Reciprocal regulation of the nuclear factor of activated T cells and HIV-1

Nuclear Factor of Activated T Cells Signalling and Viral Pathogens: A Dynamic Cross-Talk

The signalling pathway of the nuclear factor of activated T cells (NFAT) plays a crucial role in regulating various cellular processes such as cardiac hypertrophy, adipose differentiation, chondrocyte development, angiogenesis, inflammation, immune system activation, organogenesis, cancer cell migration, differentiation and survival. In addition, the NFAT signalling pathway acts as a key regulator of viral infections. Accordingly, it is plausible to assume that viruses have developed different mechanisms to manipulate this pathway to promote their pathogenicity. Viral pathogens can either inhibit or upregulate NFAT signalling through various mechanisms, including modulation of calcineurin activity, calcineurin/NFAT interaction, NFAT stability and translocation, NFAT-DNA-binding activity and NFAT-transcription partner interaction. Therefore, the NFAT signalling pathway can be regarded as a promising target to control viral infections. This review discusses the dynamic interactions between the NFAT signalling pathway and viral pathogens. It also addresses several drugs and agents that can target the NFAT signalling pathway at different levels to control viral infections.

HIV Expression in Infected T Cell Clones

The principal barrier to an HIV-1 cure is the persistence of infected cells harboring replication-competent proviruses despite antiretroviral therapy (ART). HIV-1 transcriptional suppression, referred to as viral latency, is foremost among persistence determinants, as it allows infected cells to evade the cytopathic effects of virion production and killing by cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) and other immune factors. HIV-1 persistence is also governed by cellular proliferation, an innate and essential capacity of CD4+ T cells that both sustains cell populations over time and enables a robust directed response to immunological threats. However, when HIV-1 infects CD4+ T cells, this capacity for proliferation can enable surreptitious HIV-1 propagation without the deleterious effects of viral gene expression in latently infected cells. Over time on ART, the HIV-1 reservoir is shaped by both persistence determinants, with selective forces most often favoring clonally expanded infected cell populations harboring transcriptionally quiescent proviruses. Moreover, if HIV latency is incomplete or sporadically reversed in clonal infected cell populations that are replenished faster than they are depleted, such populations could both persist indefinitely and contribute to low-level persistent viremia during ART and viremic rebound if treatment is withdrawn. In this review, select genetic, epigenetic, cellular, and immunological determinants of viral transcriptional suppression and clonal expansion of HIV-1 reservoir T cells, interdependencies among these determinants, and implications for HIV-1 persistence will be presented and discussed.

HIV-1 Transcriptional Activator Tat Inhibits IL2 Expression by Preventing the Presence of Pol II on the IL2 Promoter

HIV-1 infection leads to a gradual loss of T helper cells, chronic immune activation, and eventual immune system breakdown. HIV-1 causes deregulation of the expression of IL-2, a cytokine important for T helper cell growth and survival, which is downregulated in HIV-1 patients. The present study addresses the regulation of IL2 expression via HIV-1 Tat transcriptional activator. We used J-LAT cells, a T cell line that serves as a latency model for studies of HIV-1 expression in T cells, and as controls a T cell line lacking HIV-1 elements and a T cell line with a stably integrated copy of the HIV-1-LTR promoter. We show that endogenously expressed Tat inhibits IL2 transcription in J-Lat cells via its presence in the ARRE-1/2 elements of the IL2 promoter and that the inhibition of IL2 expression is mediated by Tat inhibiting Pol II activity at the IL2 promoter, which is mediated by preventing the presence of Pol II at the ARRE-1/2 elements. Overall, Tat is present at the IL2 promoter, apart from its cognate HIV-1 LTR target. This supports our current knowledge of how HIV-1 affects the host transcriptional machinery and reflects the potential of Tat to disrupt transcriptional regulation of host genes to manipulate cell responses.

Genetic adaptations to SIV across chimpanzee populations

Central and eastern chimpanzees are infected with Simian Immunodeficiency Virus (SIV) in the wild, typically without developing acute immunodeficiency. Yet the recent zoonotic transmission of chimpanzee SIV to humans, which were naïve to the virus, gave rise to the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), which causes AIDS and is responsible for one of the deadliest pandemics in human history. Chimpanzees have likely been infected with SIV for tens of thousands of years and have likely evolved to reduce its pathogenicity, becoming semi-natural hosts that largely tolerate the virus. In support of this view, central and eastern chimpanzees show evidence of positive selection in genes involved in SIV/HIV cell entry and immune response to SIV, respectively. We hypothesise that the population first infected by SIV would have experienced the strongest selective pressure to control the lethal potential of zoonotic SIV, and that population genetics will reveal those first critical adaptations. With that aim we used population genetics to investigate signatures of positive selection in the common ancestor of central-eastern chimpanzees. The genes with signatures of positive selection in the ancestral population are significantly enriched in SIV-related genes, especially those involved in the immune response to SIV and those encoding for host genes that physically interact with SIV/HIV (VIPs). This supports a scenario where SIV first infected the central-eastern ancestor and where this population was under strong pressure to adapt to zoonotic SIV. Interestingly, integrating these genes with candidates of positive selection in the two infected subspecies reveals novel patterns of adaptation to SIV. Specifically, we observe evidence of positive selection in numerous steps of the biological pathway responsible for T-helper cell differentiation, including CD4 and multiple genes that SIV/HIV use to infect and control host cells. This pathway is active only in CD4+ cells which SIV/HIV infects, and it plays a crucial role in shaping the immune response so it can efficiently control the virus. Our results confirm the importance of SIV as a selective factor, identify specific genetic changes that may have allowed our closest living relatives to reduce SIV’s pathogenicity, and demonstrate the potential of population genomics to reveal the evolutionary mechanisms used by naïve hosts to reduce the pathogenicity of zoonotic pathogens.

Chimpanzees are at the origin of HIV-1, a virus that generates an incurable disease and that generated a pandemic that has claimed 35 million lives. Chimpanzees have evolved to control the pathogenicity of the virus, which does not typically develop into AIDS in the same way as in humans. Identifying the genetic adaptations responsible for this process provides critical knowledge about SIV and HIV. Our analysis of chimpanzee genetic adaptations identified specific genes and molecular pathways involved in adaptation to SIV, providing important insights into the mechanisms that likely allowed our closest living relatives to control SIV/HIV. Further, we establish SIV as a strong and recurrent selective pressure in central and eastern chimpanzees, two important subspecies of large mammals that are currently endangered.

Characterizing the Latent HIV-1 Reservoir in Patients with Viremia Suppressed on cART: Progress, Challenges, and Opportunities

Modern combination antiretroviral therapy (cART) can bring HIV-1 in blood plasma to level undetectable by standard tests, prevent the onset of acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), and allow a near-normal life expectancy for HIV-infected individuals. Unfortunately, cART is not curative, as within a few weeks of treatment cessation, HIV viremia in most patients rebounds to pre-cART levels. The primary source of this rebound, and the principal barrier to a cure, is the highly stable reservoir of latent yet replication-competent HIV-1 proviruses integrated into the genomic DNA of resting memory CD4+ T cells. In this review, prevailing models for how the latent reservoir is established and maintained, residual viremia and viremic rebound upon withdrawal of cART, and the types and characteristics of cells harboring latent HIV-1 will be discussed. Selected technologies currently being used to advance our understanding of HIV latency will also be presented, as will a perspective on which areas of advancement are most essential for producing the next generation of HIV-1 therapeutics.

Transcription factor Ets-2 regulates the expression of key lymphotropic factors

Transcription factor Ets-2 downregulates the expression of cytokine genes and HIV-1 in resting T-cells. Herein, we studied whether Ets-2 regulates the expression of lymphotropic factors (LFs) NFAT2, NF-κΒ/p65, c-Jun, c-Fos, which regulate the activation/differentiation of T-cells, and kinase CDK10, which controls Ets-2 degradation and repression activity. In silico analysis revealed Ets-2 binding sites on the promoters of NFAT2, c-Jun, c-Fos. The T-cell lines Jurkat (models T-cell signaling/activation) and H938 (contains the HIV-1-LTR) were transfected with an Ets-2 overexpressing vector, in the presence/absence of mitogens. mRNA and protein levels were assessed by qPCR and Western immunoblotting, respectively. Ets-2 overexpression in unstimulated Jurkat increased NFAT2 and c-Jun mRNA/protein, c-Fos mRNA and NF-κΒ/p65 protein, and decreased CDK10 protein. In unstimulated H938, Ets-2 upregulated NFAT2, c-Jun and CDK10 mRNA/protein and NF-κΒ/p65 protein. In stimulated Jurkat, Ets-2 increased NFAT2, c-Jun and c-Fos mRNA/protein and decreased CDK10 mRNA/protein. In stimulated H938 Ets-2 increased NFAT2, c-Jun and c-Fos protein and reduced CDK10 protein levels. Furthermore, Ets-2 overexpression modulated the expression of pro- and anti-apoptotic genes in both cell lines. Ets-2 upregulates the expression of key LFs involved in the activation of cytokine genes or HIV-1 in T-cells, either through its physical interaction with gene promoters or through its involvement in signaling pathways that directly impact their expression. The effect of Ets-2 on CDK10 expression in H938 vs Jurkat cells dictates that, additionally to Ets-2 degradation, CDK10 may facilitate Ets-2 repression activity in cells carrying the HIV-1-LTR, contributing thus to the regulation of HIV latency in virus-infected T-cells.

A Stronger Transcription Regulatory Circuit of HIV-1C Drives the Rapid Establishment of Latency with Implications for the Direct Involvement of Tat

The magnitude of transcription factor binding site variation emerging in HIV-1 subtype C (HIV-1C), especially the addition of NF-κB motifs by sequence duplication, makes the examination of transcriptional silence challenging. How can HIV-1 establish and maintain latency despite having a strong long terminal repeat (LTR)? We constructed panels of subgenomic reporter viral vectors with varying copy numbers of NF-κB motifs (0 to 4 copies) and examined the profile of latency establishment in Jurkat cells. Surprisingly, we found that the stronger the viral promoter, the faster the latency establishment. Importantly, at the time of commitment to latency and subsequent points, Tat levels in the cell were not limiting. Using highly sensitive strategies, we demonstrate the presence of Tat in the latent cell, recruited to the latent LTR. Our data allude, for the first time, to Tat establishing a negative feedback loop during the late phases of viral infection, leading to the rapid silencing of the viral promoter.IMPORTANCE Over the past 10 to 15 years, HIV-1 subtype C (HIV-1C) has been evolving rapidly toward gaining stronger transcriptional activity by sequence duplication of major transcription factor binding sites. The duplication of NF-κB motifs is unique and exclusive to HIV-1C, a property not shared with any of the other eight HIV-1 genetic families. What mechanism(s) does HIV-1C employ to establish and maintain transcriptional silence despite the presence of a strong promoter and concomitant strong, positive transcriptional feedback is the primary question that we attempted to address in the present manuscript. The role that Tat plays in latency reversal is well established. Our work with the most common HIV-1 subtype, HIV-1C, offers crucial leads toward Tat possessing a dual role in serving as both a transcriptional activator and repressor at different phases of viral infection of the cell. The leads that we offer through the present work have significant implications for HIV-1 cure research.

Key Players in HIV-1 Transcriptional Regulation: Targets for a Functional Cure

HIV-1 establishes a life-long infection when proviral DNA integrates into the host genome. The provirus can then either actively transcribe RNA or enter a latent state, without viral production. The switch between these two states is governed in great part by the viral protein, Tat, which promotes RNA transcript elongation. Latency is also influenced by the availability of host transcription factors, integration site, and the surrounding chromatin environment. The latent reservoir is established in the first few days of infection and serves as the source of viral rebound upon treatment interruption. Despite effective suppression of HIV-1 replication by antiretroviral therapy (ART), to below the detection limit, ART is ineffective at reducing the latent reservoir size. Elimination of this reservoir has become a major goal of the HIV-1 cure field. However, aside from the ideal total HIV-1 eradication from the host genome, an HIV-1 remission or functional cure is probably more realistic. The "block-and-lock" approach aims at the transcriptional silencing of the viral reservoir, to render suppressed HIV-1 promoters extremely difficult to reactivate from latency. There are unfortunately no clinically available HIV-1 specific transcriptional inhibitors. Understanding the mechanisms that regulate latency is expected to provide novel targets to be explored in cure approaches.

The Latent Reservoir for HIV-1: How Immunologic Memory and Clonal Expansion Contribute to HIV-1 Persistence

Combination antiretroviral therapy (ART) for HIV-1 infection reduces plasma virus levels to below the limit of detection of clinical assays. However, even with prolonged suppression of viral replication with ART, viremia rebounds rapidly after treatment interruption. Thus, ART is not curative. The principal barrier to cure is a remarkably stable reservoir of latent HIV-1 in resting memory CD4(+) T cells. In this review, we consider explanations for the remarkable stability of the latent reservoir. Stability does not appear to reflect replenishment from new infection events but rather normal physiologic processes that provide for immunologic memory. Of particular importance are proliferative processes that drive clonal expansion of infected cells. Recent evidence suggests that in some infected cells, proliferation is a consequence of proviral integration into host genes associated with cell growth. Efforts to cure HIV-1 infection by targeting the latent reservoir may need to consider the potential of latently infected cells to proliferate.

SUN2 Silencing Impairs CD4 T Cell Proliferation and Alters Sensitivity to HIV-1 Infection Independently of Cyclophilin A

Linker of nucleoskeleton and cytoskeleton (LINC) complexes connect the nucleus to the cytoskeleton in eukaryotic cells. We previously reported that the overexpression of SUN2, an inner nuclear membrane protein and LINC complex component, inhibits HIV infection between the steps of reverse transcription and nuclear import in a capsid-specific manner. We also reported that SUN2 silencing does not modulate HIV infection in several cell lines. Silencing of SUN2 was recently reported to decrease HIV infection of CD4 T cells, an effect which was suggested to result from modulation of cyclophilin A (CypA)-dependent steps of HIV infection. We confirm here that HIV infection of primary CD4 T cells is compromised in the absence of endogenous SUN2, and we extend these findings to additional viral strains. However, we find that CypA is not required for the decreased infection observed in SUN2-silenced cells and, conversely, that endogenous SUN2 is not required for the well-documented positive modulation of HIV infection by CypA. In contrast, CD4 T cells lacking SUN2 exhibit a considerable defect in proliferative capacity and display reduced levels of activation markers and decreased viability. Additionally, SUN2-silenced CD4 T cells that become infected support reduced levels of viral protein expression. Our results demonstrate that SUN2 is required for the optimal activation and proliferation of primary CD4 T cells and suggest that the disruption of these processes explains the contribution of endogenous SUN2 to HIV infection in primary lymphocytes.IMPORTANCE Linker of nucleoskeleton and cytoskeleton (LINC) complexes connect the nucleus to the cytoskeleton. We previously reported that the overexpression of the LINC complex protein SUN2 inhibits HIV infection by targeting the viral capsid and blocking infection before the virus enters the nucleus. A recent report showed that the depletion of endogenous SUN2 in primary CD4 T cells results in decreased HIV infection and that this involves cyclophilin A (CypA), a host protein that interacts with the capsid of HIV to promote infection. We confirm that HIV infection is reduced in CD4 T cells lacking SUN2, but we find no role for CypA. Instead, SUN2 silencing results in CD4 T cells with decreased viability and much lower proliferation rates. Our results show that SUN2 is required for optimal CD4 T cell activation and proliferation and explain the reduced level of HIV infection in the absence of SUN2.

Differences in Activation of HIV-1 Replication by Superinfection With HIV-1 and HIV-2 in U1 Cells

Macrophages contribute to HIV-1 pathogenesis by forming a viral reservoir that serve as a viral source for the infection of CD4 T cells. The relationship between HIV-1 latent infection and superinfection in macrophages has not been well studied. Using susceptible U1 cells chronically infected with HIV-1, we studied the effects of HIV superinfection on latency and differences in superinfection with HIV-1 and HIV-2 in macrophages. We found that HIV-1 (MN) superinfection displayed increased HIV-1 replication in a time-dependent manner; while cells infected with HIV-2 (Rod) initially showed increased HIV-1 replication, followed by a decrease in HIV-1 RNA production. HIV-1 superinfection upregulated/activated NF-ĸB, NFAT, AP-1, SP-1, and MAPK Erk through expression/activation of molecules, CD4, CD3, TCRβ, Zap-70, PLCγ1, and PKCΘ in T cell receptor-related signaling pathways; while HIV-2 superinfection initially increased expression/activation of these molecules followed by decreased protein expression/activation. HIV superinfection initially downregulated HDAC1 and upregulated acetyl-histone H3 and histone H3 (K4), while HIV-2 superinfection demonstrated an increase in HDAC1 and a decrease in acetyl-histone H3 and histone H3 (K4) relative to HIV-1 superinfection. U1 cells superinfected with HIV-1 or HIV-2 showed differential expression of proteins, IL-2, PARP-1, YB-1, and LysRS. These findings indicate that superinfection with HIV-1 or HIV-2 has different effects on reactivation of HIV-1 replication. HIV-1 superinfection with high load of viral replication may result in high levels of cytotoxicity relative to HIV-2 superinfection. Cells infected with HIV-2 showed lower level of HIV-1 replication, suggesting that co-infection with HIV-2 may result in slower progression toward AIDS. J. Cell. Physiol. 232: 1746-1753, 2017. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Functional Incompatibility between the Generic NF-κB Motif and a Subtype-Specific Sp1III Element Drives the Formation of the HIV-1 Subtype C Viral Promoter

Of the various genetic subtypes of human immunodeficiency virus types 1 and 2 (HIV-1 and HIV-2) and simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV), only in subtype C of HIV-1 is a genetically variant NF-κB binding site found at the core of the viral promoter in association with a subtype-specific Sp1III motif. How the subtype-associated variations in the core transcription factor binding sites (TFBS) influence gene expression from the viral promoter has not been examined previously. Using panels of infectious viral molecular clones, we demonstrate that subtype-specific NF-κB and Sp1III motifs have evolved for optimal gene expression, and neither of the motifs can be replaced by a corresponding TFBS variant. The variant NF-κB motif binds NF-κB with an affinity 2-fold higher than that of the generic NF-κB site. Importantly, in the context of an infectious virus, the subtype-specific Sp1III motif demonstrates a profound loss of function in association with the generic NF-κB motif. An additional substitution of the Sp1III motif fully restores viral replication, suggesting that the subtype C-specific Sp1III has evolved to function with the variant, but not generic, NF-κB motif. A change of only two base pairs in the central NF-κB motif completely suppresses viral transcription from the provirus and converts the promoter into heterochromatin refractory to tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) induction. The present work represents the first demonstration of functional incompatibility between an otherwise functional NF-κB motif and a unique Sp1 site in the context of an HIV-1 promoter. Our work provides important leads as to the evolution of the HIV-1 subtype C viral promoter with relevance for gene expression regulation and viral latency.

IMPORTANCE

Subtype-specific genetic variations provide a powerful tool to examine how these variations offer a replication advantage to specific viral subtypes, if any. Only in subtype C of HIV-1 are two genetically distinct transcription factor binding sites positioned at the most critical location of the viral promoter. Since a single promoter regulates viral gene expression, the promoter variations can play a critical role in determining the replication fitness of the viral strains. Our work for the first time provides a scientific explanation for the presence of a unique NF-κB binding motif in subtype C, a major HIV-1 genetic family responsible for half of the global HIV-1 infections. The results offer compelling evidence that the subtype C viral promoter not only is stronger but also is endowed with a qualitative gain-of-function advantage. The genetically variant NF-κB and the Sp1III motifs may be respond differently to specific cell signal pathways, and these mechanisms must be examined.

The Tat Inhibitor Didehydro-Cortistatin A Prevents HIV-1 Reactivation from Latency

Antiretroviral therapy (ART) inhibits HIV-1 replication, but the virus persists in latently infected resting memory CD4⁺ T cells susceptible to viral reactivation. The virus-encoded early gene product Tat activates transcription of the viral genome and promotes exponential viral production. Here we show that the Tat inhibitor didehydro-cortistatin A (dCA), unlike other antiretrovirals, reduces residual levels of viral transcription in several models of HIV latency, breaks the Tat-mediated transcriptional feedback loop, and establishes a nearly permanent state of latency, which greatly diminishes the capacity for virus reactivation. Importantly, treatment with dCA induces inactivation of viral transcription even after its removal, suggesting that the HIV promoter is epigenetically repressed. Critically, dCA inhibits viral reactivation upon CD3/CD28 or prostratin stimulation of latently infected CD4⁺ T cells from HIV-infected subjects receiving suppressive ART. Our results suggest that inclusion of a Tat inhibitor in current ART regimens may contribute to a functional HIV-1 cure by reducing low-level viremia and preventing viral reactivation from latent reservoirs.

Antiretroviral therapy (ART) reduces HIV-1 replication to very low levels, but the virus persists in latently infected memory CD4⁺ T cells, representing a long-lasting source of resurgent virus upon ART interruption. Based on the mode of action of didehydro-cortistatin A (dCA), a Tat-dependent transcription inhibitor, our work highlights an alternative approach to current HIV-1 eradication strategies to decrease the latent reservoir. In our model, dCA blocks the Tat feedback loop initiated after low-level basal reactivation, blocking transcriptional elongation and hence viral production from latently infected cells. Therefore, dCA combined with ART would be aimed at delaying or halting ongoing viral replication, reactivation, and replenishment of the latent viral reservoir. Thus, the latent pool of cells in an infected individual would be stabilized, and death of the long-lived infected memory T cells would result in a continuous decay of this pool over time, possibly culminating in the long-awaited sterilizing cure.

Targeting HIV transcription: the quest for a functional cure

Antiretroviral therapy (ART) potently suppresses HIV-1 replication, but the virus persists in quiescent infected CD4(+)T cells as a latent integrated provirus, and patients must indefinitely remain on therapy. If ART is terminated, these integrated proviruses can reactivate, driving new rounds of infection. A functional cure for HIV requires eliminating low-level ongoing viral replication that persists in certain tissue sanctuaries and preventing viral reactivation. The HIV Tat protein plays an essential role in HIV transcription by recruiting the kinase activity of the P-TEFb complex to the viral mRNA's stem-bulge-loop structure, TAR, activating transcriptional elongation. Because the Tat-mediated transactivation cascade is critical for robust HIV replication, the Tat/TAR/P-TEFb complex is one of the most attractive targets for drug development. Importantly, compounds that interfere with transcription could impair viral reactivation, low-level ongoing replication, and replenishment of the latent reservoir, thereby reducing the size of the latent reservoir pool. Here, we discuss the potential importance of transcriptional inhibitors in the treatment of latent HIV-1 disease and review recent findings on targeting Tat, TAR, and P-TEFb individually or as part of a complex. Finally, we discuss the impact of extracellular Tat in HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders and cancers.

Interaction between HIV-1 Tat and DNA-PKcs modulates HIV transcription and class switch recombination

HIV-1 tat targets a variety of host cell proteins to facilitate viral transcription and disrupts host cellular immunity by inducing lymphocyte apoptosis, but whether it influences humoral immunity remains unclear. Previously, our group demonstrated that tat depresses expression of DNA-PKcs, a critical component of the non-homologous end joining pathway (NHEJ) of DNA double-strand breaks repair, immunoglobulin class switch recombination (CSR) and V(D)J recombination, and sensitizes cells to ionizing radiation. In this study, we demonstrated that HIV-1 Tat down-regulates DNA-PKcs expression by directly binding to the core promoter sequence. In addition, Tat interacts with and activates the kinase activity of DNA-PKcs in a dose-dependent and DNA independent manner. Furthermore, Tat inhibits class switch recombination (CSR) at low concentrations (≤4 µg/ml) and stimulates CSR at high concentrations (≥8 µg/ml). On the other hand, low protein level and high kinase activity of DNA-PKcs promotes HIV-1 transcription, while high protein level and low kinase activity inhibit HIV-1 transcription. Co-immunoprecipitation results revealed that DNA-PKcs forms a large complex comprised of Cyclin T1, CDK9 and Tat via direct interacting with CDK9 and Tat but not Cyclin T1. Taken together, our results provide new clues that Tat regulates host humoral immunity via both transcriptional depression and kinase activation of DNA-PKcs. We also raise the possibility that inhibitors and interventions directed towards DNA-PKcs may inhibit HIV-1 transcription in AIDS patients.

Kinase control of latent HIV-1 infection: PIM-1 kinase as a major contributor to HIV-1 reactivation

Despite the clinical relevance of latent HIV-1 infection as a block to HIV-1 eradication, the molecular biology of HIV-1 latency remains incompletely understood. We recently demonstrated the presence of a gatekeeper kinase function that controls latent HIV-1 infection. Using kinase array analysis, we here expand on this finding and demonstrate that the kinase activity profile of latently HIV-1-infected T cells is altered relative to that of uninfected T cells. A ranking of altered kinases generated from these kinome profile data predicted PIM-1 kinase as a key switch involved in HIV-1 latency control. Using genetic and pharmacologic perturbation strategies, we demonstrate that PIM-1 activity is indeed required for HIV-1 reactivation in T cell lines and primary CD4 T cells. The presented results thus confirm that kinases are key contributors to HIV-1 latency control. In addition, through mutational studies we link the inhibitory effect of PIM-1 inhibitor IV (PIMi IV) on HIV-1 reactivation to an AP-1 motif in the CD28-responsive element of the HIV-1 long terminal repeat (LTR). The results expand our conceptual understanding of the dynamic interactions of the host cell and the latent HIV-1 integration event and position kinome profiling as a research tool to reveal novel molecular mechanisms that can eventually be targeted to therapeutically trigger HIV-1 reactivation.

T Cell Transcription Factors and Their Impact on HIV Expression

By targeting CD4⁺ effector T cells, HIV has a dramatic impact on the depletion, expansion and function of the different polarized T cell subsets. The maturation of T cell lineages is in part driven by intrinsic transcription factors that potentially influence how efficiently HIV replicates. In this review, we explore whether transcription factors that are required for polarizing T cells influence HIV replication. In particular, we examine provirus transcription as well as the establishment and maintenance of HIV latency. Furthermore, it is suggested these factors may provide novel cell-specific therapeutic strategies for targeting the HIV latent reservoir.

Cooperative roles of NF-κB and NFAT4 in polyomavirus JC regulation at the KB control element

The human polyomavirus JC (JCV) is the causative agent of the CNS demyelinating disease progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML). Infection by JCV is extremely common and after primary infection, JCV persists in a latent state. However, PML is a very rare disease suggesting that the virus is tightly regulated. Previously, we showed that NF-κB and C/EBPβ regulate the JCV early and late promoters via a DNA control element, KB, which also mediates the stimulatory effects of proinflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α on JCV gene expression. Other studies have implicated NFAT4 in JCV regulation. We now report that NFAT4 and NF-κB interact at the KB element to co-operatively activate both JCV early and late transcription and viral DNA replication. This interplay is inhibited by C/EBPβ and by agents that block the calcineurin/NFAT signaling pathway. The importance of these events in the regulation of JCV latency and reactivation is discussed.

Molecular mechanisms of HIV-1 infection in neonatal target cells

HIV-1-infected neonates and infants have a higher viral load and progress to symptomatic AIDS more rapidly than their own infected mothers, as well as other infected adults, with differences in clinical manifestations, recurrent bacterial infections and CNS disorders. Two major reasons have been attributed to this differential HIV pathogenesis and disease; the relative immaturity of the neonate’s immune system and it’s inability to contain the highly replicating and mutating HIV-1, and the more efficient replication of HIV-1 in neonatal cells than in adult target cells. In this context, it has been demonstrated that HIV-1 replicates more efficiently in neonatal (cord) blood monocytes/macrophages and T lymphocytes – including naive and memory T lymphocytes – compared with adult blood cells. We have also determined the mechanisms of the differential HIV-1 replication in cord versus adult blood monocytes/macrophages and T lymphocytes (naive and memory), finding that it was influenced at the level of HIV-1 gene expression. The increased HIV-1 gene expression in neonatal versus adult target cells was regulated by differential expression of host factors, transcription factors (NF-κB, E2F, HAT-1, TFIIE, Cdk9 and Cyclin T1), signal transducers (STAT3 and STAT5A) and cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6 and IL-10). We also showed that nuclear extracts from cord cells interacted with HIV-1 long terminal repeat cis-acting sequences, including NF-κB, NFAT, AP1 and NF-IL6, to a greater extent when compared with adult peripheral blood mononuclear cell nuclear extracts. Additionally, shRNA of retroviral origin for STAT3 and IL-6 downregulated both their own gene expression as well as that of HIV-1, indicating that these factors influenced the differential expression of HIV-1 genes in cord cells compared with adult cells. In addition, HIV-1 integration plays an important role in differential HIV-1 replication and gene expression in neonatal versus adult cells by integrating into more actively transcribed genes in neonates compared with adults. We characterized 468 HIV-1 integration sites within cord and adult blood T lymphocytes and monocytes/macrophages, including genes coding for cellular components, and those involved with maintenance of the intracellular environment, enzyme regulation, cellular metabolism, catalytic activity and cation transport, as well as several potential transcription factor binding sites at the sites of integration. Additionally, the genes at the integration sites, transcription factors and transcription binding sites were expressed at higher levels in cord than adult target cells. In summary, the increased HIV-1 gene expression and replication in neonatal target cells due to differential expression of host factors all contribute to an increased viral load and faster disease progression in neonates and infants when compared with similar situations in adult patients. Based on these findings, it may be possible to identify new viral and host targets for use in developing strategies for the treatment and prevention of HIV-1.

The Role of RNA Polymerase II Elongation Control in HIV-1 Gene Expression, Replication, and Latency

HIV-1 usurps the RNA polymerase II elongation control machinery to regulate the expression of its genome during lytic and latent viral stages. After integration into the host genome, the HIV promoter within the long terminal repeat (LTR) is subject to potent downregulation in a postinitiation step of transcription. Once produced, the viral protein Tat commandeers the positive transcription elongation factor, P-TEFb, and brings it to the engaged RNA polymerase II (Pol II), leading to the production of viral proteins and genomic RNA. HIV can also enter a latent phase during which factors that regulate Pol II elongation may play a role in keeping the virus silent. HIV, the causative agent of AIDS, is a worldwide health concern. It is hoped that knowledge of the mechanisms regulating the expression of the HIV genome will lead to treatments and ultimately a cure.

Host factors mediating HIV-1 replication

Human immunodeficiency virus type 1(HIV-1) infection is the leading cause of death worldwide in adults attributable to infectious diseases. Although the majority of infections are in sub-Saharan Africa and Southeast Asia, HIV-1 is also a major health concern in most countries throughout the globe. While current antiretroviral treatments are generally effective, particularly in combination therapy, limitations exist due to drug resistance occurring among the drug classes. Traditionally, HIV-1 drugs have targeted viral proteins, which are mutable targets. As cellular genes mutate relatively infrequently, host proteins may prove to be more durable targets than viral proteins. HIV-1 replication is dependent upon cellular proteins that perform essential roles during the viral life cycle. Maraviroc is the first FDA-approved antiretroviral drug to target a cellular factor, HIV-1 coreceptor CCR5, and serves to intercept viral-host protein-protein interactions mediating entry. Recent large-scale siRNA and shRNA screens have revealed over 1000 candidate host factors that potentially support HIV-1 replication, and have implicated new pathways in the viral life cycle. These host proteins and cellular pathways may represent important targets for future therapeutic discoveries. This review discusses critical cellular factors that facilitate the successive steps in HIV-1 replication.

Arc of a vicious circle: pathways activated by Mycobacterium tuberculosis that target the HIV-1 long terminal repeat

In this review, we examine how a subset of signal transduction cascades initiated by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) infection modulates transcription mediated by the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 long terminal repeat (HIV-1 LTR). We describe two distinct phases of signaling that target transcription factors known to bind the HIV-1 LTR, and thus drive viral transcription and replication, in cells of the Mtb-infected host. First, Mtb-derived molecules, including cell wall components and DNA, interact with a number of host pattern recognition receptors. Second, cytokines and chemokines secreted in response to Mtb infection initiate signal transduction cascades through their cognate receptors. Given the variation in cell wall components among distinct clinical Mtb strains, the initial pattern recognition receptor interaction leading to direct LTR activation and differential cytokine and chemokine production is likely to be an important aspect of Mtb strain-specific regulation of HIV-1 transcription and replication. Improved understanding of these molecular mechanisms in the context of bacterial and host genetics should provide key insights into the accelerated viral replication and disease progression characteristic of HIV/TB coinfection.

HIV envelope gp120 activates LFA-1 on CD4 T-lymphocytes and increases cell susceptibility to LFA-1-targeting leukotoxin (LtxA)

The cellular adhesion molecule LFA-1 and its ICAM-1 ligand play an important role in promoting HIV-1 infectivity and transmission. These molecules are present on the envelope of HIV-1 virions and are integral components of the HIV virological synapse. However, cellular activation is required to convert LFA-1 to the active conformation that has high affinity binding for ICAM-1. This study evaluates whether such activation can be induced by HIV itself. The data show that HIV-1 gp120 was sufficient to trigger LFA-1 activation in fully quiescent naïve CD4 T cells in a CD4-dependent manner, and these CD4 T cells became more susceptible to killing by LtxA, a bacterial leukotoxin that preferentially targets leukocytes expressing high levels of the active LFA-1. Moreover, virus p24-expressing CD4 T cells in the peripheral blood of HIV-infected subjects were found to have higher levels of surface LFA-1, and LtxA treatment led to significant reduction of the viral DNA burden. These results demonstrate for the first time the ability of HIV to directly induce LFA-1 activation on CD4 T cells. Although LFA-1 activation may enhance HIV infectivity and transmission, it also renders the cells more susceptible to an LFA-1-targeting bacterial toxin, which may be harnessed as a novel therapeutic strategy to deplete virus reservoir in HIV-infected individuals.

Minocycline suppresses activation of nuclear factor of activated T cells 1 (NFAT1) in human CD4+ T cells

Minocycline is a tetracycline family antibiotic that has anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory properties. These properties have shown promise in the treatment of conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis, Huntington disease, and multiple sclerosis. As lymphocyte activation is involved in the pathogenesis of many of these diseases, T cells are postulated to be a primary target in minocycline therapy. Previous studies have demonstrated attenuation of CD4(+) T cell activation by minocycline, but a specific mechanism has not been elucidated. In this study, we investigated the effect of minocycline on the activity of three key transcription factors regulating CD4(+) T cell activation: NF-κB, AP-1 (activator protein 1), and NFAT (nuclear factor of activated T) cells. Our data demonstrate that minocycline selectively impairs NFAT-mediated transcriptional activation, a result of increased phosphorylation and reduced nuclear translocation of the isoform NFAT1. Minocycline increased the activity of the NFAT kinase GSK3 and decreased intracellular Ca(2+) flux, both of which facilitate NFAT1 phosphorylation. These findings provide a novel mechanism for minocycline induced suppression of CD4(+) T cell activation and may better inform the application of minocycline as an immunomodulatory agent.

Tits and bits of HIV Tat protein

INTRODUCTION

HIV-Tat protein displays an array of functions that are essential for HIV replication. The structural flexibility of Tat protein has been regarded as one of the unique features responsible for sustaining diverse functions, from facilitated membrane-crossing ability to strong affinity for RNA binding.

AREAS COVERED

RNA binding ability and presence of multiple interacting domains in the same protein are very important properties of HIV-Tat protein. Tat protein has shown great ability to influence cellular and viral gene expression. We discuss the functions of HIV Tat protein, describing its structural significance, secretion and uptake of HIV Tat protein by immune cells, post-translational modifications and role of HIV Tat protein in HIV pathogenesis.

EXPERT OPINION

Perturbation in expression of many cytokines and chemokines by HIV-Tat protein exhibits downstream immune suppressive function as well as activation of several apoptotic genes. This explains the massive death of immune cells due to bystander effect of HIV Tat protein among HIV-infected patients.

Patterns of HIV-1 protein interaction identify perturbed host-cellular subsystems

Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) exploits a diverse array of host cell functions in order to replicate. This is mediated through a network of virus-host interactions. A variety of recent studies have catalogued this information. In particular the HIV-1, Human Protein Interaction Database (HHPID) has provided a unique depth of protein interaction detail. However, as a map of HIV-1 infection, the HHPID is problematic, as it contains curation error and redundancy; in addition, it is based on a heterogeneous set of experimental methods. Based on identifying shared patterns of HIV-host interaction, we have developed a novel methodology to delimit the core set of host-cellular functions and their associated perturbation from the HHPID. Initially, using biclustering, we identify 279 significant sets of host proteins that undergo the same types of interaction. The functional cohesiveness of these protein sets was validated using a human protein-protein interaction network, gene ontology annotation and sequence similarity. Next, using a distance measure, we group host protein sets and identify 37 distinct higher-level subsystems. We further demonstrate the biological significance of these subsystems by cross-referencing with global siRNA screens that have been used to detect host factors necessary for HIV-1 replication, and investigate the seemingly small intersect between these data sets. Our results highlight significant host-cell subsystems that are perturbed during the course of HIV-1 infection. Moreover, we characterise the patterns of interaction that contribute to these perturbations. Thus, our work disentangles the complex set of HIV-1-host protein interactions in the HHPID, reconciles these with siRNA screens and provides an accessible and interpretable map of infection.

Regulation of HIV-1 transcription in cells of the monocyte-macrophage lineage

Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) has been shown to replicate productively in cells of the monocyte-macrophage lineage, although replication occurs to a lesser extent than in infected T cells. As cells of the monocyte-macrophage lineage become differentiated and activated and subsequently travel to a variety of end organs, they become a source of infectious virus and secreted viral proteins and cellular products that likely initiate pathological consequences in a number of organ systems. During this process, alterations in a number of signaling pathways, including the level and functional properties of many cellular transcription factors, alter the course of HIV-1 long terminal repeat (LTR)-directed gene expression. This process ultimately results in events that contribute to the pathogenesis of HIV-1 infection. First, increased transcription leads to the upregulation of infectious virus production, and the increased production of viral proteins (gp120, Tat, Nef, and Vpr), which have additional activities as extracellular proteins. Increased viral production and the presence of toxic proteins lead to enhanced deregulation of cellular functions increasing the production of toxic cellular proteins and metabolites and the resulting organ-specific pathologic consequences such as neuroAIDS. This article reviews the structural and functional features of the cis-acting elements upstream and downstream of the transcriptional start site in the retroviral LTR. It also includes a discussion of the regulation of the retroviral LTR in the monocyte-macrophage lineage during virus infection of the bone marrow, the peripheral blood, the lymphoid tissues, and end organs such as the brain. The impact of genetic variation on LTR-directed transcription during the course of retrovirus disease is also reviewed.

Structural basis for recruitment of CBP/p300 coactivators by STAT1 and STAT2 transactivation domains

CBP/p300 transcriptional coactivators mediate gene expression by integrating cellular signals through interactions with multiple transcription factors. To elucidate the molecular and structural basis for CBP-dependent gene expression, we determined structures of the CBP TAZ1 and TAZ2 domains in complex with the transactivation domains (TADs) of signal transducer and activator of transcription 2 (STAT2) and STAT1, respectively. Despite the topological similarity of the TAZ1 and TAZ2 domains, subtle differences in helix packing and surface grooves constitute major determinants of target selectivity. Our results suggest that TAZ1 preferentially binds long TADs capable of contacting multiple surface grooves simultaneously, whereas smaller TADs that are restricted to a single contiguous binding surface form complexes with TAZ2. Complex formation for both STAT TADs involves coupled folding and binding, driven by intermolecular hydrophobic and electrostatic interactions. Phosphorylation of S727, required for maximal transcriptional activity of STAT1, does not enhance binding to any of the CBP domains. Because the different STAT TADs recognize different regions of CBP/p300, there is a potential for multivalent binding by STAT heterodimers that could enhance the recruitment of the coactivators to promoters.

Differential HIV-1 integration targets more actively transcribed host genes in neonatal than adult blood mononuclear cells

We have recently shown an increased HIV-1 replication and gene expression in neonatal (cord) blood mononuclear cells compared with adult cells, which could be due to HIV-1 integration as it targets active host genes. Here we have characterized 468 HIV-1 integration sites within cord and adult blood T-lymphocytes and monocyte-derived macrophages (MDM) from five donors. Several functional classes of genes were identified by gene ontology to be over represented, including genes for cellular components, maintenance of intracellular environment, enzyme regulation, cellular metabolism, catalytic activity and cation transport. Numerous potential transcription factor binding sites at the sites of integration were identified. Furthermore, the genes at the site of integration, transcription factors which potentially bind upstream of the HIV-1 promoter and factors that assist HIV-1 integration were found to be expressed at higher levels in cord than adult cells. Taken together, these results suggest HIV-1 integration occurred in a more actively transcribed genes in neonatal cells compared with adult cells, which may help explain a higher level of HIV-1 gene expression and replication in neonatal compared with adult cells.

Crystal structure of NFAT bound to the HIV-1 LTR tandem kappaB enhancer element

The host factor, nuclear factor of activated T-cells (NFAT), regulates the transcription and replication of HIV-1. Here, we have determined the crystal structure of the DNA binding domain of NFAT bound to the HIV-1 long terminal repeat (LTR) tandem kappaB enhancer element at 3.05 A resolution. NFAT binds as a dimer to the upstream kappaB site (Core II), but as a monomer to the 3' end of the downstream kappaB site (Core I). The DNA shows a significant bend near the 5' end of Core I, where a lysine residue from NFAT bound to the 3' end of Core II inserts into the minor groove and seems to cause DNA bases to flip out. Consistent with this structural feature, the 5' end of Core I become hypersensitive to dimethylsulfate in the in vivo footprinting upon transcriptional activation of the HIV-1 LTR. Our studies provide a basis for further investigating the functional mechanisms of NFAT in HIV-1 transcription and replication.

Modulation of NFAT-dependent gene expression by the RhoA signaling pathway in T cells

We have reported previously that p115Rho guanine nucleotide exchange factor, its upstream activator Galpha13, and its effector RhoA are able to inhibit HIV-1 replication. Here, we show that RhoA is able to inhibit HIV-1 gene expression through the NFAT-binding site in the HIV long-terminal repeat. Constitutively active NFAT counteracts the inhibitory activity of RhoA, and inhibition of NFAT activation also inhibits HIV-1 gene expression. We have shown further that RhoA inhibits NFAT-dependent transcription and IL-2 production in human T cells. RhoA does not inhibit nuclear localization of NFAT but rather, inhibits its transcriptional activity. In addition, RhoA decreases the level of acetylated histone H3, but not NFAT occupancy, at the IL-2 promoter. These data suggest that activation of RhoA can modulate IL-2 gene expression by inhibiting the transcriptional activity of NFAT and chromatin structure at the IL-2 promoter during T cell activation.

Myeloid differentiation and susceptibility to HIV-1 are linked to APOBEC3 expression

HIV-1 recognition by, interaction with, and/or infection of CD4(+)CCR5(+) tissue macrophages and dendritic cells (DCs) play important roles in HIV-1 transmission and pathogenesis. By comparison, circulating CD4(+)CCR5(+) monocytes appear relatively resistant to HIV-1, and a fundamental unresolved question involves deciphering restriction factors unique to this precursor population. Not only do monocytes, relative to macrophages, possess higher levels of the innate resistance factor APOBEC3G, but we uncovered APOBEC3A, not previously associated with anti-HIV activity, as being critical in monocyte resistance. Inversely correlated with susceptibility, silencing of APOBEC3A renders monocytes vulnerable to HIV-1. Differences in promiscuity of monocytes, macrophages, and DCs can be defined, at least partly, by disparities in APOBEC expression, with implications for enhancing cellular defenses against HIV-1.

NFAT5 regulates HIV-1 in primary monocytes via a highly conserved long terminal repeat site

To replicate, HIV-1 capitalizes on endogenous cellular activation pathways resulting in recruitment of key host transcription factors to its viral enhancer. RNA interference has been a powerful tool for blocking key checkpoints in HIV-1 entry into cells. Here we apply RNA interference to HIV-1 transcription in primary macrophages, a major reservoir of the virus, and specifically target the transcription factor NFAT5 (nuclear factor of activated T cells 5), which is the most evolutionarily divergent NFAT protein. By molecularly cloning and sequencing isolates from multiple viral subtypes, and performing DNase I footprinting, electrophoretic mobility shift, and promoter mutagenesis transfection assays, we demonstrate that NFAT5 functionally interacts with a specific enhancer binding site conserved in HIV-1, HIV-2, and multiple simian immunodeficiency viruses. Using small interfering RNA to ablate expression of endogenous NFAT5 protein, we show that the replication of three major HIV-1 viral subtypes (B, C, and E) is dependent upon NFAT5 in human primary differentiated macrophages. Our results define a novel host factor-viral enhancer interaction that reveals a new regulatory role for NFAT5 and defines a functional DNA motif conserved across HIV-1 subtypes and representative simian immunodeficiency viruses. Inhibition of the NFAT5-LTR interaction may thus present a novel therapeutic target to suppress HIV-1 replication and progression of AIDS.

Defining and solving the essential protein-protein interactions in HIV infection

The structure determination of macromolecular complexes is entering a new era. The methods of optical microscopy, electron microscopy, X-ray crystallography, and nuclear magnetic resonance increasingly are being combined in hybrid method approaches to achieve an integrated view of macromolecular complexes that span from cellular context to atomic detail. A particularly important application of these hybrid method approaches is the structural analysis of the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) proteins with their cellular binding partners. High resolution structure determination of essential HIV - host cell protein complexes and correlative analysis of these complexes in the live cell can serve as critical guides in the design of a broad, new class of therapeutics that function by disrupting such complexes. Here, with the hope of stimulating some discussion, we will briefly review some of the literature in the context of what could be done to further apply structural methods to HIV research. We have chosen to focus our attention on certain aspects of the HIV replication cycle where we think that structural information would contribute substantially to the development of new therapeutic and vaccine targets for HIV.

HIV accomplices and adversaries in macrophage infection

Cell surface and intracellular proteins in macrophages influence various steps in the life cycle of lentiviruses. Characterization of these restriction and/or cofactors is essential to understanding how macrophages become unwitting HIV hosts and in fact, can coexist with a heavy viral burden. Although many of the cellular pathways co-opted by HIV in macrophages mimic those seen in CD4+ T cells, emerging evidence reveals cellular constituents of the macrophage, which may be uniquely usurped by HIV. For example, in addition to CD4 and CCR5, membrane annexin II facilitates early steps in infection of macrophages, but not in T cells. Blockade of this pathway effectively diminishes macrophage infection. Viral binding engages a macrophage-centric signaling pathway and a transcriptional profile, including genes such as p21, which benefit the virus. Once inside the cell, multiple host cell molecules are engaged to facilitate virus replication and assembly. Although the macrophage is an enabler, it also possesses innate antiviral mechanisms, including apolipoprotein B mRNA-editing enzyme-catalytic polypeptide-like 3G (APOBEC3) family DNA-editing enzymes to inhibit replication of HIV. Differential expression of these enzymes, which are largely neutralized by HIV to protect its rebirth, is associated with resistance or susceptibility to the virus. Higher levels of the cytidine deaminases endow potential HIV targets with a viral shield, and IFN-alpha, a natural inducer of macrophage APOBEC expression, renders macrophages tougher combatants to HIV infection. These and other manipulatable pathways may give the macrophage a fighting chance in its battle against the virus.

Reciprocal transactivation between HIV-1 and other human viruses

A variety of rare clinical syndromes are seen with strikingly increased prevalence in HIV-1-infected individuals, many with underlying viral etiologies. The emergence of these diseases in AIDS reflects a reduction in the ability of the immune system to mount an adequate defense against viruses in general due to the damage inflicted to the immune system by HIV-1 infection. However, in many cases, it has been found that HIV-1 can enhance the level of expression and hence the life cycle of other viruses independently of immunosuppression through specific interactions with the viruses. This can occur either directly by HIV-1 proteins such as Tat enhancing the activity of heterologous viral promoters, and/or indirectly by HIV-1 inducing the expression of cytokines and activation of their downstream signaling that eventually promotes the multiplication of the other virus. In a reciprocal manner, the effects of other viruses can enhance the pathogenicity of HIV-1 infection in individuals with AIDS through stimulation of the HIV-1 promoter activity and genome expression. The purpose of this review is to examine the cross-interactions between these viruses and HIV-1.

Cellular cofactors and HIV-1 infection in vivo

Recent studies have demonstrated that substantial levels of HIV-1 replication occur in vivo in what appear to be ‘resting’ CD4+ T lymphocytes. This contrasts with numerous studies in vitro, in which resting T cells are not permissive for productive infection as a result of a number of barriers to infection, particularly during the early stages of the viral life cycle. The barriers in vitro are likely to be the result of limiting levels of cellular cofactors that mediate viral replication, and these cofactors are apparently present at adequate levels in resting cells in vivo. Although a number of HIV-1 cofactors are now known, it is important to identify additional cofactors and to characterize the expression pattern and mechanisms that regulate cofactor function in infected CD4+ T lymphocytes in vivo. It may ultimately become possible to manipulate the expression levels of essential HIV-1 cofactors in vivo and thereby recapitulate for therapeutic benefit the barriers to infection that exist in resting T cells in vitro.

R5 and X4 HIV envelopes induce distinct gene expression profiles in primary peripheral blood mononuclear cells

HIV envelope binds to and signals through its primary cellular receptor, CD4, and through a coreceptor, either CC chemokine receptor 5 (CCR5) or CXC chemokine receptor 4 (CXCR4). Here, we evaluate the response of peripheral blood mononuclear cells to a panel of genetically diverse R5 and X4 envelope proteins. Modulation of gene expression was evaluated by using oligonucleotide microarrays. Activation of transcription factors was evaluated by using an array of oligonucleotides encoding transcription factor binding sites. Responses were strongly influenced by coreceptor specificity. Treatment of cells from CCR5delta32 homozygous donors with glycoprotein (gp)120 derived from an R5 virus demonstrated that the majority of responses elicited by R5 envelopes required engagement of CCR5. R5 envelopes, to a greater extent than X4 envelopes, induced the expression of genes belonging to mitogen-activated protein kinase signal transduction pathways and genes regulating the cell cycle. A number of genes induced by R5, but not X4, envelopes were also up-regulated in the resting CD4+ T cell population of HIV-infected individuals. These results suggest that R5 envelope facilitates replication of HIV in the pool of resting CD4+ T cells. Additionally, signaling by R5 gp120 may facilitate the transmission of R5 viruses by inducing a permissive environment for HIV replication.

HIV-1 gp120 induces NFAT nuclear translocation in resting CD4+ T-cells

The replication of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in CD4+ T-cells is strongly dependent upon the state of activation of infected cells. Infection of sub-optimally activated cells is believed to play a critical role in both the transmission of virus and the persistence of CD4+ T-cell reservoirs. There is accumulating evidence that HIV can modulate signal-transduction pathways in a manner that may facilitate replication in such cells. We previously demonstrated that HIV gp120 induces virus replication in resting CD4+ T cells isolated from HIV-infected individuals. Here, we show that in resting CD4+ T-cells, gp120 activates NFATs and induces their translocation into the nucleus. The HIV LTR encodes NFAT recognition sites, and NFATs may play a critical role in promoting viral replication in sub-optimally activated cells. These observations provide insight into a potential mechanism by which HIV is able to establish infection in resting cells, which may have implications for both transmission of HIV and the persistence of viral reservoirs.

Endothelial cells promote human immunodeficiency virus replication in nondividing memory T cells via Nef-, Vpr-, and T-cell receptor-dependent activation of NFAT

Human endothelial cells (ECs) enhance human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) replication within CD4(+) memory T cells by 50,000-fold in a Nef-dependent manner. Here, we report that EC-mediated HIV type 1 replication is also dependent on an intact vpr gene. Moreover, we demonstrate that despite a requirement for engaging major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II molecules and costimulators, EC-stimulated virus-producing cells (p24(high) T cells) do not proliferate, nor are they arrested in the cell cycle. Rather, they are minimally activated, sometimes expressing CD69 but not CD25, HLA-DR, VLA-1, or effector cytokines. Blocking antibodies to interleukin 2 (IL-2), IL-6, IL-7, or tumor necrosis factor do not inhibit viral replication. Cyclosporine effectively inhibits viral replication, as does disruption of the NFAT binding site in the viral long terminal repeat. Furthermore, in the presence of ECs, suboptimal T-cell receptor (TCR) stimulation with phytohemagglutinin L supports efficient viral replication, and suboptimal stimulation with toxic shock syndrome toxin 1 leads to viral replication selectively in the TCR-stimulated, Vbeta2-expressing T cells. Collectively, these data indicate that ECs provide signals that promote Nef- and Vpr-dependent HIV replication in memory T cells that have been minimally activated through their TCRs. Our studies suggest a mechanism for HIV replication in vivo within the reservoir of circulating memory CD4(+) T cells that persist despite antiretroviral therapy and further suggest that maintenance of immunological memory by MHC class II-expressing ECs via TCR signaling may contribute to HIV rebound following cessation of antiretroviral therapy.

The multifactorial nature of HIV-1 latency

HIV-1 can avoid host immune responses and antiretroviral drugs through the latent infection of resting memory CD4(+) T cells. Recently, latent viral genomes have been shown to reside within the introns of active host genes. Therefore, latency is not simply due to an inaccessibility of the integrated proviruses to the transcriptional machinery. Rather, latency might result from insufficient nuclear levels of the crucial activation-dependent host transcription factors required to overcome the transcriptional interference that is an automatic consequence of the nature of HIV-1 integration sites. In addition, resting cells lack sufficient levels of HIV-1 Tat and Tat-associated activation-dependent host factors that are necessary for processive transcription. Defects at consecutive steps of transcriptional initiation and elongation enable HIV-1 to remain hidden within resting CD4(+) T cells.