The interaction between muscular and fascial structures is also weakened. As for the nervous system, aging leads to motor cortex atrophy, reduced motor cortical excitability, and plasticity, thus leading to accumulation of denervated muscle fibers. As a result, the magnitude of force generated by the neuromuscular apparatus, its transmission along the myofascial chain, joint mobility, and movement coordination are impaired. In this review, we summarize the evidence about the deleterious effect of aging on skeletal muscle, fascial tissue, and the nervous system. In particular, we address the structural and functional changes occurring within and between these tissues and discuss the effect of inflammation in aging. From the clinical perspective, this article outlines promising approaches for analyzing the composition and the viscoelastic properties of skeletal muscle, such as ultrasonography and elastography, which could be applied for a better understanding of musculoskeletal modifications occurring with aging. Moreover, we describe the use of tissue manipulation techniques, such as massage, traction, mobilization as well as acupuncture, dry needling, and nerve block, to enhance fascial repair.