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Kanazawa T, Hoashi Y, Ibaraki H, Takashima Y, Okada H. Electroporation-Based ex Vivo Gene Delivery into Dendritic Cells by Anionic Polymer-Coated Versatile Nuclear Localization Signal/pDNA Complex. Biol Pharm Bull 2021; 44:1866-1871. [PMID: 34853269 DOI: 10.1248/bpb.b21-00559] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
In this study, we focused on a nuclear localization signal (NLS)-based versatile peptide vector, designed by us, combined with electroporation (EP) to establish an efficient gene delivery system to non-dividing or slow growing dendritic cells. We determined the intranuclear transport, gene expression, and cell viability in JAWS II mouse dendritic cells transfected with the green fluorescent protein (GFP) expression plasmid DNA alone (naked pEGFP); positive charged complex of NLS derivative STR-CH2SV40H2C, and pEGFP (binary complex); or negative charged complex of the binary complex with a biocompatible polyanion, γ-polyglutamic acid (ternary complex) combined with or without EP application. Although the binary complex showed higher nuclear transport and GFP expression in the absence of EP than those for naked pEGFP, the combination of EP significantly decreased the cell viability and did not improve the efficiency of compared gene expression. However, in the ternary complex, the intranuclear transport and GFP expression efficiency were significantly higher than those of naked pEGFP and the binary complex when combined with EP, and there was no decrease in cell viability. The results suggest that polyanion-coated ternary complex with EP is useful for non-viral gene delivery system into non-dividing cells for ex vivo gene/cell therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takanori Kanazawa
- School of Pharmacy, Tokyo University of Pharmacy and Life Sciences.,School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Shizuoka
| | - Yuki Hoashi
- School of Pharmacy, Tokyo University of Pharmacy and Life Sciences
| | - Hisako Ibaraki
- School of Pharmacy, Tokyo University of Pharmacy and Life Sciences
| | - Yuuki Takashima
- School of Pharmacy, Tokyo University of Pharmacy and Life Sciences
| | - Hiroaki Okada
- School of Pharmacy, Tokyo University of Pharmacy and Life Sciences
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Abstract
HIV Tat protein is a critical protein that plays multiple roles in HIV pathogenesis. While its role as the transactivator of HIV transcription is well-established, other non-viral replication-associated functions have been described in several HIV-comorbidities even in the current antiretroviral therapy (ART) era. HIV Tat protein is produced and released into the extracellular space from cells with active HIV replication or from latently HIV-infected cells into neighboring uninfected cells even in the absence of active HIV replication and viral production due to effective ART. Neighboring uninfected and HIV-infected cells can take up the released Tat resulting in the upregulation of inflammatory genes and activation of pathways that leads to cytotoxicity observed in several comorbidities such as HIV associated neurocognitive disorder (HAND), HIV associated cardiovascular impairment, and accelerated aging. Thus, understanding how Tat modulates host and viral response is important in designing novel therapeutic approaches to target the chronic inflammatory effects of soluble viral proteins in HIV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Ajasin
- Department of Neuroscience, Cell Biology, and Anatomy, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, United States
| | - Eliseo A Eugenin
- Department of Neuroscience, Cell Biology, and Anatomy, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, United States
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Mahmood A, Prüfert F, Efiana NA, Ashraf MI, Hermann M, Hussain S, Bernkop-Schnürch A. Cell-penetrating self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery systems (SNEDDS) for oral gene delivery. Expert Opin Drug Deliv 2016; 13:1503-1512. [PMID: 27458781 DOI: 10.1080/17425247.2016.1213236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The aim of study was to investigate whether cell-penetrating peptides could amplify cellular uptake of plasmid DNA (pDNA) loaded self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery systems (SNEDDS) by mucosal epithelial cells, thereby enhancing transfection efficiency. METHODS HIV-1 Tat peptide-oleoyl conjugate (TAT-OL) was synthesized through amide bond formation between HIV-1 Tat-protein 49-57 (TAT) and oleoyl-chloride (OL). SNEDDS formulation contained 29.7% each of Cremophor EL, Capmul MCM and Crodamol, 9.9% propylene glycol and 1% TAT-OL. SNEDDS with OL instead of TAT-OL served as control. RESULTS Fluorescent-microscopy demonstrated 0.5% (m/v) nanoemulsions were suitable for subsequent studies. Mucus diffusion of nanoemulsion loaded with fluorescein diacetate (FDA) was 1.5-fold increased by incorporation of TAT-OL. Confocal microscopy confirmed that droplets of nanoemulsions were successfully internalized. Furthermore, quantitative analysis showed that addition of TAT-OL increases uptake of nanoemulsions by 2.3- and 2.6-folds after 2 and 4 hours of incubation, respectively. Cellular internalization pathways were found with substantial decrease in uptake in presence of indomethacin and chlorpromazine. Transfection efficiency investigated on HEK-293-cells was found to be 1.7- and 1.8-fold higher for SNEDDS loaded with TAT-OL compared to Lipofectin and control, respectively. CONCLUSION In comparison to prevailing lipid and polymer-based delivery systems, these novel cell-penetrating SNEDDS likely represent most effective, simplistic and expedite dosage form for mucosal gene delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arshad Mahmood
- a Center for Chemistry and Biomedicine, Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Institute of Pharmacy , University of Innsbruck , Innsbruck , Austria
| | - Felix Prüfert
- a Center for Chemistry and Biomedicine, Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Institute of Pharmacy , University of Innsbruck , Innsbruck , Austria
| | - Nuri Ari Efiana
- a Center for Chemistry and Biomedicine, Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Institute of Pharmacy , University of Innsbruck , Innsbruck , Austria
| | - Muhammad Imtiaz Ashraf
- b Daniel Swarovski Research Laboratory, Department of Visceral, Transplant and Thoracic Surgery , Medical University Innsbruck , Innsbruck , Austria.,c Department for General, Visceral and Transplantation Surgery , Campus Virchow-Klinikum, Charité Universitätsmedizin , Berlin , Germany
| | - Martin Hermann
- d Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine , Medical University Innsbruck , Innsbruck , Austria
| | - Shah Hussain
- e Institute of Analytical Chemistry and Radiochemistry , University of Innsbruck , Innsbruck , Austria
| | - Andreas Bernkop-Schnürch
- a Center for Chemistry and Biomedicine, Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Institute of Pharmacy , University of Innsbruck , Innsbruck , Austria
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Lim S, Koo JH, Choi JM. Use of Cell-Penetrating Peptides in Dendritic Cell-Based Vaccination. Immune Netw 2016; 16:33-43. [PMID: 26937230 PMCID: PMC4770098 DOI: 10.4110/in.2016.16.1.33] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2015] [Revised: 01/21/2016] [Accepted: 01/26/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) are short amino acids that have been widely used to deliver macromolecules such as proteins, peptides, DNA, or RNA, to control cellular behavior for therapeutic purposes. CPPs have been used to treat immunological diseases through the delivery of immune modulatory molecules in vivo. Their intracellular delivery efficiency is highly synergistic with the cellular characteristics of the dendritic cells (DCs), which actively uptake foreign antigens. DC-based vaccines are primarily generated by pulsing DCs ex vivo with various immunomodulatory antigens. CPP conjugation to antigens would increase DC uptake as well as antigen processing and presentation on both MHC class II and MHC class I molecules, leading to antigen specific CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cell responses. CPP-antigen based DC vaccination is considered a promising tool for cancer immunotherapy due to the enhanced CTL response. In this review, we discuss the various applications of CPPs in immune modulation and DC vaccination, and highlight the advantages and limitations of the current CPP-based DC vaccination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sangho Lim
- Department of Life Science, College of Natural Sciences, Hanyang University, Seoul 04763, Korea.; Research Institute for Natural Sciences, Hanyang University, Seoul 04763, Korea
| | - Ja-Hyun Koo
- Department of Life Science, College of Natural Sciences, Hanyang University, Seoul 04763, Korea.; Research Institute for Natural Sciences, Hanyang University, Seoul 04763, Korea
| | - Je-Min Choi
- Department of Life Science, College of Natural Sciences, Hanyang University, Seoul 04763, Korea.; Research Institute for Natural Sciences, Hanyang University, Seoul 04763, Korea
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Abstract
To develop a versatile nuclear-targeted gene vector, nuclear localization signal (NLS) oligopeptides combining cysteine (C), histidine (H), and stearic acid (STR) were investigated in this study. The original SV40 sequence (SV40: Pro-Lys-Lys-Lys-Arg-Lys-Val) was selected as the NLS sequence, and physical characterizations of various NLS-based oligopeptides (CSV40C, STR-CSV40C, and STR-CH2SV40H2C), including mean diameter, zeta-potential, complex condensation, and decondensation, were evaluated. In addition, cellular and nuclear uptake of plasmid DNA (pDNA) and gene expression in COS7 and dendritic cells (JAWS II) were determined. As a result, C and STR enhanced formation of a smaller and more stable nano-complex with pDNA based on ionic interactions, the disulfide linkage and hydrophobic interactions. STR-CSV40C and STR-CH2SV40H2C had significantly higher cellular uptake ability and transfection efficiency than SV40 and CSV40C. In particular, STR-CH2SV40H2C had higher nuclear uptake and gene expression efficiency than STR-CSV40C. Furthermore, STR-CH2SV40H2C could deliver pDNA to the nuclei and had high gene expression efficiency in dendritic cells. Our results indicate that STR-CH2SV40H2C is a promising gene delivery system in non- or slow-dividing cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takanori Kanazawa
- Department of Pharmaceutical Science, School of Pharmacy, Tokyo University of Pharmacy and Life Sciences
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Deng X, Zhang G, Zhang L, Feng Y, Li Z, Wu G, Yue Y, Li G, Cao Y, Zhu P. Developing a Novel Gene-Delivery Vector System Using the Recombinant Fusion Protein of Pseudomonas Exotoxin A and Hyperthermophilic Archaeal Histone HPhA. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0142558. [PMID: 26556098 PMCID: PMC4640596 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0142558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2015] [Accepted: 10/25/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Non-viral gene delivery system with many advantages has a great potential for the future of gene therapy. One inherent obstacle of such approach is the uptake by endocytosis into vesicular compartments. Receptor-mediated gene delivery method holds promise to overcome this obstacle. In this study, we developed a receptor-mediated gene delivery system based on a combination of the Pseudomonas exotoxin A (PE), which has a receptor binding and membrane translocation domain, and the hyperthermophilic archaeal histone (HPhA), which has the DNA binding ability. First, we constructed and expressed the rPE-HPhA fusion protein. We then examined the cytotoxicity and the DNA binding ability of rPE-HPhA. We further assessed the efficiency of transfection of the pEGF-C1 plasmid DNA to CHO cells by the rPE-HPhA system, in comparison to the cationic liposome method. The results showed that the transfection efficiency of rPE-HPhA was higher than that of cationic liposomes. In addition, the rPE-HPhA gene delivery system is non-specific to DNA sequence, topology or targeted cell type. Thus, the rPE-HPhA system can be used for delivering genes of interest into mammalian cells and has great potential to be applied for gene therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Deng
- Experimental Center of the Functional Subjects, Basic Medical Scientific Research College, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, P.R.China
| | - Guoli Zhang
- Institute of Veterinary Medicine, The Academy of Military Medical Sciences of PLA, Changchun, Jilin, P.R. China
| | - Ling Zhang
- Institute of Veterinary Medicine, The Academy of Military Medical Sciences of PLA, Changchun, Jilin, P.R. China
| | - Yan Feng
- Key Laboratory for Molecular Enzymology, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, P.R.China
| | - Zehong Li
- Department Biology and Technology of the Agriculture University of Jilin, Changchun, Jilin, P.R.China
| | - GuangMou Wu
- Institute of Veterinary Medicine, The Academy of Military Medical Sciences of PLA, Changchun, Jilin, P.R. China
| | - Yuhuan Yue
- Institute of Veterinary Medicine, The Academy of Military Medical Sciences of PLA, Changchun, Jilin, P.R. China
| | - Gensong Li
- Experimental Center of the Functional Subjects, Basic Medical Scientific Research College, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, P.R.China
- Department of Physiology, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, P.R.China
| | - Yu Cao
- Department of Physiology, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, P.R.China
| | - Ping Zhu
- Institute of Veterinary Medicine, The Academy of Military Medical Sciences of PLA, Changchun, Jilin, P.R. China
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Vvedenskii AV, Sizova SV, Kuzmich AI. The physicochemical properties of histone H2A and modified histone H2A-TAT complexes with plasmid DNA. Biophysics (Nagoya-shi) 2015. [DOI: 10.1134/s0006350915050231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
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Li H, Tsui TY, Ma W. Intracellular Delivery of Molecular Cargo Using Cell-Penetrating Peptides and the Combination Strategies. Int J Mol Sci 2015; 16:19518-36. [PMID: 26295227 PMCID: PMC4581311 DOI: 10.3390/ijms160819518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2015] [Revised: 07/11/2015] [Accepted: 07/30/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) can cross cellular membranes in a non-toxic fashion, improving the intracellular delivery of various molecular cargos such as nanoparticles, small molecules and plasmid DNA. Because CPPs provide a safe, efficient, and non-invasive mode of transport for various cargos into cells, they have been developed as vectors for the delivery of genetic and biologic products in recent years. Most common CPPs are positively charged peptides. While delivering negatively charged molecules (e.g., nucleic acids) to target cells, the internalization efficiency of CPPs is reduced and inhibited because the cationic charges on the CPPs are neutralized through the covering of CPPs by cargos on the structure. Even under these circumstances, the CPPs can still be non-covalently complexed with the negatively charged molecules. To address this issue, combination strategies of CPPs with other typical carriers provide a promising and novel delivery system. This review summarizes the latest research work in using CPPs combined with molecular cargos including liposomes, polymers, cationic peptides, nanoparticles, adeno-associated virus (AAV) and calcium for the delivery of genetic products, especially for small interfering RNA (siRNA). This combination strategy remedies the reduced internalization efficiency caused by neutralization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hua Li
- Department of Basic Medical Science, Huzhou University School of Medicine, Huzhou 313000, China.
- Department of General, Visceral and Thoracic Surgery, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Martinistr. 52, 20246 Hamburg, Germany.
| | - Tung Yu Tsui
- Department of General, Visceral and Thoracic Surgery, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Martinistr. 52, 20246 Hamburg, Germany.
| | - Wenxue Ma
- Moores Cancer Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0820, USA.
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Ren X, Feng Y, Guo J, Wang H, Li Q, Yang J, Hao X, Lv J, Ma N, Li W. Surface modification and endothelialization of biomaterials as potential scaffolds for vascular tissue engineering applications. Chem Soc Rev 2015; 44:5680-742. [DOI: 10.1039/c4cs00483c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 359] [Impact Index Per Article: 39.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
This review highlights the recent developments of surface modification and endothelialization of biomaterials in vascular tissue engineering applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiangkui Ren
- School of Chemical Engineering and Technology
- Tianjin University
- Tianjin 300072
- China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Chemical Engineering (Tianjin)
| | - Yakai Feng
- School of Chemical Engineering and Technology
- Tianjin University
- Tianjin 300072
- China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Chemical Engineering (Tianjin)
| | - Jintang Guo
- School of Chemical Engineering and Technology
- Tianjin University
- Tianjin 300072
- China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Chemical Engineering (Tianjin)
| | - Haixia Wang
- School of Chemical Engineering and Technology
- Tianjin University
- Tianjin 300072
- China
| | - Qian Li
- School of Chemical Engineering and Technology
- Tianjin University
- Tianjin 300072
- China
| | - Jing Yang
- School of Chemical Engineering and Technology
- Tianjin University
- Tianjin 300072
- China
| | - Xuefang Hao
- School of Chemical Engineering and Technology
- Tianjin University
- Tianjin 300072
- China
| | - Juan Lv
- School of Chemical Engineering and Technology
- Tianjin University
- Tianjin 300072
- China
| | - Nan Ma
- Institute of Chemistry and Biochemistry
- Free University of Berlin
- D-14195 Berlin
- Germany
| | - Wenzhong Li
- Department of Cardiac Surgery
- University of Rostock
- D-18057 Rostock
- Germany
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Wang N, Chen L, Cheng N, Zhang J, Tian T, Lu W. Active calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) regulates NMDA receptor mediated postischemic long-term potentiation (i-LTP) by promoting the interaction between CaMKII and NMDA receptors in ischemia. Neural Plast 2014; 2014:827161. [PMID: 24734203 DOI: 10.1155/2014/827161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2013] [Accepted: 01/27/2014] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Active calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) has been reported to take a critical role in the induction of long-term potentiation (LTP). Changes in CaMKII activity were detected in various ischemia models. It is tempting to know whether and how CaMKII takes a role in NMDA receptor (NMDAR)-mediated postischemic long-term potentiation (NMDA i-LTP). Here, we monitored changes in NMDAR-mediated field excitatory postsynaptic potentials (NMDA fEPSPs) at different time points following ischemia onset in vitro oxygen and glucose deprivation (OGD) ischemia model. We found that 10 min OGD treatment induced significant i-LTP in NMDA fEPSPs, whereas shorter (3 min) or longer (25 min) OGD treatment failed to induce prominent NMDA i-LTP. CaMKII activity or CaMKII autophosphorylation displays a similar bifurcated trend at different time points following onset of ischemia both in vitro OGD or in vivo photothrombotic lesion (PT) models, suggesting a correlation of increased CaMKII activity or CaMKII autophosphorylation with NMDA i-LTP. Disturbing the association between CaMKII and GluN2B subunit of NMDARs with short cell-permeable peptides Tat-GluN2B reversed NMDA i-LTP induced by OGD treatment. The results provide support to a notion that increased interaction between NMDAR and CaMKII following ischemia-induced increased CaMKII activity and autophosphorylation is essential for induction of NMDA i-LTP.
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Malhotra M, Tomaro-Duchesneau C, Saha S, Kahouli I, Prakash S. Development and characterization of chitosan-PEG-TAT nanoparticles for the intracellular delivery of siRNA. Int J Nanomedicine 2013; 8:2041-52. [PMID: 23723699 PMCID: PMC3666663 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s43683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Recently, cell-penetrating peptides have been proposed to translocate antibodies, proteins, and other molecules in targeted drug delivery. The proposed study presents the synthesis and characterization of a peptide-based chitosan nanoparticle for small interfering RNA (siRNA) delivery, in-vitro. Specifically, the synthesis included polyethylene glycol (PEG), a hydrophilic polymer, and trans-activated transcription (TAT) peptide, which were chemically conjugated on the chitosan polymer. The conjugation was achieved using N-Hydroxysuccinimide-PEG-maleimide (heterobifunctional PEG) as a cross-linker, with the bifunctional PEG facilitating the amidation reaction through its N-Hydroxysuccinimide group and reacting with the amines on chitosan. At the other end of PEG, the maleimide group was chemically conjugated with the cysteine-modified TAT peptide. The degree of substitution on chitosan with PEG and on PEG with TAT was confirmed using colorimetric assays. The resultant polymer was used to form nanoparticles complexing siRNA, which were then characterized for particle size, morphology, cellular uptake, and cytotoxicity. The nanoparticles were tested in-vitro on mouse neuroblastoma cells (Neuro2a). Particle size and surface charge were characterized and an optimal pH condition and PEG molecular weight were determined to form sterically stable nanoparticles. Results indicate 7.5% of the amines in chitosan polymer were conjugated to the PEG and complete conjugation of TAT peptide was observed on the synthesized PEGylated chitosan polymer. Compared with unmodified chitosan nanoparticles, the nanoparticles formed at pH 6 were monodispersed and of <100 nm in size, exhibiting maximum cell transfection ability and very low cytotoxicity. Thus, this research may be of significance in translocating biotherapeutic molecules for intracellular delivery applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meenakshi Malhotra
- Biomedical Technology and Cell Therapy Research Laboratory, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
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Iyer S. Novel therapeutic approaches for Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy. Discov Med 2013; 15:141-149. [PMID: 23545042 PMCID: PMC5652312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Many human childhood mitochondrial disorders result from abnormal mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and altered bioenergetics. These abnormalities span most of the mtDNA, demonstrating that there are no "unique" positions on the mitochondrial genome that when deleted or mutated produce a disease phenotype. This diversity implies that the relationship between mitochondrial genotype and clinical phenotype is very complex. The origins of clinical phenotypes are thus unclear, fundamentally difficult-to-treat, and are usually clinically devastating. Current treatment is largely supportive and the disorders progress relentlessly causing significant morbidity and mortality. Vitamin supplements and pharmacological agents have been used in isolated cases and clinical trials, but the efficacy of these interventions is unclear. In spite of recent advances in the understanding of the pathogenesis of mitochondrial diseases, a cure remains elusive. An optimal cure would be gene therapy, which involves introducing the missing gene(s) into the mitochondria to complement the defect. Our recent research results indicate the feasibility of an innovative protein-transduction ("protofection") technology, consisting of a recombinant mitochondrial transcription factor A (TFAM) that avidly binds mtDNA and permits efficient targeting into mitochondria in situ and in vivo. Thus, the development of gene therapy for treating mitochondrial disease offers promise, because it may circumvent the clinical abnormalities and the current inability to treat individual disorders in affected individuals. This review aims to focus on current treatment options and future therapeutics in mitochondrial disease treatment with a special emphasis on Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shilpa Iyer
- Center for the Study of Biological Complexity, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23284, USA.
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Gao S, Simon MJ, Morrison B, Banta S. A plasmid display platform for the selection of peptides exhibiting a functional cell-penetrating phenotype. Biotechnol Prog 2011; 26:1796-800. [PMID: 20938973 DOI: 10.1002/btpr.490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) represent a promising nonviral platform for the delivery of therapeutic cargos to cells and tissues. However, these peptides are often nonspecific, and their mechanism of action is still a subject of debate, which hinders the design of new CPPs. The alternative to rational protein design is the combinatorial approach to protein engineering, whereby large libraries of peptides are created and a screening or selection procedure is used to identify members with the desired phenotype(s). Here we describe a novel procedure for selecting peptides with a CPP phenotype using a plasmid display (PD) platform to link the peptides to their encoding DNA sequences. The PD system is based on genetic fusions to a DNA binding domain. The plasmid was designed to concomitantly express a fluorescent reporter protein to serve as a mock therapeutic cargo indicating its functional delivery into a cell. We have demonstrated this selection strategy using a control CPP (the TAT peptide) in the PC12 neuronal-like cell line. In the absence of transfection reagents, TAT was unable to deliver the protein/DNA complexes. The inclusion of the HA2 peptide from the hemagglutinin protein and the addition of polyethylenimine (PEI) were similarly ineffective. The addition of Lipofectamine, however, enabled the TAT-mediated delivery of the protein/DNA complexes, which was significantly better than control experiments without a CPP. This new PD selection platform will be a valuable new approach for use in identifying unique CPPs from randomized libraries with novel abilities and specificities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shan Gao
- Dept. of Chemical Engineering, Columbia University in City of New York, New York, NY 10027, USA
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Yan JZ, Xu Z, Ren SQ, Hu B, Yao W, Wang SH, Liu SY, Lu W. Protein kinase C promotes N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor trafficking by indirectly triggering calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) autophosphorylation. J Biol Chem 2011; 286:25187-200. [PMID: 21606495 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m110.192708] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Regulation of neuronal NMDA receptor (NMDAR) is critical in synaptic transmission and plasticity. Protein kinase C (PKC) promotes NMDAR trafficking to the cell surface via interaction with NMDAR-associated proteins (NAPs). Little is known, however, about the NAPs that are critical to PKC-induced NMDAR trafficking. Here, we showed that calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) could be a NAP that mediates the potentiation of NMDAR trafficking by PKC. PKC activation promoted the level of autophosphorylated CaMKII and increased association with NMDARs, accompanied by functional NMDAR insertion, at postsynaptic sites. This potentiation, along with PKC-induced long term potentiation of the AMPA receptor-mediated response, was abolished by CaMKII antagonist or by disturbing the interaction between CaMKII and NR2A or NR2B. Further mutual occlusion experiments demonstrated that PKC and CaMKII share a common signaling pathway in the potentiation of NMDAR trafficking and long-term potentiation (LTP) induction. Our results revealed that PKC promotes NMDA receptor trafficking and induces synaptic plasticity through indirectly triggering CaMKII autophosphorylation and subsequent increased association with NMDARs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing-Zhi Yan
- Department of Neurobiology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province 210029, China
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Chen HG, Chiou S, Zheng J, Yang S, Lai S, Kuo T. The nuclear localization signal sequence of porcine circovirus type 2 ORF2 enhances intracellular delivery of plasmid DNA. Arch Virol 2011; 156:803-15. [DOI: 10.1007/s00705-011-0920-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2010] [Accepted: 01/12/2011] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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Ulasov AV, Khramtsov YV, Trusov GA, Rosenkranz AA, Sverdlov ED, Sobolev AS. Properties of PEI-based polyplex nanoparticles that correlate with their transfection efficacy. Mol Ther 2011; 19:103-12. [PMID: 21045811 DOI: 10.1038/mt.2010.233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
We have evaluated the key properties of the polyethylenimine (PEI)-polyethylene glycol (PEG)-TAT peptide polyplex nanoparticles including their behavior in cells and compared them with the transfection efficacy (TE) using 11 different cell lines. We found statistically significant positive correlation between TE and the share of 50-75 nm fraction in the whole mixture of nanoparticles estimated with atomic force microscopy. Variations in PEG/PEI and N/P ratios (PEI nitrogen to DNA phosphate ratio) enabled us to find their optimal combinations, which resulted in up to 100% TE for several cell lines. Surfaces of the TE dependence of both PEG/PEI and N/P turned out to be similar in appearance for all investigated cell lines, while maximum TEs were different. We investigated subcellular transport kinetics and unpacking of the polyplex nanoparticles labeled with quantum dots (plasmid DNA) and AlexaFluor647 (block-copolymer part) using Förster Resonance Energy Transfer approach. The results demonstrated clear and statistically significant positive correlation of TE with the cellular uptake rate of the nanoparticles and negative correlation with the rate constant of their unpacking within endo/lysosomal compartments in the living cells.
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Chen H, Wang W, Song C, Yu S, Ding C. Marek's disease virus VP22 enhances potentially the immune response of ESAT-6/CFP-10 against Mycobacterium bovis infection. Acta Biochim Biophys Sin (Shanghai) 2010; 42:337-44. [PMID: 20458447 DOI: 10.1093/abbs/gmq030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Currently available vaccines against Mycobacterium bovis, the causative agent of tuberculosis, do not provide reliable efficacy and there is therefore a need for a novel vaccine with improved efficacy. Here, we use protein transduction technology to deliver DNA vaccines expressing mycobacterial antigens directly to target cells. We used various protein transduction domain (PTD) proteins including the VP22 conjugate from Marek's disease virus serotype 1 (MDV-1), as delivery systems for DNA constructs encoding the antigens early secretory antigenic target-6 kDa (ESAT-6) protein and culture filtrate protein 10 (CFP-10) of M. bovis. The eukaryotic expression plasmid pZ106, encoding antigens ESAT-6 and CFP-10, conjugated to various PTDs, was used to construct experimental preparations. Our findings demonstrated that VP22 alone or in combination with CFP-10:ESAT-6 fusion protein could spread into all the nuclei of the cell monolayer surrounding the transfected cells. Whereas trans-activating transcriptional PTD showed limited delivery of the fusion protein and 8R peptide was unable to deliver the fusion protein into any untransfected cells. We have demonstrated that immunization with a preparation fused to VP22 leads to a higher antibody and interferon-gamma titer (P<0.05). Taken together, our results demonstrated that MDV-1 VP22 serves as a potential immune enhancer in gene therapy and immunization using DNA vaccines, offering a novel approach for the prevention of M. bovis infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongjun Chen
- Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 200241, China
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Min S, Kim DM, Kim MN, Ge J, Lee DC, Park IY, Park KC, Hwang J, Cho C, Yeom YI. Gene delivery using a derivative of the protein transduction domain peptide, K-Antp. Biomaterials 2010; 31:1858-64. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2009.11.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2009] [Accepted: 11/13/2009] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Gao S, Simon MJ, Morrison B, Banta S. Bifunctional chimeric fusion proteins engineered for DNA delivery: optimization of the protein to DNA ratio. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2009; 1790:198-207. [PMID: 19402206 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2009.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cell penetrating peptides (CPPs) have been used to deliver nucleotide-based therapeutics to cells, but this approach has produced mixed results. Ionic interactions and covalent bonds between the CPPs and the cargos may inhibit the effectiveness of the CPPs or interfere with the bioactivity of the cargos. METHODS We have created a bifunctional chimeric protein that binds DNA using the p50 domain of the NF-kappaB transcription factor and is functionalized for delivery with the TAT CPP. The green fluorescent protein (GFP) has been incorporated for tracking delivery. The new chimeric protein, p50-GFP-TAT, was compared to p50-GFP, GFP-TAT and GFP as controls for the ability to transduce PC12 cells with and without oligonucleotide cargos. RESULTS The p50-GFP-TAT construct can deliver 30 bp and 293 bp oligonucleotides to PC12 cells with an optimal ratio of 1.89 protein molecules per base pair of DNA length. This correlation was validated through the delivery of a fluorescent protein transgene encoded in a plasmid to PC12 cells. Thus, self-assembling CPP-based bifunctional fusion proteins can be engineered for the non-viral delivery of nucleotide-based cargos to mammalian cells. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE This work represents an important step forward in the rational design of protein-based systems for the delivery of macromolecular cargos.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shan Gao
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Columbia University in the City of New York, New York, NY 10027, USA
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Eric E. Simanek
- Department of Chemistry, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843
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Gadi J, Ruthala K, Kong KA, Park HW, Kim MH. The third helix of the Hoxc8 homeodomain peptide enhances the efficiency of gene transfer in combination with lipofectamine. Mol Biotechnol 2009; 42:41-8. [PMID: 18991027 DOI: 10.1007/s12033-008-9119-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2008] [Accepted: 10/14/2008] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Protein transduction domains (PTDs) have been shown to cross the biological cell membranes efficiently through a receptor and energy independent mechanism. Because of its ease in membrane transducing ability, PTDs could be used as a gene delivery vector. Since we already have shown that purified Hoxc8 homeoprotein has the ability to cross the cellular membrane, we analyzed the possibility of the third helix of the Hoxc8 homeodomain as a useful gene delivery vector. For that purpose, a 16-aa long synthetic oligopeptide Hoxc8 Protein Transduction Domain (HPTD) was chemically synthesized and then tested to see whether the HPTD could form a complex with DNA or not. Gel retardation analysis revealed that the HPTD interacts with plasmid DNA efficiently but failed to transfer the DNA into the cells. However, HPTD can enhance the efficiency of gene transfer in combination with Lipofectamine which doubled the gene transfer rate into COS-7 cells compared with the DNA/Lipofectamine control. An MTT assay indicated that the amount of HPTD used in the complex for the transfection did not show any cytotoxicty in COS-7 cells. The TEM studies showed compact particle formation in the presence of HPTD. These results indicate that the HPTD could be a good candidate adjuvant molecule to enhance the gene transfer efficiency of Lipofectamine in eukaryotic cells.
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del Pozo-Rodríguez A, Pujals S, Delgado D, Solinís MA, Gascón AR, Giralt E, Pedraz JL. A proline-rich peptide improves cell transfection of solid lipid nanoparticle-based non-viral vectors. J Control Release 2008; 133:52-9. [PMID: 18854203 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2008.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2008] [Revised: 09/04/2008] [Accepted: 09/04/2008] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this work was to improve the transfection efficacy of solid lipid nanoparticle (SLN)-based non-viral vectors into ARPE-19 cells through the addition of Sweet Arrow Peptide (SAP). First, we prepared SAP-DNA complexes at ratios of at least 50:1, and then incorporated them into the SLNs. All formulations were able to protect DNA, and the peptide favoured the most bioactive form (supercoiled) of open circular DNA turns. In vitro transfection studies of the vectors containing the pCMS-EGFP plasmid in HEK293 and ARPE-19 cell lines revealed that incorporation of SAP led to greater transfection in both cell lines, although via different mechanisms. The presence of SAP in the formulations did not affect the viability of HEK293 or ARPE-19 cells. In HEK293 cells, SAP enabled greater uptake of the vectors, and an SAP to DNA ratio of 50:1 was sufficient for enhancing transfection. In contrast, in ARPE-19 cells, SAP induced a change in the dominant entrance mechanism, from clathrin endocytosis to caveolae/raft-dependent endocytosis, thereby decreasing use of the lysosomal pathway and consequently, reducing vector degradation. The extent to which SAP uses one mechanism or the other largely depends on its concentration in the formulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- A del Pozo-Rodríguez
- Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Technology Laboratory, Pharmacy Faculty, University of the Basque Country (UPV-EHU), Paseo de la Universidad 7, 01006 Vitoria-Gasteiz, Spain
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Kim ES, Kang M, Park HW, Kim MH. Membrane transducing activity of recombinant Hoxc8 protein and its possible application as a gene delivery vector. Exp Mol Med 2008; 40:151-60. [PMID: 18446053 DOI: 10.3858/emm.2008.40.2.151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
In order to examine whether the Hoxc8 protein can deliver nucleic acid into mammalian cells, we designed several Hoxc8-derived recombinant proteins to be synthesized as glutathione S-transferase (GST) fused forms in E. coli (GST-Hoxc8(1-242), containing a full length of Hoxc8; GST-Hoxc8(152-242), possessing a deletion of the acidic N-terminus of Hoxc8; GST-Hoxc8(149-208), which contained the homeodomain only). After labeling these proteins with Oregon 488, we examined their membrane transduction ability under the fluorescence microscope and verified that all three proteins showed similar transduction efficiency. The ability of the proteins to form in vitro protein-DNA complexes was analyzed on agarose gel; both GST-Hoxc8(1-242) and GST-Hoxc8(149-208) formed complexes. In contrast, the GST-Hoxc8(152-242) protein did not form a complex. The GST-Hoxc8(149-208) protein formed a complex with DNA at a mass ratio of 1ú1 (DNAúprotein), and GST-Hoxc8(1-242) formed a complex at a mass ratio of 1ú5. When the DNA (pDsRed1-C1) and protein complexes were added to culture media containing mammalian cells, the cells uptook the complexes, which was indicated by red fluorescence expression under the fluorescent microscope. These results indicate that recombinant Hoxc8 derivatives that harbor a homeodomain are able to traverse the mammalian cellular membrane. DNA that is bound to the recombinant derivatives can be carried across the membrane as well. This process could be applied in the development of a useful delivery vector for gene therapy in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eun Shin Kim
- Department of Anatomy, Embryology Laboratory, Brain Korea 21 Project for Medical Science, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul 120-752, Korea.
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Han SX, Ma JL, Lv Y, Huang C, Liang HH, Duan KM. Secretory Transactivating Transcription-apoptin fusion protein induces apoptosis in hepatocellular carcinoma HepG2 cells. World J Gastroenterol 2008; 14:3642-9. [PMID: 18595131 PMCID: PMC2719227 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.14.3642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
AIM: To determine whether SP-TAT-apoptin induces apoptosis and also maintains its tumor cell specificity.
METHODS: In this study, we designed a secretory protein by adding a secretory signal peptide (SP) to the N terminus of Transactivating Transcription (TAT)-apoptin (SP-TAT-apoptin), to test the hypothesis that it gains an additive bystander effect as an anti-cancer therapy. We used an artificial human secretory SP whose amino acid sequence and corresponding cDNA sequence were generated by the SP hidden Markov model.
RESULTS: In human liver carcinoma HepG2 cells, SP-TAT-apoptin expression showed a diffuse pattern in the early phase after transfection. After 48 h, however, it translocated into the nuclear compartment and caused massive apoptotic cell death, as determined by 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazole-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay and annexin-V binding assay. SP-TAT-apoptin did not, however, cause any cell death in non-malignant human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs). Most importantly, the conditioned medium from Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells transfected with SP-TAT-apoptin also induced significant cell death in HepG2 cells, but not in HUVECs.
CONCLUSION: The data demonstrated that SP-TAT-apoptin induces apoptosis only in malignant cells, and its secretory property might greatly increase its potency once it is delivered in vivo for cancer therapy.
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Elliott KA, Rickords LF, Labrum JM. Transduction of E2F-1 TAT fusion proteins represses expression of hTERT in primary ductal breast carcinoma cell lines. Mol Cancer 2008; 7:28. [PMID: 18366791 PMCID: PMC2346477 DOI: 10.1186/1476-4598-7-28] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2007] [Accepted: 03/26/2008] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Telomerase expression is detectable in 81–95% of breast carcinomas and may serve as a therapeutic target. The objective of this study was to investigate repression of telomerase activity in primary ductal breast cancer cells through transcriptional regulation of the catalytic subunit hTERT. We hypothesized that inhibition of telomerase expression could be achieved via Tat mediated protein transduction of the repressor protein E2F-1. Methods Protein purification techniques were refined to yield biologically active Tat fusion proteins (TFPs) capable of transducing the breast cancer cell lines HCC1937 and HCC1599. Cell lines were treated with wildtype E2F-1 (E2F-1/TatHA), mutant E2F-1 (E132/TatHA) and a control Tat peptide (TatHA) for 24 hours. Total RNA was isolated from treated cells, reverse transcribed and fold changes in gene expression for hTERT determined via real-time RT-qPCR. Results Significant repression of the catalytic subunit of telomerase (hTERT) was present in both HCC1937 and HCC1599 cells following treatment with E2F-1/TatHA. In HCC1937 cells, hTERT was repressed 3.5-fold by E2F-1/TatHA in comparison to E132/TatHA (p < 0.0012) and the TatHA peptide controls (p < 0.0024). In HCC1599 cells, hTERT was also repressed with E2F-1/TatHA treatment by 4.0-fold when compared to the E132/TatHA control (p < 0.0001). A slightly lower hTERT repression of 3.3-fold was observed with E2F-1/TatHA in the HCC1599 cells when compared to the TatHA control (p < 0.0001). Conclusion These results suggest that transduction of E2F-1/TatHA fusion proteins in vitro is an effective repressor of hTERT expression in the primary ductal breast cancer cell lines HCC1937 and HCC1599.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kimberly A Elliott
- Center for Integrated BioSystems, ADVS Department, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322-4815, USA.
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Wagstaff KM, Fan JY, De Jesus MA, Tremethick DJ, Jans DA. Efficient gene delivery using reconstituted chromatin enhanced for nuclear targeting. FASEB J 2008; 22:2232-42. [PMID: 18356302 DOI: 10.1096/fj.07-099911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Nonviral gene delivery is hampered by difficulties associated with transporting negatively charged DNA through the cell membrane and, more importantly, the nuclear envelope of target cells. Here we show for the first time that chromatin reconstituted with histone H2B proteins optimized for nuclear targeting can be used as an efficient means to deliver DNA to the nucleus of intact living mammalian cells, resulting in high levels of transgene expression that were approximately 6-fold more than those achieved by commercial liposomal preparations. The high efficiency is due in part to DNA condensation and protection against degradation in the reconstituted chromatin, as well as its ability to interact with high affinity with the importin proteins of the cellular nuclear import machinery. "Chromofection," gene delivery by protein transduction using chromatin enhanced for nuclear targeting represents an efficient means to deliver DNA to a wide variety of cell types, with the potential to treat complex genetic disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kylie M Wagstaff
- Nuclear Signalling Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3800 Australia
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Abstract
Gene therapy, the correction of dysfunctional or deleted genes by supplying the lacking component, has long been awaited as a means to permanently treat or reverse many genetic disorders. To achieve this, therapeutic DNA must be delivered to the nucleus of cells using a safe and efficient delivery vector. Although viral-based vectors have been utilized extensively due to their innate ability to deliver DNA to intact cells, safety considerations, such as pathogenicity, oncogenicity and the stimulation of an immunological response in the host, remain problematical. There has, however, been much progress in the development of safe non-viral gene-delivery vectors, although they remain less efficient than the viral counterparts. The major limitations of non-viral gene transfer reside in the fact that it must be tailored to overcome the intracellular barriers to DNA delivery that viruses already master, including the cellular and nuclear membranes. In particular, nuclear transport of the therapeutic DNA is known to be the rate-limiting step in the gene-delivery process. Despite this, much progress had been made in recent years in developing novel means to overcome these barriers and efficiently deliver DNA to the nuclei of intact cells. This review focuses on the nucleocytoplasmic delivery of DNA and mechanisms to enhance to non-viral-mediated gene transfer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kylie M Wagstaff
- Nuclear Signalling Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Australia
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Abstract
The ability to specifically down-regulate gene expression using the RNAi pathway in mammalian cells has tremendous potential in therapy and in basic science. However, delivery systems capable of efficient and biocompatible delivery of siRNA to target cells are not yet satisfactory. Here, we report the synthesis and in vitro characterization of ABC triblock copolymers that self-assemble with siRNA based on electrostatics and with each other by hydrophobic interactions. The ABC triblock copolymer is based on poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG), poly(propylene sulfide) (PPS), and a positively charged peptide (PEG-PPS-peptide). The diblock copolymer PEG(45)-PPS(5,10) was synthesized using anionic polymerization of propylene sulfide upon a PEG macroinitiator, and the peptide domain was coupled to the PPS terminus using a disulfide exchange reaction with an N-terminal cysteine residue on the peptide. The peptides were designed to interact electrostatically with siRNA, selecting the TAT peptide domain of HIV (RKKRRQRRR) and an oligolysine (Lys(9)). The resulting triblock copolymers were able to self-assemble with siRNA as demonstrated by dynamic light scattering and gel electrophoresis. Complex size was found to be dependent on the amount of polymer used (charge ratio) and the length of the hydrophobic PPS block, achieving sizes ranging from 171 nm to 601 nm. Cell internalization and gene expression down-regulation studies showed that the triblock copolymers are able to transport siRNA inside the cell and mediate gene expression down-regulation, with the amount of internalization and gene transfer affected by charge ratio, PPS length, and the presence of serum. The proposed triblock was able to mediate gene expression down-regulation of GAPDH, achieving up to 90.5% +/- 0.02% down-regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatiana Segura
- Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Institute of Bioengineering and Institute of Chemical Sciences and Engineering, CH-1015, Lausanne, Switzerland
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Abstract
Gene delivery into the nucleus of eukaryotic cells is inefficient, largely because of the significant barriers within the target cell of the plasma membrane and nuclear envelope. Recently, a group of basic proteins, including the HIV-1 Tat protein and the four core histones, have been shown to enter cells through a novel energy- and receptor-independent manner. Here, we show that engineered histone H2B proteins are able to mediate the efficient delivery of either green fluorescent protein or DNA into HeLa cells through the process of "Histone-Mediated Transduction" (HMT), with further enhancement achieved by utilizing a dimer of histones H2B and H2A. Subsequent nuclear delivery was accelerated approximately two-fold by the addition of an optimized nuclear localization signal to histone H2B, thereby increasing the affinity of interaction with components of the cellular nuclear import machinery, resulting in increased expression of a reporter gene. Further, we demonstrate that the domains responsible for this histone transduction are located in the N-terminal tail and globular regions of histone H2B. HMT represents a new, efficient, and technically non-demanding means to deliver DNA to the nucleus of intact cells, including embryonic stem cells, which has important applications in gene therapy and cancer therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kylie M Wagstaff
- Nuclear Signalling Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
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Kim HA, Won Kim D, Park J, Choi SY. Transduction of Cu, Zn-superoxide dismutase mediated by an HIV-1 Tat protein basic domain into human chondrocytes. Arthritis Res Ther 2007; 8:R96. [PMID: 16792821 PMCID: PMC1779403 DOI: 10.1186/ar1972] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2006] [Revised: 05/04/2006] [Accepted: 05/12/2006] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
This study was performed to investigate the transduction of a full-length superoxide dismutase (SOD) protein fused to transactivator of transcription (Tat) into human chondrocytes, and to determine the regulatory function of transduced Tat-SOD in the inflammatory cytokine induced catabolic pathway. The pTat-SOD expression vector was constructed to express the basic domain of HIV-1 Tat as a fusion protein with Cu, Zn-SOD. We also purified histidine-tagged SOD without an HIV-1 Tat and Tat-GFP as control proteins. Cartilage samples were obtained from patients with osteoarthritis (OA) and chondrocytes were cultured in both a monolayer and an explant. For the transduction of fusion proteins, cells/explants were treated with a variety of concentrations of fusion proteins. The transduced protein was detected by fluorescein labeling, western blotting and SOD activity assay. Effects of transduced Tat-SOD on the regulation of IL-1 induced nitric oxide (NO) production and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) mRNA expression was assessed by the Griess reaction and reverse transcriptase PCR, respectively. Tat-SOD was successfully delivered into both the monolayer and explant cultured chondrocytes, whereas the control SOD was not. The intracellular transduction of Tat-SOD into cultured chondrocytes was detected after 1 hours, and the amount of transduced protein did not change significantly after further incubation. SOD enzyme activity increased in a dose-dependent manner. NO production and iNOS mRNA expression, in response to IL-1 stimulation, was significantly down-regulated by pretreatment with Tat-SOD fusion proteins. This study shows that protein delivery employing the Tat-protein transduction domain is feasible as a therapeutic modality to regulate catabolic processes in cartilage. Construction of additional Tat-fusion proteins that can regulate cartilage metabolism favorably and application of this technology in in vivo models of arthritis are the subjects of future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyun Ah Kim
- Department of Internal Medicine, Hallym University Sacred Heart Hospital, 896, Pyongchondong, Dongan-gu, Anyang, Kyunggi-do, 431-070, Korea
| | - Dae Won Kim
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Research Institute for Bioscience and Biotechnology, Hallym University, Chunchon 200-702, Korea
| | - Jinseu Park
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Research Institute for Bioscience and Biotechnology, Hallym University, Chunchon 200-702, Korea
| | - Soo Young Choi
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Research Institute for Bioscience and Biotechnology, Hallym University, Chunchon 200-702, Korea
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Abstract
Delivery of genes to the airway epithelium for therapeutic purposes seemed easy at first, because the epithelial cells interface with the environment and are therefore accessible. However, problems encountered were more substantial than were originally expected. Nonviral systems may be preferred for long-term gene expression, for they can be dosed repeatedly. Two nonviral gene transfer systems have been in clinical trials, lipid-mediated gene transfer and DNA nanoparticles. Both have sufficient efficiency to be candidates for correction of the cystic fibrosis defect, and both can be dosed repeatedly. However, lipid-mediated gene transfer in the first generation provokes significant inflammatory toxicity, which may be engineered out by adjustments of the lipids, the plasmid CpG content, or both. Both lipid-mediated gene transfer and DNA nanoparticles in the first generation have short duration of expression, but reengineering of the plasmid DNA to contain mostly eukaryotic sequences may address this problem. Considerable advances in the understanding of the cellular uptake and expression of these agents and in their practical utility have occurred in the last few years; these advances are reviewed here.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pamela B Davis
- Department of Pediatrics, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA.
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Snyder EL, Dowdy SF. Recent advances in the use of protein transduction domains for the delivery of peptides, proteins and nucleic acids in vivo. Expert Opin Drug Deliv 2006; 2:43-51. [PMID: 16296734 DOI: 10.1517/17425247.2.1.43] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Protein transduction domains (PTDs) are small cationic peptides that can facilitate the uptake of large, biologically active molecules into mammalian cells. Recent reports have shown that PTDs can mediate the delivery of cargo to tissues throughout a living organism. Such technology could eliminate the size restrictions on usable drugs, so enabling previously unavailable large molecules to modulate in vivo biology and alleviate disease. This article will review the evidence that PTDs can be used both to deliver active molecules to pathological tissue in vivo and to treat models of disease such as cancer, ischaemia and inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric L Snyder
- UCSD School of Medicine, Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Department of Cellular & Molecular Medicine, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093-0686, USA
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Kleemann E, Neu M, Jekel N, Fink L, Schmehl T, Gessler T, Seeger W, Kissel T. Nano-carriers for DNA delivery to the lung based upon a TAT-derived peptide covalently coupled to PEG-PEI. J Control Release 2005; 109:299-316. [PMID: 16298009 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2005.09.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 192] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2005] [Accepted: 08/15/2005] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Gene therapy aimed at the respiratory epithelium holds therapeutic potential for diseases such as cystic fibrosis and lung cancer. Polyethylenimine (PEI) has been utilized for gene delivery to the airways. In this study, we describe a new modification of PEI, in which an oligopeptide related to the protein transduction domain of HIV-1 TAT was covalently coupled to 25 kDa PEI (PEI) through a heterobifunctional polyethylenglycol (PEG) spacer resulting in a TAT-PEG-PEI conjugate. Improved DNA reporter gene complexation and protection was observed for small (approximately 90 nm) polyplexes as well as significantly improved stability against polyanions, Alveofact, bronchial alveolar lining fluid and DNase. To determine polyplex toxicity in vitro, MTT assays were performed and, for in vivo testing, the mice bronchial alveolar lavage was investigated for total cell counts, quantity of neutrophils, total protein and TNF-alpha concentration. All parameters suggest significantly lower toxicity for TAT-PEG-PEI. Transfection efficiencies of both PEI and TAT-PEG-PEI polyplexes with DNA were studied under in vitro conditions (A549) and in mice after intratracheal instillation. While luciferase expression in A549 cells was much lower for TAT-PEG-PEI (0.2 ng/mg protein) than for PEI (2 ng/mg), significantly higher transfection efficiencies for TAT-PEG-PEI were detected in mice. Reporter gene expression was distributed through bronchial and alveolar tissue. Thus, TAT-PEG-PEI represents a new approach to non-viral gene carriers for lung therapy, comprising protection for plasmid DNA, low toxicity and significantly enhanced transfection efficiency under in vivo conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Kleemann
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Biopharmacy, Philipps-University, Marburg, Germany
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Abstract
Certain natural peptides and proteins of mammalian origin are able to bind and condense plasmid DNA, a prerequisite for the formation of transfection-competent complexes that facilitate nonviral gene delivery. Here we have generated recombinant derivatives of the human high-mobility group (HMG) protein HMGB2 and investigated their potential as novel protein-based transfection reagents. A truncated form of HMGB2 encompassing amino acids 1-186 of the molecule was expressed in Escherichia coli at high yield. This HMGB2186 protein purified from bacterial lysates was able to condense plasmid DNA in a concentration-dependent manner, and mediated gene delivery into different established tumor cell lines more efficiently than poly(l-lysine). By attaching, via gene fusion, additional functional domains such as the HIV-1 TAT protein transduction domain (TAT(PTD)-HMGB2186), the nuclear localization sequence of the simian virus 40 (SV40) large T-antigen (SV40(NLS)-HMGB2186), or the importin-beta-binding domain (IBB) of human importin-alpha (IBB-HMGB2186), chimeric fusion proteins were produced which displayed markedly improved transfection efficiency. Addition of chloroquine strongly enhanced gene transfer by all four HMGB2186 derivatives studied, indicating cellular uptake of protein-DNA complexes via endocytosis. The IBB-HMGB2186 molecule in the presence of the endosomolytic reagent was the most effective. Our results show that recombinant derivatives of human HMGB2 facilitate efficient nonviral gene delivery and may become useful reagents for applications in gene therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arjen Sloots
- Chemotherapeutisches Forschungsinstitut, Georg-Speyer-Haus, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
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36
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Bachran C, Heisler I, Fuchs H, Sutherland M. Influence of protein transduction domains on target-specific chimeric proteins. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2005; 337:602-9. [PMID: 16199006 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2005.09.095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2005] [Accepted: 09/16/2005] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Direct targeting to the cytoplasm and nucleus using protein transduction domains (PTD) has been described to be efficient but non-cell-type-specific, and only has clinical relevance when the molecule is active exclusively in the diseased cell. The use of PTDs is an attractive mechanism to improve drug delivery. In this work, we designed recombinant proteins that contain epidermal growth factor as ligand to render uptake target cell-specific. We evaluated the potential of several PTDs to induce the cytosolic uptake of the catalytic domain of diphtheria toxin by measuring cytotoxicity. Although PTD-dependent membrane transfer is very low, the proteins exhibited concentration-dependent cytotoxic activity. Higher binding at 4 degrees C compared to 37 degrees C suggests that uptake by the PTDs MTS and TLM occurs via an endocytic pathway. Non-specific binding is predominantly a function of the PTD and greatly increases by substitution of a non-polar glycine with a negatively charged glutamate in the PTD HA2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Bachran
- Institut für Klinische Chemie und Pathobiochemie, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Campus Benjamin Franklin, Germany
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Heng BC, Hong YH, Cao T. Modulating gene expression in stem cells without recombinant DNA and permanent genetic modification. Cell Tissue Res 2005; 321:147-50. [PMID: 15942773 DOI: 10.1007/s00441-005-1152-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2005] [Accepted: 04/20/2005] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Future therapeutic applications of stem cells in regenerative medicine require efficient techniques for modulating gene expression. Conventionally, this is achieved through the use of recombinant DNA, which invariably leads to permanent genetic alteration to the cell. Overwhelming safety and ethical concerns are likely to preclude the application of genetically modified stem cells in human clinical therapy for the foreseeable near future. An alternative may be to adopt a "milieu-based" approach to influence gene expression, by exposing stem cells to a cocktail of exogenous cytokines, growth factors, and extracellular matrix. Nevertheless, the non-specific pleiotropic effects exerted by various cytokines, growth factors, and extracellular matrix would make this a relatively inefficient approach. Moreover, a "milieu-based" approach is likely to require extended durations of in vitro culture, which might delay autologous transplantation of adult stem cells to the patient and might alter their immunogenicity through prolonged exposure to xenogenic proteins within the culture milieu. The obvious solution would be to deliver proteins, RNA, or their synthetic analogs, such as peptide nucleic acid, directly into the cell to modulate gene expression. Currently, two promising delivery platforms are available: (1) protein transduction domains, and (2) immunoliposomes. Because such molecules have a limited active half-life in the cytosol and are obviously not incorporated into the genetic code of the cell, these would only exert a transient modulatory effect on gene expression. Nevertheless, a transient effect may be preferable for clinical therapy, since this would ultimately avoid permanent genetic alteration to the cell.
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Affiliation(s)
- Boon Chin Heng
- Stem Cell Laboratory, Faculty of Dentistry, National University of Singapore
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