A comparison of the effects of L-NAME, 7-NI and L-NIL on carrageenan-induced hindpaw oedema and NOS activity

Insight into antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of marine bacterial natural exopolysaccharide (EPSSM) using carrageenan-induced paw edema in rats

Inflammation is a part of the body's intricate biological reaction to noxious stimuli and defensive reactions. So, the aim of this investigation was to study the anti-inflammatory activity of exopolysaccharide (EPSSM) using carrageenan-induced paw edema in rats. A halophilic bacterial strain was isolated from marine sediments in the Red Sea in Egypt. The isolate has been visually and physiologically recognized, as well as by analyzing its 16S rRNA gene, which confirms Kocuria sp. clone Asker4. This particular isolate can be referenced using the accession number OL798051.1. EPSSM was subjected to purification and fractionation by a DEAE-cellulose column. Preliminary chemical analysis of EPSSM indicated that the monosaccharides were fructose, glucuronic acid, and xylose, with 2.0, 0.5, and 1.0, respectively. The antioxidant potential of EPSSM was investigated, and it was discovered that the level of activity increased independently of the concentrations, reaching a maximum threshold of 94.13% at 100 µg/mL of EPSSM for 120 min. Also, EPSSM at 50 mg/kg orally produced a significant anti-inflammatory effect on the carrageenan model at 2, 3, and 4 intervals. The EPSSM intervention resulted in reductions in the levels of catalase and superoxide dismutase enzymes, as well as a decrease in glutathione. Furthermore, the levels of nitric oxide, lipid peroxidation, and reactive oxygen species resulting from carrageenan-induced edema showed a significant reduction subsequent to the administration of EPSSM. Moreover, the findings indicated that the protein expression levels of cyclooxygenase-2 and interleukin-6 were reduced following treatment with EPSSM, resulting in a reduction of paw edema.

Role of Gasotransmitters in Inflammatory Edema

Significance: Nitric oxide (NO), carbon monoxide (CO), and hydrogen sulfide (H2S) are, to date, the identified members of the gasotransmitter family, which consists of gaseous signaling molecules that play central roles in the regulation of a wide variety of physiological and pathophysiological processes, including inflammatory edema. Recent Advances: Recent studies show the potential anti-inflammatory and antiedematogenic effects of NO-, CO-, and H2S-donors in vivo. In general, it has been observed that the therapeutical effects of NO-donors are more relevant when administered at low doses at the onset of the inflammatory process. Regarding CO-donors, their antiedematogenic effects are mainly associated with inhibition of proinflammatory mediators (such as inducible NO synthase [iNOS]-derived NO), and the observed protective effects of H2S-donors seem to be mediated by reducing some proinflammatory enzyme activities. Critical Issues: The most recent investigations focus on the interactions among the gasotransmitters under different pathophysiological conditions. However, the biochemical/pharmacological nature of these interactions is neither general nor fully understood, although specifically dependent on the site where the inflammatory edema occurs. Future Directions: Considering the nature of the involved mechanisms, a deeper knowledge of the interactions among the gasotransmitters is mandatory. In addition, the development of new pharmacological tools, either donors or synthesis inhibitors of the three gasotransmitters, will certainly aid the basic investigations and open new strategies for the therapeutic treatment of inflammatory edema. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 40, 272-291.

The Anti-Cancer Effect of Cinnamon Aqueous Extract: A Focus on Hematological Malignancies

Cinnamon is an evergreen and tropical plant of the family Lauraceae, growing particularly in Sri Lanka, whose aqueous extract has been tested in different studies to evaluate its possible use as an anti-cancer compound. Both in vitro and in vivo experiments seem to confirm that it acts on various cellular pathways, contributing to down-regulating the activity of molecules that stimulate the proliferation and survival of cells such as the transcription factors NF-KB and AP-1, COX-2, dihydrofolate reductase and pro-angiogenic substances such as VEGF, while up-regulating the function of immune cells against tumors, such as cytotoxic CD8+ T cells. In hematological malignancies, aqueous cinnamon extract has been studied in order to understand if it is possible to count on its help, alone or in combination with traditional drugs such as doxorubicin, to treat patients. The aim of our work is to investigate results from in vitro and in vivo studies about the possible anti-cancer effect of aqueous cinnamon extract in hematological malignancies and the different pathways involved in its action. The possibility of using cinnamon extract in clinical practice is discussed; even if its use could appear very interesting, more studies are necessary to clear the real potentiality of this substance in cancer.

Biological activity of algal derived carrageenan: A comprehensive review in light of human health and disease

Carrageenans are a family of natural linear sulfated polysaccharides derived from red seaweeds and used as a common food additive. Carrageenan's properties, impact on health, and aesthetic benefits have all been studied for a long time; however, the mechanisms are still unclear. In pharmaceutical aspects, carrageenan displayed potential antioxidant and immunomodulatory properties in both in vivo and in vitro action. It also contributes to potential disease-preventive activities through dynamic modulation of important intracellular signaling pathways, regulation of ROS buildup, and preservation of major cell survival and death processes which leads to potential drug development. Furthermore, the chemical synthesis of the current bioactive medicine with confirmational rearrangement may increase availability and bioactivity needs diligent examination. In this review, we give an up-to-date overview of recent research on Carrageenan with reference to health and therapeutic advantages. In addition, we have focused on structural conformation and its primary strategic deployment in disease prevention, as well as the mechanistic investigation of how it functions to combat various disease-preventive employed for future therapeutic interventions. This review may get new insights into the possible novel role of carrageenan and open up a novel disease-preventive mechanism and enhance human health.

New insights into geraniol's antihemolytic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anticoagulant potentials using a combined biological and in silico screening strategy

The study aims to assess the antihemolytic and antioxidant activities of geraniol versus 2, 2'-azobis, 2-amidinopropane dihydro-chloride- (AAPH-) induced oxidative damage and hemolysis to erythrocytes and its anti-inflammatory potential against lipopolysaccharide- (LPS-) induced inflammation in white blood cells (WBCs) with a focus on its integrated computational strategies against different targeted receptors participating in inflammation and coagulation. The rats' erythrocyte suspension was incubated with different geraniol concentrations. Molecular docking and simulation were used to explore the possible interaction patterns of geraniol against the potential targeted proteins for therapeutic screening. The results displayed that geraniol had a prolonged noteworthy effect on activated partial thromboplastin time and thromboplastin time. Geraniol displayed strong antioxidant effects via reduced malondialdehyde (MDA) formation and increased GSH level and SOD activity. We observed dose-dependent prevention of K⁺ ion leakage along with a remarkable decline of hemolysis in erythrocytes pretreated with geraniol. Geraniol 100 µg/mL and diclofenac 100 µM were nontoxic to WBCs. Geraniol significantly reduces the expression and release of cellular pro-inflammatory factors TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-8, and nitric oxide, accompanied by a significant upregulation of gene expression of anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 in LPS-induced WBCs compared to nontreated cells. It demonstrates a much stronger inhibition potential than diclofenac in terms of inflammation inhibition. When comparing molecular docking and simulation data, current work showed that geraniol has a good affinity toward apoptosis signal-regulating kinase 1 (ASK1) and human P2Y12 receptors and could be developed as an antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticoagulant medication in the future. Consequently, geraniol is recommended to have a defensive influence against oxidative stress, and hemolysis also could be developed as a promising anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anticoagulant medication.

Phytochemical Profile, Free Radical Scavenging and Anti-Inflammatory Properties of Acalypha Indica Root Extract: Evidence from In Vitro and In Vivo Studies

In our in vitro and in vivo studies, we used Acalypha indica root methanolic extract (AIRME), and investigated their free radical scavenging/antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. Primarily, phytochemical analysis showed rich content of phenols (70.92 mg of gallic acid/g) and flavonoids (16.01 mg of rutin/g) in AIRME. We then performed HR-LC-MS and GC-MS analyses, and identified 101 and 14 phytochemical compounds, respectively. Among them, ramipril glucuronide (1.563%), antimycin A (1.324%), swietenine (1.134%), quinone (1.152%), oxprenolol (1.118%), choline (0.847%), bumetanide (0.847%) and fenofibrate (0.711%) are the predominant phytomolecules. Evidence from in vitro studies revealed that AIRME scavenges DPPH and hydroxyl radicals in a concentration dependent manner (10–50 μg/mL). Similarly, hydrogen peroxide and lipid peroxidation were also remarkably inhibited by AIRME as concentration increases (20–100 μg/mL). In vitro antioxidant activity of AIRME was comparable to ascorbic acid treatment. For in vivo studies, carrageenan (1%, sub-plantar) was injected to rats to induce localized inflammation. Acute inflammation was represented by paw-edema, and significantly elevated (p < 0.05) WBC, platelets and C-reactive protein (CRP). However, AIRME pretreatment (150/300 mg/kg bodyweight) significantly (p < 0.05) decreased edema volume. This was accompanied by a significant (p < 0.05) reduction of WBC, platelets and CRP with both doses of AIRME. The decreased activities of superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione reductase and glutathione peroxidase in paw tissue were restored (p < 0.05 / p < 0.01) with AIRME in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, AIRME attenuated carrageenan-induced neutrophil infiltrations and vascular dilation in paw tissue. For the first time, our findings demonstrated the potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of AIRME, which could be considered to develop novel anti-inflammatory drugs.

Attenuation of carrageenan-induced hind paw edema and plasma TNF-α level by Philippine stingless bee (Tetragonula biroi Friese) propolis

Despite decades-long existence of the Philippine stingless bee industry, the biological activity of propolis from this native bee species (Tetragonula biroi Friese) remains poorly understood and sparingly investigated. Herein, we examined the potential anti-inflammatory efficacy of Philippine stingless bee propolis using the lambda (λ)-carrageenan-induced mice model of hind paw edema. Thirty (30), six-week-old, male ICR mice were randomly assigned into three treatment groups (n=10/group) as follows: distilled water group, diclofenac sodium group (10 mg/kg), and propolis group (100 mg/kg). All treatment were administered an hour prior to the injection of the phlogistic agent. As observed at 3 h post-injection, λ-carrageenan remarkably evoked the classical signs of hind paw edema exemplified grossly by swelling and hyperemia. The ameliorative effect of propolis became apparent at the onset of 6 h post-injection with a statistically significant finding evident at the 24-h period. This gross attenuation histologically correlated to a considerable and specific reduction of the dermal edema, which mirrored those of the diclofenac sodium group. Furthermore, both propolis and diclofenac sodium significantly attenuated the λ-carrageenan-induced increase in the protein expression levels of the pro-inflammatory cytokine tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) depicting more than two-fold decrement relative to the distilled water group. Altogether, these suggest that Philippine stingless bee propolis also exhibited a promising in vivo anti-inflammatory property, which can be partly mediated through the inhibition of TNF-α.

Protective Effect of Antioxidants in Nitric Oxide/COX-2 Interaction during Inflammatory Pain: The Role of Nitration

In clinical practice, inflammatory pain is an important, unresolved health problem, despite the utilization of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). In the last decade, different studies have proven that reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) are involved in the development and maintenance of inflammatory pain and hyperalgesia via the post-translation modification of key proteins, such as manganese superoxide dismutase (MnSOD). It is well-known that inducible cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2) plays a crucial role at the beginning of the inflammatory response by converting arachidonic acid into proinflammatory prostaglandin PGE₂ and then producing other proinflammatory chemokines and cytokines. Here, we investigated the impact of oxidative stress on COX-2 and prostaglandin (PG) pathways in paw exudates, and we studied how this mechanism can be reversed by using antioxidants during hyperalgesia in a well-characterized model of inflammatory pain in rats. Our results reveal that during the inflammatory state, induced by intraplantar administration of carrageenan, the increase of PGE₂ levels released in the paw exudates were associated with COX-2 nitration. Moreover, we showed that the inhibition of ROS with Mn (III) tetrakis (4-benzoic acid) porphyrin(MnTBAP) antioxidant prevented COX-2 nitration, restored the PGE₂ levels, and blocked the development of thermal hyperalgesia.

Attenuation of Inflammatory Symptoms by Icariside B2 in Carrageenan and LPS-Induced Inflammation Models via Regulation of MAPK/NF-κB Signaling Cascades

Prolonged inflammatory responses can lead to the development of several chronic diseases, such as autoimmune disorders and the development of natural therapeutic agents is required. A murine model was used to assess the anti-inflammatory effects of the megastigmane glucoside, icariside B2 (ICSB), and the assessment was carried out in vitro, and in vivo. The in vitro anti-inflammatory effects of ICSB were tested using LPS-stimulated BV2 cells, and the protein expression levels of inflammatory genes and cytokines were assessed. Mice were subcutaneously injected with 1% carrageenan (CA) to induce acute phase inflammation in the paw. Inflammation was assessed by measuring paw volumes hourly; subsequently, the mice were euthanized and the right hind paw skin was expunged and processed for reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and Western blot analyses. ICSB inhibits LPS-stimulated nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin E2 (PGE₂) generation by reducing the expression of inducible NO synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2). ICSB also inhibits the COX-2 enzyme with an IC50 value of 7.80 ± 0.26 µM. Molecular docking analysis revealed that ICSB had a strong binding affinity with both murine and human COX-2 proteins with binding energies of −8 kcal/mol and −7.4 kcal/mol, respectively. ICSB also reduces the manifestation of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β, at their transcriptional and translational level. ICSB hinders inhibitory protein κBα (IκBα) phosphorylation, thereby terminating the nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cell (NF-κB) nuclear translocation. ICSB also represses the mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) signaling pathways. ICSB (50 mg/kg) showed an anti-edema effect in CA-induced mice and suppressed the CA-induced increases in iNOS and COX-2 protein levels. ICSB attenuated inflammatory responses by downregulating NF-κB expression through interference with extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and p38 phosphorylation, and by modulating the expression levels of iNOS, COX-2, TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6.

Analgesic, anti-inflammatory and antipyretic activities of ethanolic extract of stem bark of Anogeissus latifolia Roxb

Background

Stem bark of Anogeissus latifolia Roxb (family: Combretaceae) is used traditionally and ethnomedicinally to alleviate pain, inflammation and fever conditions. The current study investigates the analgesic, anti-inflammatory and antipyretic activities of ethanolic extract of stem bark of Anogeissus latifolia Roxb.

Method

The HPLC studies were carried out to standardize the stem bark ethanolic extract of Anogeissus latifolia (ALEE) using ellagic acid as a marker. ALEE was screened for analgesic (formalin-induced pain and acetic acid induced writhing) and anti-inflammatory (formalin and carrageenan-induced paw oedema) activities in Wistar rats. Before 1 h of acetic acid or formalin or carrageenan injection, rats were orally fed with ALEE (100, 200 and 400 mg/kg), Aspirin (100 mg/kg) or Indomethacin (10 mg/kg). Antipyretic effect was studied in brewer’s yeast-induced pyrexia model in rats using Paracetamol (100 mg/kg) as a standard drug.

Results

HPLC analysis of ALEE revealed the presence of ellagic acid. ALEE treatment (200 and 400 mg/kg) significantly inhibited pain response in both models. ALEE treatments prevented the raise of paw volume in both in-vivo models with percent inhibition of 44.40 and 46.21, respectively at 5 h. ALEE also showed a significant reduction of yeast-induced pyrexia till 4 h of treatment.

Conclusion

ALEE exhibited analgesic, anti-inflammatory and antipyretic property in experimental models and validates traditional use of ALEE in pain, inflammation and fever.

Low-intensity ultrasound attenuates paw edema formation and decreases vascular permeability induced by carrageenan injection in rats

Background

Therapeutic potential of low-intensity ultrasound (LIUS) has become evident in various musculoskeletal diseases. We have previously shown that LIUS has an inhibitory effect on local edema in various diseases including the arthritis and brain injury. In this study, we examined whether LIUS can attenuate paw edema formation vis-à-vis vascular permeability and inflammation in rats induced by carrageenan. LIUS with a frequency of 1 MHz and the intensities of 50, 100, or 200 mW/cm² were exposed on rat paws for 10 min immediately after carrageenan injection.

Results

Carrageenan injection induced paw edema which was peaked at 6 h and gradually decreased nearly to the initial baseline value after 72 h. LIUS showed a significant reduction of paw edema formation at 2 and 6 h at all intensities tested. The highest reduction was observed at the intensity of 50 mW/cm². Histological analyses confirmed that LIUS clearly decreased the carrageenan-induced swelling of interstitial space under the paw skin and infiltration of polymorphonuclear leukocytes. Moreover, Evans Blue extravasation analyses exhibited a significant decreases of vascular permeability by LIUS. Finally, immunohistochemical staining showed that expression of pro-inflammatory proteins, namely, inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) induced by carrageenan injection was reduced back to the normal level after LIUS stimulation.

Conclusions

These results provide a new supporting evidence for LIUS as a therapeutic alternative for the treatment of edema in inflammatory diseases such as cellulitis.

Clindamycin inhibits nociceptive response by reducing tumor necrosis factor-α and CXCL-1 production and activating opioidergic mechanisms

Clindamycin, a bacteriostatic semisynthetic lincosamide, is useful in the management of infections caused by aerobic and anaerobic Gram-positive cocci, including bacteremic pneumonia, streptococcal toxic shock syndrome and sepsis. It has been recently demonstrated that clindamycin inhibits in vitro and in vivo inflammatory cytokine production. In the present study, we investigated the effects of clindamycin in acute and chronic models of pain and inflammation in mice and the underlying mechanisms. Intraperitoneal (i.p.) administration of clindamycin (400 mg/kg) increased the animal's latency to exhibit the nociceptive behavior induced by noxious heat (hot plate model). Intrathecal injection of clindamycin (2, 10 and 50 µg) also increased the animals' latency to exhibit the nociceptive behavior. Tactile hypersensitivity and paw edema induced by intraplantar (i.pl.) injection of carrageenan were attenuated by previous administration of clindamycin (200 and 400 mg/kg, i.p.). Clindamycin (100, 200 and 400 mg/kg, i.p.) also attenuated ongoing tactile hypersensitivity and paw edema induced by i.pl. injection of complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA). The antinociceptive activity of clindamycin (400 mg/kg, i.p.) in the hot plate model was attenuated by previous administration of naltrexone (5 and 10 mg/kg, i.p.), but not glibenclamide or AM251. CFA-induced production of TNF-α and CXCL-1 was reduced by clindamycin (400 mg/kg, i.p.). Concluding, clindamycin exhibits activities in acute and chronic models of pain and inflammation. These effects are associated with reduced production of TNF-α and CXCL-1 and activation of opioidergic mechanisms. Altogether, these results indicate that the clindamycin's immunomodulatory effects may contribute to a pharmacological potential beyond its antibiotic property.

Protopine attenuates inflammation stimulated by carrageenan and LPS via the MAPK/NF-κB pathway

We investigated the anti-inflammatory activity of protopine (PTP) and sought to determine its mechanism of action in LPS-stimulated BV2 cells and a carrageenan (CA)-induced mouse model. Treatment with PTP (5, 10, and 20 μM) significantly suppresses the secretion of NO and PGE₂ in a concentration-dependent manner without affecting cell viability by downregulating iNOS and COX-2 expression in LPS-induced BV2 cells. PTP also attenuates the production of pro-inflammatory chemokines, such as MCP-1, and cytokines, including TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6, and augments the expression of the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10. In addition, PTP suppresses the nuclear translocation of NF-κB by hindering the degradation of IκB and downregulating the expression of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), including p38, ERK1/2 and JNK protein. Furthermore, PTP treatment significantly suppresses CA-induced paw oedema in mice compared to that seen in untreated mice. Expression of iNOS and COX-2 proteins is also abrogated by PTP (50 mg/kg) treatment in CA-induced mice. PTP treatment also abolishes IκB phosphorylation, which hinders the activation of NF-κB. Collectively, these results suggest PTP has potential for attenuating CA- and LPS-induced inflammatory symptoms through modulation of MAPKs/NF-κB signaling cascades.

Anti-Inflammatory Activities of Leaf Oil from Cinnamomum subavenium In Vitro and In Vivo

The study determined the chemical constituents and anti-inflammatory effects of leaf oil from Cinnamomum subavenium (CS-LO) that has been used in folk medicine to treat various symptoms including inflammation. The anti-inflammatory effects of the oil were evaluated by LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells and the Carr-induced hind mouse paw edema model, respectively. In vitro, nitric oxide (NO), prostaglandin E2 (PGE₂), TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β were significantly decreased by CS-LO, and the expression of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) protein was blocked as well. In in vivo, the malondialdehyde (MDA) and paw edema levels were decreased by CS-LO, and the same result came up on the NO and tumor necrosis factor (TNF-a) of serum at the 5th h after Carr injection. In addition, iNOS and COX-2 immunoreactive cells of the paw tissue were decreased significantly by CS-LO (200 mg/kg) in histological examination. The present findings indicated that CS-LO have anti-inflammatory properties, and the effects might be caused through inhibiting iNOS, COX-2, TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 expression via affecting NF-κB pathway, which will provide a power scientific basis for CS-LO to be used as the treatment of inflammatory diseases.

Sources of Vascular Nitric Oxide and Reactive Oxygen Species and Their Regulation

Nitric oxide (NO) is a small free radical with critical signaling roles in physiology and pathophysiology. The generation of sufficient NO levels to regulate the resistance of the blood vessels and hence the maintenance of adequate blood flow is critical to the healthy performance of the vasculature. A novel paradigm indicates that classical NO synthesis by dedicated NO synthases is supplemented by nitrite reduction pathways under hypoxia. At the same time, reactive oxygen species (ROS), which include superoxide and hydrogen peroxide, are produced in the vascular system for signaling purposes, as effectors of the immune response, or as byproducts of cellular metabolism. NO and ROS can be generated by distinct enzymes or by the same enzyme through alternate reduction and oxidation processes. The latter oxidoreductase systems include NO synthases, molybdopterin enzymes, and hemoglobins, which can form superoxide by reduction of molecular oxygen or NO by reduction of inorganic nitrite. Enzymatic uncoupling, changes in oxygen tension, and the concentration of coenzymes and reductants can modulate the NO/ROS production from these oxidoreductases and determine the redox balance in health and disease. The dysregulation of the mechanisms involved in the generation of NO and ROS is an important cause of cardiovascular disease and target for therapy. In this review we will present the biology of NO and ROS in the cardiovascular system, with special emphasis on their routes of formation and regulation, as well as the therapeutic challenges and opportunities for the management of NO and ROS in cardiovascular disease.

The nickel-catalyzed C3-acylation of 2H-indazoles with aldehydes

A direct acylation at C3 position of 2H-indazoles has been achieved to produce 3-acyl-2H-indazoles using aldehydes.

Anti-inflammatory effects and anti-oxidant capacity of Myrathius arboreus (Cecropiaceae) in experimental models

BACKGROUND

Inflammation is involved in various diseases; search for safe treatments is warranted. Anti-inflammatory effects of ethanol extract of Myrathius arboreus (EEMa) were studied in carrageenan-induced model, formaldehyde sub-acute-induced model, and in 48 h lipopolysaccharide-induced air pouch model of inflammation. EEMa membrane-stabilizing activities and anti-oxidant capacity were determined in vitro.

METHODS

In the carrageenan model EEMa (125, 250, or 500 mg/kg), indomethacin (5 mg/kg), or vehicle 3 mL/kg was administered orally in rats (n=5). After 1 h, 0.1 mL of 1% carrageenan was injected into the right hind paw of rats. Change in edema sizes was measured for 3 h with plethysmometer. One-tenth milliliter (0.1 mL) of 2.5% formaldehyde was injected into the rat paw on the first day and the third day to induce sub-acute inflammation; changes in the edema sizes were determined, and percentages of inhibitions were calculated. Anti-inflammatory effects of EEMa were further examined in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced air-pouch based on leukocytes count, volume of exudates, levels of malondialdehyde, glutathione, superoxide dismutase, nitric oxides, and tumor necrosis factor released into the inflammatory fluids. EEMa-free radicals scavenging activities were studied in DPPH and reducing power tests. Membrane-stabilizing activities of EEMa were evaluated in the red blood cell lysis induced by thermal and hypotonic solution.

RESULTS

EEMa (250, 500 mg/kg) produced significant (p<0.001; p<0.05) inhibition of inflammation when compared with vehicle. Also, EEMa (250, 500, or 1000 μg/mL) significantly stabilized membrane and produced free radical scavenging activities.

CONCLUSIONS

M. arboreus possesses anti-inflammatory and the anti-oxidant properties that might benefit translational medicine.

Attenuation of inflammatory responses by (+)-syringaresinol via MAP-Kinase-mediated suppression of NF-κB signaling in vitro and in vivo

We examined the anti-inflammatory effects of (+)-syringaresinol (SGRS), a lignan isolated from Rubia philippinensis, in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells using enzyme-based immuno assay, Western blotting, and RT-PCR analyses. Additionally, in vivo effects of SGRS in the acute inflammatory state were examined by using the carrageenan-induced hind paw edema assay in experimental mice. As a result, treatment with SGRS (25, 50, and 100 μM) inhibited protein expression of lipopolysaccharide-stimulated inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), and nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) as well as production of nitric oxide (NO), prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-1beta (IL-1β), and interleukin-6 (IL-6) induced by LPS. Moreover, SGRS also reduced LPS-induced mRNA expression levels of iNOS and COX-2, including NO, PGE2, TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 cytokines in a dose-dependent fashion. Furthermore, carrageenan-induced paw edema assay validated the in vivo anti-edema effect of SGRS. Interestingly, SGRS (30 mg/kg) suppressed carrageenan-induced elevation of iNOS, COX-2, TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 mRNA levels as well as COX-2 and NF-κB protein levels, suggesting SGRS may possess anti-inflammatory activities.

Amelioration of inflammatory responses by Socheongryong-Tang, a traditional herbal medicine, in RAW 264.7 cells and rats

Socheongryong-Tang (SCRT) is a natural medicine prescription that has been mainly used in East Asia for the treatment of inflammatory disorders, including asthma and allergic rhinitis. The present study evaluated the anti-inflammatory effects of SCRT on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells and in a rat model of carrageenan (CA)-induced paw edema. Levels of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6 and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) in the culture supernatant were quantified and nitric oxide (NO) production was monitored. In addition, the effect of SCRT on the protein expression of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB), mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), inducible NO synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) was assessed by western blot analysis. Furthermore, the effects of SCRT on acute inflammation in vivo and changes in the histomorphometry and histopathology of paw skin were observed using CA-treated rats. SCRT (1 mg/ml) inhibited the LPS-induced changes in the protein expression of NF-κB, JNK, ERK1/2, iNOS and COX-2, as well as the production of NO, PGE2 and cytokines. In the rat paw edema assay, administration of 1 g/kg of lyophilized powder obtained from the aqueous extracts of SCRT for 3 consecutive days inhibited the CA-induced increases in skin thickness, mast cell degranulation, and infiltration of inflammatory cells in the ventral and dorsal pedis skin within 4 h. These results demonstrated that SCRT exerts its anti-inflammatory activities in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells through decreasing the production of inflammatory mediators, including PGE2, NO and cytokines, via suppression of the NF-κB and JNK and ERK1/2 signaling pathways. In addition, the data of the CA-induced paw edema indicated an anti-edema effect of SCRT. SCRT (1 g/kg) reduced acute edematous inflammation through inhibition of mast cell degranulation and infiltration of inflammatory cells. Therefore, the present study provided scientific evidence for the anti-inflammatory activities of SCRT as well as the underlying mechanisms.

In vitro assesment of anti-inflammatory activities of coumarin and Indonesian cassia extract in RAW264.7 murine macrophage cell line

OBJECTIVES

Inflammation is an immune response toward injuries. Although inflammation is healing response, but in some condition it will lead to chronic disease such as rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease, atherosclerosis, Alzheimer's and various cancer. Indonesian cassia (Cinnamomum burmannil C. Nees & T. Ness) known to contain coumarin, is widely used for alternative medicine especially as an anti-inflammatory. This study was conducted to determine the anti-inflammatory properties of coumarin and Indonesian cassia extract (ICE) in LPS-induced RAW264.7 cell line.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The cytotoxic assay of coumarin and ICE against RAW264.7 cells was conducted using MTS (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-5-(3-carboxymethoxyphenyl)-2-(4-sulfophenyl)-2H-tetrazolium). The anti-inflammatory potential was determined using LPS-induced RAW 267.4 macrophages cells to measure inhibitory activity of compound and ISEon production of nitric oxide (NO), prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), and also cytokines such as interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and TNF-α.

RESULTS

Coumarin 10 µM and ICE 10 µg/ml were nontoxic to the RAW264.7 cells. Both of coumarin and ICE were capable to reduce the PGE2, TNF-α, NO, IL-6, and IL-β level in LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells. Coumarin had higher activity to decrease PGE2 and TNF-α, whilst ICE had higher activity to inhibit NO, IL-6, and IL-β levels.

CONCLUSION

Coumarin and ICE possess anti-inflammatory properties through inhibition of PGE2 and NO along with pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β production.

The Role of Inducible-Nitric Oxide in Cocaine-Induced Kindling

Experimentally naive male Sprague Dawley rats (weighing 85–110 g) were used to examine the role of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) in cocaine-induced kindling. Repeated administration of cocaine (45 mg/kg, ip) to Sprague Dawley male rats for 7 consecutive days produced a progressive increase in the Convulsive responsiveness and death. Pretreatment with iNOS inhibitors, L-N6-(1-iminoethyl)lysine (NIL; 10 mg/kg, ip) and (–)-ePigalloocatechin gallate (EGCG; 10 mg/kg, ip) 30 min before cocaine (45 mg/kg, ip) administration for 7 days attenuated the development of cocaine kindling and blocked cocaine-induced death. Results of NMDA receptor binding assay in the hippocampus showed a significant increase in the affinity without changes in the density in animals treated with cocaine, but there were no changes in these parameters in the cortex. Pretreatment with NIL or EGCG prior to cocaine administration abolished the cocaine-induced effect in the NMDA receptor affinity in the hippocampus. These results suggest that iNOS induction followed by an increase of NMDA receptor affinity in the hippocampus after repeated exposure to cocaine may participate in the process of the development of cocaine kindling.

Hederagenin, a major component of Clematis mandshurica Ruprecht root, attenuates inflammatory responses in RAW 264.7 cells and in mice

Clematis mandshurica Ruprecht root has been used in Asia as a traditional anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antitumor agent. Its main active component is hederagenin, a naturally occurring triterpene, and in this study, we examined the anti-inflammatory effects of hederagenin in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, Western blot, and RT-PCR. In addition, its effects on acute inflammation in vivo were observed using a carrageenan-induced mouse hind paw edema assay. Furthermore, the changes on the histopathology and histomorphometry of hind paw skins were examined using carrageenan-treated mice. Treatment with hederagenin (10, 30 and 100μM) resulted in inhibited levels of protein expression of lipopolysaccharide-stimulated iNOS, COX-2, and NF-κB as well as production of NO, PGE2, TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 induced by lipopolysaccharide. Consistent with these results, hederagenin also dose-dependently reduced the lipopolysaccharide-induced mRNA levels of iNOS and COX-2, and of the above-mentioned cytokines. Interestingly, results of the carrageenan-induced mouse hind paw edema assay showed an anti-edema effect of hederagenin. Furthermore, hederagenin (30mg/kg) inhibited the carrageenan-induced increases in skin thicknesses, infiltrated inflammatory cells, and mast cell degranulation. These results suggest that hederagenin may possess anti-inflammatory activities.

Evaluation of the Anti-Inflammatory, Antioxidant and Immunomodulatory Effects of the Organic Extract of the Red Sea Marine Sponge Xestospongia testudinaria against Carrageenan Induced Rat Paw Inflammation

Marine sponges are found to be a rich source of bioactive compounds which show a wide range of biological activities including antiviral, antibacterial, and anti-inflammatory activities. This study aimed to investigate the possible anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and immunomodulator effects of the methanolic extract of the Red Sea marine sponge Xestospongia testudinaria. The chemical composition of the Xestospongia testudinaria methanolic extract was determined using Gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy (GC-MS) analysis. DPPH (2, 2-diphenyl-1-picryl-hydrazyl) was measured to assess the antioxidant activity of the sponge extract. Carrageenan-induced rat hind paw edema was adopted in this study. Six groups of rats were used: group1: Control, group 2: Carrageenan, group 3: indomethacin (10 mg/kg), group 4-6: Xestospongia testudinaria methanolic extract (25, 50, and 100 mg/kg). Evaluation of the anti-inflammatory activity was performed by both calculating the percentage increase in paw weight and hisopathologically. Assessment of the antioxidant and immunomodulatory activity was performed. GC-MS analysis revealed that there were 41 different compounds present in the methanolic extract. Sponge extract exhibited antioxidant activity against DPPH free radicals. Xestospongia testudinaria methanolic extract (100 mg/kg) significantly decreased % increase in paw weight measured at 1, 2, 3 and 4 h after carrageenan injection. Histopathologically, the extract caused a marked decrease in the capillary congestion and inflammatory cells infiltrate. The extract decreased paw malondialdehyde (MDA) and nitric oxide (NO) and increased the reduced glutathione (GSH), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and catalase (CAT) activity. It also decreased the inflammatory cytokines, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-1 β(IL-1β) and IL-6. The results of this study demonstrated the anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and immunomodulatory effects of the methanolic extract of the Red Sea sponge Xestospongia testudinaria (100 mg/kg).

Synthesis, toxicity study and anti-inflammatory effect of MHTP, a new tetrahydroisoquinoline alkaloid

The alkaloid 2-methoxy-4-(7-methoxy-1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinolin-1-yl)phenol (MHTP) was synthesized to prospect new compounds with therapeutic properties. Thus, the goal of this study was to evaluate the MHTP anti-inflammatory effect by in vivo and in vitro assays. The MHTP toxicity was analyzed. We found that MHTP pre-treatment (2.5-10 mg/kg) showed antiedematogenic effect (p < 0.05) in carrageenan-induced paw edema by inhibiting the PGE2 action independently of mast cell degranulation or histamine activity. MHTP also diminished (p < 0.01) total leukocyte migration in 41.5% into peritoneal cavity during carrageenan-induced peritonitis, reducing polymorphonuclear cells (PMNs) (59.6%) and proteins levels (29.4%). MHTP in an experimental model of acute lung injury inhibited (p < 0.001) total inflammatory cell migration into the lungs and PMNs in 58% and 67.5%, respectively. Additionally, MHTP did not present cytotoxicity at concentrations of 10, 25 or 50 μM but decreased (p < 0.001) the NO production in 24%, 47% and 39%, respectively. The alkaloid also reduced (p < 0.001, in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated macrophages (1 μg/mL), IL-1β, IL-6 and IL-10 levels in 35.7%, 31.0% and 33.4%, respectively. The results obtained in this study allow us to conclude that the inedited synthetic alkaloid, MHTP has anti-inflammatory effect by inhibiting PGE2 function as well as inhibiting inflammatory cell migration to the inflamed site and attenuated the acute lung injury disease by inhibiting the migration of neutrophil to the lung. However, further studies will be carried out to demonstrate the mechanisms of action of the molecule and explore its potential as a future drug to treat inflammatory processes.

Anti-Inflammatory and Analgesic Effects of the Marine-Derived Compound Excavatolide B Isolated from the Culture-Type Formosan Gorgonian Briareum excavatum

In recent years, several marine-derived compounds have been clinically evaluated. Diterpenes are secondary metabolites from soft coral that exhibit anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor and cytotoxic activities. In the present study, we isolated a natural diterpene product, excavatolide B, from cultured Formosan gorgonian Briareum excavatum and investigated its anti-inflammatory activities. We found that excavatolide B significantly inhibited the mRNA expression of the proinflammatory mediators, inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-challenged murine macrophages (RAW 264.7). We also examined the anti-inflammatory and anti-nociceptive effects of excavatolide B on intraplantar carrageenan-induced inflammatory responses. Excavatolide B was found to significantly attenuate carrageenan-induced nociceptive behaviors, mechanical allodynia, thermal hyperalgesia, weight bearing deficits and paw edema. In addition, excavatolide B inhibited iNOS, as well as the infiltration of immune cells in carrageenan-induced inflammatory paw tissue.

Anti-inflammatory effects of Juncus effusus extract (JEE) on LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells and edema models

CONTEXT

Juncus effusus L. var. decipiens BUCHEN. f. leschenaultii GAY has been used in traditional medicine for the treatment of anxiety and insomnia.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of ethanol extract from the pith of Juncus effusus (JEE) on anti-inflammatory activities in RAW 264.7 cells.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The production of inflammatory mediators and the underlying mechanisms using 3.1, 6.3, and 12.5 μg/mL concentrations of JEE were investigated. In addition, the topical anti-inflammatory effects of JEE (0.5, 1, and 2 mg/mL) on 12-O-tetradecanoylphorobol-13 acetate (TPA)-induced ear edema and oral administration of JEE (50, 100, and 200 mg/kg) on carrageenan-induced paw-edema were studied in mice.

RESULTS

JEE reduced the release of nitric oxide (NO, IC50 value = 1.98 μg/mL), prostaglandin E2 (IC50 value = 5.5 μg/mL), and pro-inflammatory cytokines, IL-1β (IC50 value = 4.74 μg/mL) and IL-6 (IC50 value = 20.48 μg/mL). JEE also suppressed the protein expression of inducible NO synthase and cyclooxygenase-2 in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells. Mechanism studies showed attenuation of LPS-induced activation of NF-κB by JEE via abrogation of IκBα degradation and a subsequent decrease in nuclear p65 level. Phosphorylation of all three MAP kinases (ERK, JNK, and p38) in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells was also suppressed in a dose-dependent manner. In acute inflammation models of mice, topical application (1 and 2 mg) and oral administration (50, 100, and 200 mg/kg) of JEE ameliorated TPA-induced ear edema and carrageenan-induced paw edema, respectively, in dose-dependent manners.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

These results indicate that JEE exhibited anti-inflammatory activities by suppressing the production of inflammatory mediators in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells and by attenuating edema in mice.

Pinosylvin and monomethylpinosylvin, constituents of an extract from the knot of Pinus sylvestris, reduce inflammatory gene expression and inflammatory responses in vivo

Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) is known to be rich in phenolic compounds, which may have anti-inflammatory properties. The present study investigated the anti-inflammatory effects of a knot extract from P. sylvestris and two stilbenes, pinosylvin and monomethylpinosylvin, isolated from the extract. Inflammation is characterized by increased release of pro-inflammatory and regulatory mediators including nitric oxide (NO) produced by the inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) pathway. The knot extract (EC50 values of 3 and 3 μg/mL) as well as two of its constituents, pinosylvin (EC50 values of 13 and 15 μM) and monomethylpinosylvin (EC50 values of 8 and 12 μM), reduced NO production and iNOS expression in activated macrophages. They also inhibited the production of inflammatory cytokines IL-6 and MCP-1. More importantly, pinosylvin and monomethylpinosylvin exerted a clear anti-inflammatory effect (80% inhibition at the dose of 100 mg/kg) in the standard in vivo model, carrageenan-induced paw inflammation in the mouse, with the effect being comparable to that of a known iNOS inhibitor L-NIL. The results reveal that the Scots pine stilbenes pinosylvin and monomethylpinosylvin are potential anti-inflammatory compounds.

Millettia pachycarpa exhibits anti-inflammatory activity through the suppression of LPS-induced NO/iNOS expression

The present study was designed to investigate the in vitro and in vivo anti-inflammatory activity of flavonoids isolated from Millettia pachycarpa Benth. The seeds of M. pachycarpa Benth were extracted with ethanol and subjected to chromatographic separation for the isolation of bioactive compounds. Their structures were elucidated by spectroscopic methods. The anti-inflammatory activity of the compounds was investigated by evaluating the inhibition ability of NO production, iNOS activity and iNOS protein expression induced by LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophages in vitro and the carrageenan-induced hind paw edema model in vivo. Molecular docking simulation was also employed to obtain the binding parameters in the binding pocket of iNOS. Thirteen compounds (1-13) were isolated from Chinese herbal medicine M. pachycarpa Benth. Among them, 4-hydroxylonchocarpin (6) and deguelin (7) exhibited remarkable inhibitory rates of 66.5% and 57.7%, respectively, compared with that of 52.5% of indomethacin in LPS-induced macrophages cells. 4-hydroxylonchocarpin (6) with low toxicity (IC50 > 100 μm) exhibited better inhibitory effects to positive control of 1400W on iNOS activity at the concentration of 10 μm. Western blot assay revealed that 4-hydroxylonchocarpin (6) inhibited iNOS protein expression in RAW264.7 cells and molecular docking simulation showed that 4-hydroxylonchocarpin (6) fit well into the binding pocket of iNOS. In the carrageenan-induced paw edema model, our data revealed that the anti-inflammatory potential of 4-hydroxylonchocarpin (6) at 10 mg/kg showed comparable inhibitory ability to indomethacin at 5 h while a higher concentration of 4-hydroxylonchocarpin (6) at 50 mg/kg showed higher inhibitory activity than indomethacin, which was further confirmed by plasma levels of nitrite. The overall results suggest that 4-hydroxylonchocarpin (6) might be used as a potential therapeutic agent for inflammation-associated disorders.

Glial activation is associated with l-DOPA induced dyskinesia and blocked by a nitric oxide synthase inhibitor in a rat model of Parkinson's disease

l-3, 4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (L-DOPA) is the most effective treatment for Parkinson's disease but can induce debilitating abnormal involuntary movements (dyskinesia). Here we show that the development of L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia in the rat is accompanied by upregulation of an inflammatory cascade involving nitric oxide. Male Wistar rats sustained unilateral injections of 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) into the medial forebrain bundle. After three weeks animals started to receive daily treatment with L-DOPA (30 mg/kg plus benserazide 7.5 mg/kg, for 21 days), combined with an inhibitor of neuronal NOS (7-nitroindazole, 7-NI, 30 mg/kg/day) or vehicle (saline-PEG 50%). All animals treated with L-DOPA and vehicle developed abnormal involuntary movements, and this effect was prevented by 7-NI. L-DOPA-treated dyskinetic animals exhibited an increased striatal and pallidal expression of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) in reactive astrocytes, an increased number of CD11b-positive microglial cells with activated morphology, and the rise of cells positive for inducible nitric oxide-synthase immunoreactivity (iNOS). All these indexes of glial activation were prevented by 7-NI co-administration. These findings provide evidence that the development of L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia in the rat is associated with activation of glial cells that promote inflammatory responses. The dramatic effect of 7-NI in preventing this glial response points to an involvement of nitric oxide. Moreover, the results suggest that the NOS inhibitor prevents dyskinesia at least in part via inhibition of glial cell activation and iNOS expression. Our observations indicate nitric oxide synthase inhibitors as a therapeutic strategy for preventing neuroinflammatory and glial components of dyskinesia pathogenesis in Parkinson's disease.

Biomolecular evidence of anti-inflammatory effects by Clematis mandshurica Ruprecht root extract in rodent cells

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Clematis mandshurica Ruprecht root is widely used in Asia as an analgesic and anti-inflammatory agent. This research investigated the anti-inflammatory effects of Clematis mandshurica Ruprecht root extract (CRE) using RAW 264.7 macrophage cells and carrageenan- (CA-) induced rat paw edema.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Production of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) in the culture supernatant, mRNA expression of TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, iNOS and COX-2, protein expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) and mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) in the extract were assayed. In addition, the effect of CRE on acute inflammation in vivo was observed using CA-induced rat hind paw edema assay. The changes on the histopathology and histomorphometry of hind paw skins-dorsum and ventrum pedis were observed using CA-treated rats.

RESULTS

Treatment with CRE (0.25, 0.5, and 1 mg/mL) resulted in inhibited levels of protein expression of lipopolysaccharide- (LPS-) induced iNOS, COX-2, NF-κB, and MAPKs (ERK, JNK, and p38) as well as production of TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, NO, and PGE2 induced by LPS. Consistent with these results, CRE reduced the LPS-induced expressions of these cytokines, iNOS and COX-2 at the mRNA levels in a dose-dependent manner. In particular, results of the CA-induced rat hind paw edema assay showed an anti-edema effect of CRE. In addition, treatment with CRE resulted in dose-dependent inhibition of CA-induced increases of skin thickness, mast cell degranulation, and infiltrated inflammatory, TNF-α, IL-1β, iNOS, and COX-2-positive cells in both dorsum and ventrum pedis skin, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

These results demonstrate that CRE exhibits anti-inflammatory activities via decreasing production of pro-inflammatory mediators through suppression of the pathways of NF-κB and MAPKs in LPS-induced macrophage cells. In addition, results of the CA-induced rat hind paw edema assay show an anti-edema effect of CRE. Our findings also support the traditional use of CRE in the inflammatory symptoms of rheumatic arthritis and acute icteric hepatitis. Thus, CRE may have therapeutic potential for a variety of inflammation-mediated diseases and may be developed into potent anti-inflammatory drugs.

U-Bang-Haequi Tang: A Herbal Prescription that Prevents Acute Inflammation through Inhibition of NF-κB-Mediated Inducible Nitric Oxide Synthase

Since antiquity, medical herbs have been prescribed for both treatment and preventative purposes. Herbal formulas are used to reduce toxicity as well as increase efficacy in traditional Korean medicine. U-bang-haequi tang (UBT) is a herbal prescription containing Arctii fructus and Forsythia suspensa as its main components and has treated many human diseases in traditional Korean medicine. This research investigated the effects of UBT against an acute phase of inflammation. For this, we measured induction of nitric oxide (NO) and related proteins in macrophage cell line stimulated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Further, paw swelling was measured in carrageenan-treated rats. Carrageenan significantly induced activation of inflammatory cells and increases in paw volume, whereas oral administration of 0.3 or 1 g/kg/day of UBT inhibited the acute inflammatory response. In RAW264.7 cells, UBT inhibited mRNA and protein expression levels of iNOS. UBT treatment also blocked elevation of NO production, nuclear translocation of NF-κB, phosphorylation of Iκ-Bα induced by LPS. Moreover, UBT treatment significantly blocked the phosphorylation of p38 and c-Jun NH2-terminal kinases by LPS. In conclusion, UBT prevented both acute inflammation in rats as well as LPS-induced NO and iNOS gene expression through inhibition of NF-κB in RAW264.7 cells.

Activities of 2-phthalimidethanol and 2-phthalimidethyl nitrate, phthalimide analogs devoid of the glutarimide moiety, in experimental models of inflammatory pain and edema

The reintroduction of thalidomide in the pharmacotherapy greatly stimulated the interest in the synthesis and pharmacological evaluation of phthalimide analogs with new and improved activities and also greater safety. In the present study, we evaluated the activities of two phthalimide analogs devoid of the glutarimide ring, namely 2-phthalimidethanol (PTD-OH) and 2-phthalimidethyl nitrate (PTD-NO), in experimental models of inflammatory pain and edema in male C57BL/6J mice. Intraplantar (i.pl.) injection of carrageenan (300 μg) induced mechanical allodynia and this response was inhibited by previous per os (p.o.) administration of PTD-OH and PTD-NO (750 mg/kg) and also by thalidomide (500 or 750 mg/kg). The edema induced by carrageenan was also inhibited by previous p.o. administration of PTD-OH (500 and 750 mg/kg) and PTD-NO (125, 250, 500 or 750 mg/kg), but not by thalidomide. Carrageenan increased tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and CXCL1 concentrations and also the number of neutrophils in the paw tissue. Previous p.o. administration of PTD-NO (500 mg/kg) reduced all the parameters, while PTD-OH (500 mg/kg) reduced only the accumulation of neutrophils. Thalidomide, on the other hand, was devoid of effect on these biochemical parameters. Plasma concentrations of nitrite were increased after p.o. administration of the phthalimide analog coupled to a NO donor, PTD-NO (500 mg/kg), but not after administration of PTD-OH or thalidomide. In conclusion, our results show that small molecules, structurally much simpler than thalidomide or many of its analogs under investigation, exhibit similar activities in experimental models of pain and inflammation. Finally, as there is evidence that the glutarimide moiety contributes to the teratogenic effect of many thalidomide analogs, our results indicate that phthalimide analogs devoid of this functional group could represent a new class of analgesic and anti-inflammatory candidates with potential greater safety.

Ellagic acid protects against carrageenan-induced acute inflammation through inhibition of nuclear factor kappa B, inducible cyclooxygenase and proinflammatory cytokines and enhancement of interleukin-10 via an antioxidant mechanism

There are several hypotheses that explain the process of acute inflammation, including free radical overproduction, pro-inflammatory enzyme activation, and release of pro-inflammatory cytokines. In this study, the protective role of ellagic acid against carrageenan-induced acute inflammation was assessed. In addition, the immunomodulatory action, the antioxidant effects, and the role of COX-2 and NF-κB were also investigated. Inflammation was induced by the injection of 100 μl of 1.5% carrageenan solution. Ellagic acid (10, 25, 50, 100 and 200mg/kg), indomethacin (10 mg/kg), meloxicam (4 mg/kg), and saline, were injected 2h before carrageenan injection. The percentage inhibition in the paw weight was calculated. Paws, MDA, NO, GSH, IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-10 and NF-κB mRNA expression were estimated. Formalin fixed hind paws were used for histopathological examination and immunohistochemical staining for COX-2 expression. Ellagic acid, meloxicam and indomethacin reduced paws, edema, MDA and NO formation. In addition, all of them restored the depleted GSH contents in the paws. Ellagic acid, meloxicam and indomethacin reduced NF-κB mRNA expression. Ellagic acid ameliorated COX-2 expression; meloxicam inhibited while indomethacin failed. Both ellagic acid and meloxicam increased IL-10 while indomethacin did not. The docking study revealed a high affinity of ellagic acid towards COX-2. Ellagic acid exhibited a potent anti-inflammatory effect against carrageenan-induced inflammation. The mechanisms of ellagic acid induced protection were proved to be due to reduction of NO, MDA, IL-1β, TNF-α, COX-2 and NF-κB expression and induction of GSH and IL-10 production.

Anti-inflammatory activity of a methanol extract from Ardisia tinctoria on mouse macrophages and paw edema

Ardisia tinctoria (AT) is a plant of the Myrsinaceae family. No studies on its anti-inflammatory effects have yet been reported. This study investigated the anti-inflammatory activity of AT. A non-cytotoxic methanol extract of AT inhibited the expression of inducible NO synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), leading to significantly reduced levels of nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and of two proteins regulated by these, interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and IL-6, in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophage cells. The thickness of paw edema induced in vivo in mice by carrageenan administration was effectively reduced by the AT extract. Translocation of the nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) subunit 65 (p65) into the nucleus and phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase (MEK) and extracellular signal-related kinase (ERK) were inhibited by the AT extract. Our results indicated that a methanol extract of AT downregulates the inflammatory response by blocking phosphorylation of MEK and ERK and activation of NF-κB. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study of anti-inflammatory effects of an AT extract, and demonstrates its potential in the treatment of inflammatory diseases.

Inhibition of Acute Phase Inflammation by Laminaria japonica through Regulation of iNOS-NF- κ B Pathway

Laminaria japonica has been frequently used as food supplements in many of the Asian countries and as a drug in traditional oriental medicine. This research investigated the effects of Laminaria japonica extract (LJE) on acute phase inflammation in a carrageenan-induced paw edema model, as assessed by histomorphometric and immunohistochemical analyses. The effect of LJE was also evaluated in Raw264.7 cells stimulated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in the aspect of the inhibition of nitric oxide (NO), prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂), and proinflammatory cytokines production. NO, PGE₂, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin-1β, and interleukin-6 contents were assayed by ELISA, and inducible NO synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 expressions were determined by western blot analyses. In rats, LJE treatment inhibited carrageenan-induced paw edema formation and infiltration of inflammatory cells in H&E staining. LJE treatment prevented the ability of LPS to increase the levels of iNOS and COX-2 protein in a concentration-dependent manner. Consistently, LJE suppressed the production of TNF-α, interleukin-1β, and interleukin-6. Treatment of the cells with LJE caused inhibition of inhibitor of κBα phosphorylation induced by LPS, suggesting LJE repression of nuclear factor-κB activity by LPS. In conclusion, this study shown here may be of help to understand the action mechanism of LJE and the anti-inflammatory use of L. japonica.

Methanol Extract of Artemisia apiacea Hance Attenuates the Expression of Inflammatory Mediators via NF- κ B Inactivation

Artemisia apiacea Hance is one of the most widely used herbs for the treatment of malaria, jaundice, and dyspeptic complaint in oriental medicine. This study investigated the effects of methanol extracts of A. apiacea Hance (MEAH) on the induction of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and proinflammatory mediators by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in Raw264.7 macrophage cells and also evaluated the in vivo effect of MEAH on carrageenan-induced paw edema in rats. MEAH treatment in Raw264.7 cells significantly decreased LPS-inducible nitric oxide production and the expression of iNOS in a concentration-dependent manner, while MEAH (up to 100 μg/mL) had no cytotoxic activity. Results from immunoblot analyses and ELISA revealed that MEAH significantly inhibited the expression of cyclooxygenase-2, tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin-1β, and interleukin-6 in LPS-activated cells. As a plausible molecular mechanism, increased degradation and phosphorylation of inhibitory-κBα and nuclear factor-κB accumulation in the nucleus by LPS were partly blocked by MEAH treatment. Finally, MEAH treatment decreased the carrageenan-induced formation of paw edema and infiltration of inflammatory cells in rats. These results demonstrate that MEAH has an anti-inflammatory therapeutic potential that may result from the inhibition of nuclear factor-κB activation, subsequently decreasing the expression of proinflammatory mediators.

Chemical Characterization and In Vivo Anti-Inflammatory Activities of Actinidia callosa var. ephippioides via Suppression of Proinflammatory Cytokines

Actinidia callosa var. ephippioides (ACE) has been widely used to treat anti-pyretic, antinociceptive, anti-inflammation, abdominal pain and fever in Taiwan. This study aims to determine the mechanism of anti-inflammatory activities of ethyl acetate fraction of ACE (EA-ACE) using a model of λ-carrageenan (Carr)-induced paw edema in mouse model. In HPLC analysis, chemical characterization of EA-ACE was established. In order to investigate the anti-inflammatory mechanism of EA-ACE, we have detected the activities of catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and the levels of malondialdehyde (MDA) in the paw edema. Serum NO, tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), and interleukin-1β (IL-1β) were evaluated. Chemical characterization from HPLC indicated that EA-ACE contains betulinic acid, ursolic acid and oleanolic acid. In the anti-inflammatory test, EA-ACE decreased the paw edema after Carr administration, increased the activities of CAT, SOD, and GPx and decreased the MDA level in the edema paw at the 5th hr after Carr injection. EA-ACE affects the serum NO, TNF-α, and IL-1β levels at the 5th hr after Carr injection. EA-ACE decreased Carr-induced inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) expressions by Western blotting. Actinidia callosa var. ephippioides have the potential to provide a therapeutic approach to inflammation-associated disorders.

Inhibitory effects of traditional herbal formula pyungwi-san on inflammatory response in vitro and in vivo

Pyungwi-san (PWS) is a traditional basic herbal formula. We investigated the effects of PWS on induction of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), pro-inflammatory cytokines (interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor- α (TNF- α )) and nuclear factor-kappa B (NF- κ B) as well as mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) in lipopolysaccharide-(LPS-) induced Raw 264.7 cells and on paw edema in rats. Treatment with PWS (0.5, 0.75, and 1 mg/mL) resulted in inhibited levels of expression of LPS-induced COX-2, iNOS, NF- κ B, and MAPKs as well as production of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), nitric oxide (NO), IL-6, and TNF- α induced by LPS. Our results demonstrate that PWS possesses anti-inflammatory activities via decreasing production of pro-inflammatory mediators through suppression of the signaling pathways of NF- κ B and MAPKs in LPS-induced macrophage cells. More importantly, results of the carrageenan-(CA-) induced paw edema demonstrate an anti-edema effect of PWS. In addition, it is considered that PWS also inhibits the acute edematous inflammations through suppression of mast cell degranulations and inflammatory mediators, including COX-2, iNOS and TNF- α . Thus, our findings may provide scientific evidence to explain the anti-inflammatory properties of PWS in vitro and in vivo.

Roots of Erigeron annuus Attenuate Acute Inflammation as Mediated with the Inhibition of NF- κ B-Associated Nitric Oxide and Prostaglandin E2 production

Erigeron annuus is a naturalized plant belonging to Compositae (asteraceae) family, which is called the annual fleabane, and commonly found at meadows and roadside. This study investigated the anti-inflammatory effects of the extract of E. annuus roots (EER), as assessed by the paw edema formation and histological analysis in rat, and the productions of nitric oxide (NO), prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), and pro-inflammatory cytokines in Raw264.7 murine macrophages. Carrageenan treatment promoted infiltration of inflammatory cells and caused swelling in the hind paw. Oral administrations of EER (0.3 g/kg and 1 g/kg) attenuated acute inflammation similar to the result using dexamethasone (1 mg/kg). Treatment of macrophages with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) simulated inflammatory condition: LPS significantly increased the productions of NO, PGE2, and proinflammatory cytokines. EER suppressed activation of macrophages, preventing the induction of iNOS and COX-2 protein expressions. LPS treatment induced phosphorylation of I- κ B α and increased the level of nuclear NF- κ B protein, both of which were suppressed by concomitant treatment of EER. In conclusion, EER ameliorated acute inflammation in rats, and the induction of NO, PGE2, and proinflammatory cytokines in Raw264.7 cells. EER's effects may be associated with its inhibition of NF- κ B activation, suggesting its effect on inflammatory diseases.