The proline-rich domain in p63 is necessary for the transcriptional and apoptosis-inducing activities of TAp63

TAp63γ is the primary isoform of TP63 for tumor suppression but not development

TP63 is expressed as TAp63 and ΔNp63 from the P1 and P2 promoters, respectively. While TAp63 and ΔNp63 are expressed as three TAp63α/β/γ and ΔNp63α/β/γ due to alternative splicing, only p63α (TA and ΔN) and p63γ (TA and ΔN) proteins are found to be detectable and likely to be responsible for p63-dependent activity. Previous studies implied and/or demonstrated that TAp63α, which contains an N-terminal activation domain conserved in p53, functions as a tumor suppressor by regulating an array of genes for growth suppression. By contrast, ΔNp63α, which also contains an N-terminal activation domain but is different from that in TAp63, regulates a unique set of genes and functions as a master regulator for development of epidermis and other stratified epithelial tissues. However, the biological function of p63γ is largely unexplored. To explore this, we generated a mouse model in that exon 10', a coding exon specific for p63γ, was deleted by CRISPR-cas9. We showed that mice deficient in p63γ are viable and futile, which is different from mice deficient in total TP63 or p63α. Like TAp63-deficient mice, p63γ-deficient mice have a short lifespan and are prone to spontanenous tumors. Additionally, loss of p63γ shortens the lifespan of tumor-free mice potentially via increased cellular senescence. Moreover, mice deficient in p63γ are prone to chronic inflammation in multiple organs and liver steatosis potentially via altered lipid metabolism. Single-cell RNA-seq revealed that loss of p63γ increases the expression of SCD1, a rate-limiting enzyme for synthesis of monounsaturated fatty acids, leading to altered lipid homeostasis. Together, our data indicate that TP63γ is the primary isoform of TP63 for tumor suppression but not development by maintaining normal inflammatory response and lipid homeostasis.

Molecular basis of sex differences in cancer: Perspective from Asia

Cancer is a leading cause of mortality and morbidity globally. Sex differences in cancer are evident in death rates and treatment responses in several cancers. Asian patients have unique cancer epidemiology influenced by their genetic ancestry and sociocultural factors in the region. In this review, we show molecular associations that potentially mediate sex disparities observed in cancer in Asian populations. Differences in sex characteristics are evident at the cytogenetic, genetic, and epigenetic levels mediating processes that include cell cycle, oncogenesis, and metastasis. Larger clinical and in vitro studies that explore mechanisms can confirm the associations of these molecular markers. In-depth studies of these markers can reveal their importance as diagnostics, prognostics, and therapeutic efficacy markers. Sex differences should be considered in designing novel cancer therapeutics in this era of precision medicine.

Genetic association scan of 32 osteoarthritis susceptibility genes identified TP63 associated with an endemic osteoarthritis, Kashin-Beck disease

BACKGROUND

Kashin-Beck disease (KBD) is an endemic chronic osteochondropathy. The clinical manifestations and radiographic features of adult KBD were similar to those of osteoarthritis (OA).

METHODS

We first performed a genetic association scan of 32 OA susceptibility genes with KBD in 898 Han Chinese subjects. The MassARRAY genotyping system (Agena) was used for SNP genotyping. PLINK 1.9 was used for quality control and association testing. Using articular cartilage specimens from 7 adult KBD patients and 4 control subjects, lentivirus-mediated RNA interference (RNAi), qRT-PCR, Western blot and immunohistochemistry were employed to explore the functional relevance of TP63 to KBD chondrocyte.

RESULTS

SNP genotyping and association analysis identified TP63 (rs12107036, P = 0.005, OR = 0.71) and OARD1 (rs11280, P = 0.004, OR = 1.51) were significantly associated with KBD. It was also found that TP63 was significantly up-regulated in KBD articular cartilage in both mRNA and protein level compared with the controls (P < 0.05). TP63 suppression by lentivirus-mediated RNAi notably decreased the abundance of Caspase3 and SOX9 in chondrocytes. Most importantly, compared with the scrambled sequence (shControl) group, the protein level of ACAN was increased in the shTP63 group. The mRNA expression of chondrocyte marker genes (COL2A1 and ACAN) was not significantly changed after TP63 knockdown relative to shControl group.

CONCLUSION

Our study identifies TP63 as a novel susceptibility gene for KBD, and demonstrates that the inhibition of TP63 suppresses chondrocyte apoptosis and partly facilitates chondrogenesis. The combination of SNP genotyping and molecular biology techniques provides a useful tool for understanding the biological mechanism and differential diagnosis studies of KBD and OA.

A Novel Ferroptosis-Related Gene Model for Overall Survival Predictions of Bladder Urothelial Carcinoma Patients

Introduction

Bladder cancer is the most common urinary tract malignancy, and 90% of bladder tumors are urothelial cell carcinomas. Ferroptosis is a new form of cell death discovered in recent years, which is an iron-dependent form of cell death characterized by the lethal intracellular accumulation of lipid-based reactive oxygen species. Ferroptosis is considered to be a double-edged sword for cancer and cancer therapy.

Materials and Methods

In the current study, expression profiles of bladder cancer (BLCA) specimens were obtained from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) RNA-Seq database. Ferroptosis-related genes were downloaded from the FerrDb website. The ferroptosis-related differentially expressed genes (DEGs) which were related to overall survival (OS) were first identified. The least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) and multivariate Cox regression methods were utilized to develop a ferroptosis-related prognostic model (FRPM). In addition, a nomogram model based on FRPM and clinicopathological features was successfully constructed and validated. In addition, gene ontology (GO), Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG), and single-sample gene set enrichment analysis (ssGSEA) methods were utilized in this study in order to compare the DEGs between the high-risk and low-risk groups. This study also adopted RT-qPCR, CCK-8 assay, and scratch assay methods to perform experimental verification processes.

Results and Discussion

A 7-gene FRPM was constructed in this research investigation in order to stratify the patients into two groups according to their risk scores. The results of this study’s survival analysis and time-dependent receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis demonstrated that the model had achieved a stable performance level. This multivariate Cox regression results revealed that the FRPM was an independent prognostic predictor for the OS of BLCA patients and the results were displayed using a nomogram. In addition, the ROC analysis, concordance index (C-index), calibration plots, and decision curve analysis (DCA) curves further indicated that this study’s nomogram method enabled valuable prediction results. The functional enrichment analysis results suggested that the DEGs between the high- and low-risk groups played vital roles in the progression of the ferroptosis. Also, the ssGSEA indicated that the immune status was different between the two groups. This study found that the RT-qPCR results had confirmed the differential expressions of DEGs in the tissue samples, and the CCK-8 assay and scratch assay results confirmed the promoting effects of SCD on the proliferation and migration of tumor cells.

Conclusions

This study defined a novel prognostic model of seven ferroptosis-related genes, which proved to be independently associated with the OS of BLCA. A nomogram method was developed for the purpose of providing further insight into the accurate predictions of BLCA prognoses.

ΔN63 suppresses the ability of pregnancy-identified mammary epithelial cells (PIMECs) to drive HER2-positive breast cancer

While pregnancy is known to reduce a woman's life-long risk of breast cancer, clinical data suggest that it can specifically promote HER2 (human EGF receptor 2)-positive breast cancer subtype (HER2+ BC). HER2+ BC, characterized by amplification of HER2, comprises about 20% of all sporadic breast cancers and is more aggressive than hormone receptor-positive breast cancer (the majority of cases). Consistently with human data, pregnancy strongly promotes HER2+ BC in genetic mouse models. One proposed mechanism of this is post-pregnancy accumulation of PIMECs (pregnancy-identified mammary epithelial cells), tumor-initiating cells for HER2+ BC in mice. We previously showed that p63, a homologue of the tumor suppressor p53, is required to maintain the post-pregnancy number of PIMECs and thereby promotes HER2+ BC. Here we set to test whether p63 also affects the intrinsic tumorigenic properties of PIMECs. To this end, we FACS-sorted YFP-labeled PIMECs from p63+/-;ErbB2 and control p63+/+;ErbB2 females and injected their equal amounts into immunodeficient recipients. To our surprise, p63+/- PIMECs showed increased, rather than decreased, tumorigenic capacity in vivo, i.e., significantly accelerated tumor onset and tumor growth, as well as increased self-renewal in mammosphere assays and proliferation in vitro and in vivo. The underlying mechanism of these phenotypes seems to be a specific reduction of the tumor suppressor TAp63 isoform in p63+/- luminal cells, including PIMECs, with concomitant aberrant upregulation of the oncogenic ΔNp63 isoform, as determined by qRT-PCR and scRNA-seq analyses. In addition, scRNA-seq revealed upregulation of several cancer-associated (Il-4/Il-13, Hsf1/HSP), oncogenic (TGFβ, NGF, FGF, MAPK) and self-renewal (Wnt, Notch) pathways in p63+/-;ErbB2 luminal cells and PIMECs per se. Altogether, these data reveal a complex role of p63 in PIMECs and pregnancy-associated HER2+ BC: maintaining the amount of PIMECs while suppressing their intrinsic tumorigenic capacity.

p63-related signaling at a glance

p63 (also known as TP63) is a transcription factor of the p53 family, along with p73. Multiple isoforms of p63 have been discovered and these have diverse functions encompassing a wide array of cell biology. p63 isoforms are implicated in lineage specification, proliferative potential, differentiation, cell death and survival, DNA damage response and metabolism. Furthermore, p63 is linked to human disease states including cancer. p63 is critical to many aspects of cell signaling, and in this Cell science at a glance article and the accompanying poster, we focus on the signaling cascades regulating TAp63 and ΔNp63 isoforms and those that are regulated by TAp63 and ΔNp63, as well the role of p63 in disease.

FIH-1 engages novel binding partners to positively influence epithelial proliferation via p63

Whereas much is known about the genes regulated by ΔNp63α in keratinocytes, how ΔNp63α is regulated is less clear. During studies with the hydroxylase, factor inhibiting hypoxia-inducible factor 1 (FIH-1), we observed increases in epidermal ΔNp63α expression along with proliferative capacity in a conditional FIH-1 transgenic mouse. Conversely, loss of FIH-1 in vivo and in vitro attenuated ΔNp63α expression. To elucidate the FIH-1/p63 relationship, BioID proteomics assays identified FIH-1 binding partners that had the potential to regulate p63 expression. FIH-1 interacts with two previously unknown partners, Plectin1 and signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 (STAT1) leading to the regulation of ΔNp63α expression. Two known interactors of FIH-1, apoptosis-stimulating of P53 protein 2 (ASPP2) and histone deacetylase 1 (HDAC1), were also identified. Knockdown of ASPP2 upregulated ΔNp63α and reversed the decrease in ΔNp63α by FIH-1 depletion. Additionally, FIH-1 regulates growth arrest and DNA damage-45 alpha (GADD45α), a negative regulator of ΔNp63α by interacting with HDAC1. GADD45α knockdown rescued reduction in ΔNp63α by FIH-1 depletion. Collectively, our data reveal that FIH-1 positively regulates ΔNp63α in keratinocytes via variety of signaling partners: (a) Plectin1/STAT1, (b) ASPP2, and (c) HDAC1/GADD45α signaling pathways.

The Roles of P53 and Its Family Proteins, P63 and P73, in the DNA Damage Stress Response in Organogenesis-Stage Mouse Embryos

Members of the P53 transcription factor family, P53, P63, and P73, play important roles in normal development and in regulating the expression of genes that control apoptosis and cell cycle progression in response to genotoxic stress. P53 is involved in the DNA damage response pathway that is activated by hydroxyurea in organogenesis-stage murine embryos. The extent to which P63 and P73 contribute to this stress response is not known. To address this question, we examined the roles of P53, P63, and P73 in mediating the response of Trp53-positive and Trp53-deficient murine embryos to a single dose of hydroxyurea (400 mg/kg) on gestational day 9. Hydroxyurea treatment downregulated the expression of Trp63 and upregulated Trp73 in the absence of effects on the levels of Trp53 transcripts; Trp73 upregulation was P53-dependent. At the protein level, hydroxyurea treatment increased the levels and phosphorylation of P53 in the absence of effects on P63 and P73. Upregulation of the expression of genes that regulate cell cycle arrest and apoptosis, Cdkn1a, Rb1, Fas, Trp53inp1, and Pmaip1, was P53-dependent in hydroxyurea-treated embryos. The increase in cleaved caspase-3 and cleaved mammalian sterile-20-like-1 kinase levels induced by hydroxyurea was also P53-dependent; in contrast, the increase in phosphorylated H2AX, a marker of DNA double-strand breaks, in response to hydroxyurea treatment was only partially P53-dependent. Together, our data show that P53 is the principal P53 family member that is activated in the embryonic DNA damage response.

Association of Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms in the Apoptosis-Related Genes TP63 and CD40 with Risk for Lung Cancer in a Chinese Han Population

Apoptosis plays a critical role in tumorigenesis. TP63 inhibits the pro-apoptosis function of TP53, and CD40 increases expression of anti-apoptotic proteins. Two single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), rs6790167 (g243059A>G) in intron 9 of TP63 and rs1535045 (g6194C>T) in intron 1 of CD40 respectively, may affect the susceptibility of lung cancer. To evaluate the association of these SNPs with lung cancer, we performed a case-control study with 258 patients, including 149 adenocarcinoma and 47 small cell lung cancer, and 270 controls. Genotyping was conducted using allele-specific polymerase chain reaction and pyrosequencing. We found that rs6790167 and rs1535045 are associated with the risk of lung adenocarcinoma (P = 0.048) and small cell lung cancer (P = 0.019), respectively. Non-smoking males carrying the GG genotype of rs6790167 had higher risk for lung adenocarcinoma than individuals carrying the AA genotype (OR = 7.58, 95% CI: 2.43-23.65). Compared to the TT genotype of rs1535045, non-smoking women with the CC genotype had higher risk for lung adenocarcinoma (OR = 4.20, 95% CI: 1.34-13.12). After stratified analysis based on clinical characteristics, the frequency of the CC genotype of rs1535045 was higher in patients at I-II stages (P = 0.013) or patients whose tumor markers were negative (P = 0.003). Individuals carrying both the GG genotype of rs6790167 and the CC genotype of rs1535045 were associated with significantly higher risk for lung adenocarcinoma. Thus, the polymorphisms in the TP63 and CD40 genes are associated with lung cancer in a Chinese Han population.

The Regulation of Tumor Suppressor p63 by the Ubiquitin-Proteasome System

The protein p63 has been identified as a homolog of the tumor suppressor protein p53 and is capable of inducing apoptosis, cell cycle arrest, or senescence. p63 has at least six isoforms, which can be divided into two major groups: the TAp63 variants that contain the N-terminal transactivation domain and the ΔNp63 variants that lack the N-terminal transactivation domain. The TAp63 variants are generally considered to be tumor suppressors involved in activating apoptosis and suppressing metastasis. ΔNp63 variants cannot induce apoptosis but can act as dominant negative inhibitors to block the function of TAp53, TAp73, and TAp63. p63 is rarely mutated in human tumors and is predominately regulated at the post-translational level by phosphorylation and ubiquitination. This review focuses primarily on regulation of p63 by the ubiquitin E-3 ligase family of enzymes via ubiquitination and proteasome-mediated degradation, and introduces a new key regulator of the p63 protein.

MicroRNA-301b promotes cell invasiveness through targeting TP63 in pancreatic carcinoma cells

Recent studies have demonstrated that deregulated microRNA (miR) expression is implicated in the development of human cancers. In the aberrant miR expression, miR-301 is upregulated in cancers, such as pancreatic, colorectal and oral carcinoma. Based on this evidence, we investigated the contribution of miR-301 to pancreatic carcinoma and the novel target genes of miR-301 in pancreatic carcinoma. In this study, we analyzed the effects of enforced and inhibited expression of miR-301b expression in the Panc-1 and BxPC-3 cell lines. MiR-301b expression levels were associated with cell invasiveness in both cell lines. Additional experiments indicated that miR-301b influences invasiveness through CDH1. Moreover microRNA target search algorithms and experimental strategies suggested that miR-301b suppressed TP63 expression as a novel target of miR-301b. Remarkably, miR-301b was also found to be associated with NF-κB activity in both cell lines. In summary, overexpressed miR-301b may suppress TP63 expression and contributes to promote cell invasiveness and to enhance gemcitabine resistance in pancreatic carcinoma cells. Thus, miR-301b may have potential as a novel therapeutic target for cancer treatment due to its stimulatory effects on cell invasiveness.

EEC- and ADULT-associated TP63 mutations exhibit functional heterogeneity toward P63 responsive sequences

TP63 germ-line mutations are responsible for a group of human ectodermal dysplasia syndromes, underlining the key role of P63 in the development of ectoderm-derived tissues. Here, we report the identification of two TP63 alleles, G134V (p.Gly173Val) and insR155 (p.Thr193_Tyr194insArg), associated to ADULT and EEC syndromes, respectively. These alleles, along with previously identified G134D (p.Gly173Asp) and R204W (p.Arg243Trp), were functionally characterized in yeast, studied in a mammalian cell line and modeled based on the crystal structure of the P63 DNA-binding domain. Although the p.Arg243Trp mutant showed both complete loss of transactivation function and ability to interfere over wild-type P63, the impact of p.Gly173Asp, p.Gly173Val, and p.Thr193_Tyr194insArg varied depending on the response element (RE) tested. Interestingly, p.Gly173Asp and p.Gly173Val mutants were characterized by a severe defect in transactivation along with interfering ability on two DN-P63α-specific REs derived from genes closely related to the clinical manifestations of the TP63-associated syndromes, namely PERP and COL18A1. The modeling of the mutations supported the distinct functional effect of each mutant. The present results highlight the importance of integrating different functional endpoints that take in account the features of P63 proteins' target sequences to examine the impact of TP63 mutations and the associated clinical variability.

Isolation and expression analysis of a LEAFY/FLORICAULA homolog and its promoter from London plane (Platanus acerifolia Willd.)

The LEAFY/FLORICAULA (LFY/FLO) homologous genes are necessary for normal flower development in diverse angiosperm species. To understand the genetic and molecular mechanisms underlying floral initiation and development in Platanaceae, an early divergent eudicot family consisting of large monoecious trees, we isolated a homolog of LFY/FLO, PlacLFY, and its promoter from London plane (Platanus acerifolia). PlacLFY is 1,419 bp in length, with an ORF of 1,122 bp encoding a predicted polypeptide of 374 amino acids and 5'/3'-UTR of 54 and 213 bp, respectively. The putative PlacLFY protein showed a high degree of identity (56-84 %) with LFY/FLO homologs from other species, including two highly conserved regions, the N and C domains, and a less conserved amino-terminal proline-rich region. Real-time PCR analysis showed that PlacLFY was expressed mainly in male inflorescences from May of the first year to March of next year, with the highest expression level in December, and in female inflorescences from June to April of next year. PlacLFY mRNA was also detected strongly in subpetiolar buds of December from 4-year-old and adult trees, and slightly in stem of young seedling and young leaf of adult plant. Additionally, we cloned 1,138 bp promoter sequence of PlacLFY and we drove GUS expression in transgenic tobacco by the chimerical pPlacLFY::GUS construction. Histological GUS staining analysis indicated that PlacLFY promoter can drive GUS gene expression in shoot apex, stem, young leaf and petiole, flower stalk, petal tip, and young/semi-mature fruits of transgenic tobacco, which is almost identical to the expression pattern of PlacLFY in London plane. The results revealed that the PlacLFY gene isolated from London plane is expressed not only in reproductive organ but also in vegetative organs. Moreover, this expression pattern is consistent with the expression pattern in tobacco of a GUS reporter gene under the control of the potential promoter region of PlacLFY.

Tumor protein p63/nuclear factor κB feedback loop in regulation of cell death

Tumor protein (TP)-p53 family members often play proapoptotic roles, whereas nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) functions as a proapoptotic and antiapoptotic regulator depending on the cellular environment. We previously showed that the NF-κB activation leads to the reduction of the TP63 isoform, ΔNp63α, thereby rendering the cells susceptible to cell death upon DNA damage. However, the functional relationship between TP63 isotypes and NF-κB is poorly understood. Here, we report that the TAp63 regulates NF-κB transcription and protein stability subsequently leading to the cell death phenotype. We found that TAp63α induced the expression of the p65 subunit of NF-κB (RELA) and target genes involved in cell cycle arrest or apoptosis, thereby triggering cell death pathways in MCF10A cells. RELA was shown to concomitantly modulate specific cell survival pathways, making it indispensable for the TAp63α-dependent regulation of cell death. We showed that TAp63α and RELA formed protein complexes resulted in their mutual stabilization and inhibition of the RELA ubiquitination. Finally, we showed that TAp63α directly induced RelA transcription by binding to and activating of its promoter and, in turn, leading to activation of the NF-κB-dependent cell death genes. Overall, our data defined the regulatory feedback loop between TAp63α and NF-κB involved in the activation of cell death process of cancer cells.

Manganese superoxide dismutase is a p53-regulated gene that switches cancers between early and advanced stages

Manganese superoxide dismutase (MnSOD) plays a critical role in the survival of aerobic life, and its aberrant expression has been implicated in carcinogenesis and tumor resistance to therapy. However, despite extensive studies in MnSOD regulation and its role in cancer, when and how the alteration of MnSOD expression occurs during the process of tumor development in vivo are unknown. Here, we generated transgenic mice expressing a luciferase reporter gene under the control of human MnSOD promoter-enhancer elements and investigated the changes of MnSOD transcription using the 7,12-dimethylbenz(α)anthracene (DMBA)/12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-l3-acetate (TPA) multistage skin carcinogenesis model. The results show that MnSOD expression was suppressed at a very early stage but increased at late stages of skin carcinogenesis. The suppression and subsequent restoration of MnSOD expression were mediated by two transcription-factors, Sp1 and p53. Exposure to DMBA and TPA activated p53 and decreased MnSOD expression via p53-mediated suppression of Sp1 binding to the MnSOD promoter in normal-appearing skin and benign papillomas. In squamous cell carcinomas, Sp1 binding increased because of the loss of functional p53. We used chromatin immunoprecipitation, electrophoretic mobility shift assay, and both knockdown and overexpression of Sp1 and p53 to verify their roles in the expression of MnSOD at each stage of cancer development. The results identify MnSOD as a p53-regulated gene that switches between early and advanced stages of cancer. These findings also provide strong support for the development of means to reactivate p53 for the prevention of tumor progression.

TAp63 plays compensatory roles in p53-deficient cancer cells under genotoxic stress

p53, p63, and p73 belong to the p53 family of proteins, which mediate development, differentiation, and various other cellular responses. p53 is involved in many anti-cancer mechanisms, such as cell cycle regulation, apoptosis, and the maintenance of genomic integrity. The p63 gene is controlled by two promoters that direct the expression of two isoforms, one with and one without transactivating properties, known as TAp63 and ΔNp63. In this study, p53-deficient cells (Hep3B and PC-3) and p53-expressing cells (A549 and HepG2) were treated with doxorubicin to examine the possible roles of TAp63 in these cells under genotoxic stress; TAp63 expression was induced in p53-deficient cell lines, but not in p53-expressing cell lines. The ectopic expression of p53 in p53-deficient cells (Hep3B) reduced TAp63 promoter activity, and knockdown of TAp63 attenuated doxorubicin-induced cell growth arrest by promoting cell cycle progression, leading to an increase in the percentage of G(2)/M cells. Moreover, knockdown of TAp63 increased cell sensitivity to doxorubicin-induced genomic damage. Our results suggest that TAp63 may play a compensatory role in cell cycle regulation and DNA damage repair in p53-deficient cancer cells.

Abnormal hair follicle development and altered cell fate of follicular keratinocytes in transgenic mice expressing DeltaNp63alpha

The transcription factor p63 plays an essential role in epidermal morphogenesis. Animals lacking p63 fail to form many ectodermal organs, including the skin and hair follicles. Although the indispensable role of p63 in stratified epithelial skin development is well established, relatively little is known about this transcriptional regulator in directing hair follicle morphogenesis. Here, using specific antibodies, we have established the expression pattern of DeltaNp63 in hair follicle development and cycling. DeltaNp63 is expressed in the developing hair placode, whereas in mature hair its expression is restricted to the outer root sheath (ORS), matrix cells and to the stem cells of the hair follicle bulge. To investigate the role of DeltaNp63 in hair follicle morphogenesis and cycling, we have utilized a Tet-inducible mouse model system with targeted expression of this isoform to the ORS of the hair follicle. DeltaNp63 transgenic animals display dramatic defects in hair follicle development and cycling, eventually leading to severe hair loss. Strikingly, expression of DeltaNp63 leads to a switch in cell fate of hair follicle keratinocytes, causing them to adopt an interfollicular epidermal (IFE) cell identity. Moreover, DeltaNp63 transgenic animals exhibit a depleted hair follicle stem-cell niche, which further contributes to the overall cycling defects observed in the mutant animals. Finally, global transcriptome analysis of transgenic skin identified altered expression levels of crucial mediators of hair morphogenesis, including key members of the Wnt/beta-catenin signaling pathway, which, in part, account for these effects. Our data provide evidence supporting a role for DeltaNp63alpha in actively suppressing hair follicle differentiation and directing IFE cell lineage commitment.

SCH529074, a small molecule activator of mutant p53, which binds p53 DNA binding domain (DBD), restores growth-suppressive function to mutant p53 and interrupts HDM2-mediated ubiquitination of wild type p53

Abrogation of p53 function occurs in almost all human cancers, with more than 50% of cancers harboring inactivating mutations in p53 itself. Mutation of p53 is indicative of highly aggressive cancers and poor prognosis. The vast majority of mutations in p53 occur in its core DNA binding domain (DBD) and result in inactivation of p53 by reducing its thermodynamic stability at physiological temperature. Here, we report a small molecule, SCH529074, that binds specifically to the p53 DBD in a saturable manner with an affinity of 1-2 microm. Binding restores wild type function to many oncogenic mutant forms of p53. This small molecule reactivates mutant p53 by acting as a chaperone, in a manner similar to that previously reported for the peptide CDB3. Binding of SCH529074 to the p53 DBD is specifically displaced by an oligonucleotide with a sequence derived from the p53-response element. In addition to reactivating mutant p53, SCH529074 binding inhibits ubiquitination of p53 by HDM2. We have also developed a novel variant of p53 by changing a single amino acid in the core domain of p53 (N268R), which abolishes binding of SCH529074. This amino acid change also inhibits HDM2-mediated ubiquitination of p53. Our novel findings indicate that through its interaction with p53 DBD, SCH529074 restores DNA binding activity to mutant p53 and inhibits HDM2-mediated ubiquitination.

DEK proto-oncogene expression interferes with the normal epithelial differentiation program

Overexpression of the DEK gene is associated with multiple human cancers, but its specific roles as a putative oncogene are not well defined. DEK transcription was previously shown to be induced by the high-risk human papillomavirus (HPV) E7 oncogene via E2F and Rb pathways. Transient DEK overexpression was able to inhibit both senescence and apoptosis in cultured cells. In at least the latter case, this mechanism involved the destabilization of p53 and the decreased expression of p53 target genes. We show here that DEK overexpression disrupts the normal differentiation program in a manner that is independent of either p53 or cell death. DEK expression was distinctly repressed upon the differentiation of cultured primary human keratinocytes, and stable DEK overexpression caused epidermal thickening in an organotypic raft model system. The observed hyperplasia involved a delay in keratinocyte differentiation toward a more undifferentiated state, and expansion of the basal cell compartment was due to increased proliferation, but not apoptosis. These phenotypes were accompanied by elevated p63 expression in the absence of p53 destabilization. In further support of bona fide oncogenic DEK activities, we report here up-regulated DEK protein levels in both human papilloma virus-positive hyperplastic murine skin and a subset of human squamous cell carcinomas. We suggest that DEK up-regulation may contribute to carcinoma development at least in part through increased proliferation and retardation of differentiation.

Transcriptional regulation by AIRE: molecular mechanisms of central tolerance

The negative selection of T cells in the thymus is necessary for the maintenance of self tolerance. Medullary thymic epithelial cells have a key function in this process as they express a large number of tissue-specific self antigens that are presented to developing T cells. Mutations in the autoimmune regulator (AIRE) protein cause a breakdown of central tolerance that is associated with decreased expression of self antigens in the thymus. In this Review, we discuss the role of AIRE in the thymus and recent advances in our understanding of how AIRE might function at the molecular level to regulate gene expression.

The p53 family and programmed cell death

The p53 tumor suppressor continues to hold distinction as the most frequently mutated gene in human cancer. The ability of p53 to induce programmed cell death, or apoptosis, of cells exposed to environmental or oncogenic stress constitutes a major pathway whereby p53 exerts its tumor suppressor function. In the past decade, we have discovered that p53 is not alone in its mission to destroy damaged or aberrantly proliferating cells: it has two homologs, p63 and p73, that in various cellular contexts and stresses contribute to this process. In this review, the mechanisms whereby p53, and in some cases p63 and p73, induce apoptosis are discussed. Other reviews have focused more extensively on the contribution of individual p53-regulated genes to apoptosis induction by this protein, whereas in this review, we focus more on those factors that mediate the decision between growth arrest and apoptosis by p53, p63 and p73, and on the post-translational modifications and protein-protein interactions that influence this decision.