Characterization of a novel N-acetylneuraminic acid lyase favoring industrial N-acetylneuraminic acid synthesis

Prenylation of Flavanones by an Aromatic Prenyltransferase from Fusarium globosum

Prenylation increases the structural diversity and biological activity of flavonoids. In this study, an aromatic prenyltransferase, FgPT1, was identified from Fusarium globosum. This enzyme was demonstrated to specifically catalyze the prenylation of flavanones, including naringenin, hesperitin, eriodictyol, liquiritigenin, rac-pinocembrin, and dihydrogenistein, and exhibited no activity toward other types of flavonoids, including chalcones, flavonols, isoflavonoids, and flavonols. Ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) analysis indicated that the majority of prenylated products were 6-C prenyl flavanones, with the exception of liquiritigenin, which was additionally transformed to 4'-O prenyl liquiritigenin. Enzyme kinetic analysis suggested that FgPT1 exhibited the highest catalytic efficiency towards naringenin, with a kcat/KM value determined as 61.92 s-1 M-1, and the lowest catalytic efficiency towards liquiritigenin, with a kcat/KM of 1.18 s-1 M-1. Biochemical characterization suggested that FgPT1 functioned as a metal-dependent enzyme with optimal activity in the presence of Ba2+ at pH 7.5 and 30 °C. Site-directed mutagenesis resulted in a series of mutants, including A325V with impaired prenylation activity and V116I, V181I, and V194I with enhanced activity. V194I displayed the highest enzymatic activity with a nine-fold increase compared to wild-type FgPT1.

Coupling the Isopentenol Utilization Pathway and Prenyltransferase for the Biosynthesis of Licoflavanone in Recombinant Escherichia coli

Prenylflavonoids are promising candidates for food additives and functional foods due to their diverse biological activities and potential health benefits. However, natural prenylflavonoids are generally present in low abundance and are limited to specific plant species. Here, we report the biosynthesis of licoflavanone from naringenin and prenol by recombinant Escherichia coli. By investigating the activities of seven different sources of prenyltransferases overexpressed in E. coli toward various flavonoid substrates, the prenyltransferase AnaPT exhibits substrate preference when naringenin serves as the prenyl acceptor. Furthermore, licoflavanone production was successfully achieved by coupling the isopentenol utilization pathway and AnaPT in recombinant E. coli. In addition, the effects of fermentation temperatures, induction temperatures, naringenin concentrations, and substrate feeding strategies were investigated on the biosynthesis of licoflavanone in recombinant E. coli. Consequently, the recombinant E. coli strain capable of improved dimethylallyl diphosphate (DMAPP) supply and suitable for prenylflavonoid biosynthesis increased licoflavanone titers to 142.1 mg/L in a shake flask and to 537.8 mg/L in a 1.3 L fermentor, which is the highest yield for any prenylflavonoids reported to date. These strategies proposed in this study provide a reference for initiating the production of high-value prenylflavonoids.

Enhancement of Edwardsiella piscicida infection, biofilm formation, and motility caused by N-acetylneuraminate lyase

Sialic acid and its catabolism are involved in bacterial pathogenicity. N-acetylneuraminate lyase (NAL), which catalyzes the reversible aldol cleavage of sialic acid to form N-acetyl-D-mannosamine in the first step of sialic acid degradation, has been recently investigated to elucidate whether NAL enhances bacterial virulence; however, the role of NAL in bacterial pathogenicity remains unclear. In the present study, we demonstrated that the existence of two enzymes in Edwardsiella piscicida, referred to as dihydrodipicolinate synthase (DHDPS) and NAL, induced the cleavage/condensation activity toward sialic acids such as N-acetylneuraminic acid, N-glycolylneuraminic acid and 3-deoxy-D-glycero-D-galacto-non-2-ulopyranosonic acid. NAL enhanced cellular infection in vitro and suppressed the survival rate in zebrafish larvae in bath-infection in vivo, whereas DHDPS did not. Furthermore, NAL strongly activated the expression of E. piscicida phenotypes such as biofilm formation and motility, whereas DHDPS did not. Besides, the gene expression level of nanK, nanE, and glmU were up-regulated in the NAL-overexpressing strain, along with an increase in the total amount of N-acetylglucosamine.

Substrate specificity change of a flavonoid prenyltransferase AhPT1 induced by metal ion

Prenylated flavonoids are good drug candidates due to multiple biological activities and health benefits. Prenyltransferase is an important enzyme involved in the biosynthesis of prenylated flavonoids. In this work, a flavonoid prenyltransferase (AhPT1) from Artocarpus heterophyllus showed an unexpectedly metal ion-induced specificity to flavonoid substrates. AhPT1 could catalyse 6-C-prenylation of genistein when Mg²⁺ serving as cofactor. Its catalytic activity to 6-hydroxyflavone was undetectable. However, when Mn²⁺ was used instead of Mg²⁺, 5-C-prenylated 6-hydroxyflavone was generated with a high conversion rate. Mn²⁺ altered the regiospecificity of AhPT1 and turned it into a 5-C-prenyltransferase. 2'-Hydroxyl could improve the conversion rate of 6-hydroxyflavone, whereas 3'- or 4'-hydroxyl impaired the catalysis efficiency of AhPT1. NQIFDADID174 and DLTDVEGD305 were active motifs involved in substrate binding and catalysis. Asn166, Asp170, Asp174, Asp298, Asp301 and Asp305 in the active center were critical to the prenylation reaction.

Cysteine catabolism and the serine biosynthesis pathway support pyruvate production during pyruvate kinase knockdown in pancreatic cancer cells

Background

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is an aggressive cancer with limited treatment options. Pyruvate kinase, especially the M2 isoform (PKM2), is highly expressed in PDAC cells, but its role in pancreatic cancer remains controversial. To investigate the role of pyruvate kinase in pancreatic cancer, we knocked down PKM2 individually as well as both PKM1 and PKM2 concurrently (PKM1/2) in cell lines derived from a Kras^G12D/-; p53^-/- pancreatic mouse model.

Methods

We used liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) to determine metabolic profiles of wildtype and PKM1/2 knockdown PDAC cells. We further used stable isotope-labeled metabolic precursors and LC-MS/MS to determine metabolic pathways upregulated in PKM1/2 knockdown cells. We then targeted metabolic pathways upregulated in PKM1/2 knockdown cells using CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing technology.

Results

PDAC cells are able to proliferate and continue to produce pyruvate despite PKM1/2 knockdown. The serine biosynthesis pathway partially contributed to pyruvate production during PKM1/2 knockdown: knockout of phosphoglycerate dehydrogenase in this pathway decreased pyruvate production from glucose. In addition, cysteine catabolism generated ~ 20% of intracellular pyruvate in PDAC cells. Other potential sources of pyruvate include the sialic acid pathway and catabolism of glutamine, serine, tryptophan, and threonine. However, these sources did not provide significant levels of pyruvate in PKM1/2 knockdown cells.

Conclusion

PKM1/2 knockdown does not impact the proliferation of pancreatic cancer cells. The serine biosynthesis pathway supports conversion of glucose to pyruvate during pyruvate kinase knockdown. However, direct conversion of serine to pyruvate was not observed during PKM1/2 knockdown. Investigating several alternative sources of pyruvate identified cysteine catabolism for pyruvate production during PKM1/2 knockdown. Surprisingly, we find that a large percentage of intracellular pyruvate comes from cysteine. Our results highlight the ability of PDAC cells to adaptively rewire their metabolic pathways during knockdown of a key metabolic enzyme.

Mechanistic Studies of the Streptomyces bingchenggensis Aldolase-Dehydratase: Implications for Substrate and Reaction Specificity in the Acetoacetate Decarboxylase-like Superfamily

The acetoacetate decarboxylase-like superfamily (ADCSF) is a little-explored group of enzymes that may contain new biocatalysts. The low level of sequence identity (∼20%) between many ADCSF enzymes and the confirmed acetoacetate decarboxylases led us to investigate the degree of diversity in the reaction and substrate specificity of ADCSF enzymes. We have previously reported on Sbi00515, which belongs to Family V of the ADCSF and functions as an aldolase-dehydratase. Here, we more thoroughly characterize the substrate specificity of Sbi00515 and find that aromatic, unsaturated aldehydes yield lower K_M and higher k_cat values compared to those of other small electrophilic substrates in the condensation reaction. The roles of several active site residues were explored by site-directed mutagenesis and steady state kinetics. The lysine-glutamate catalytic dyad, conserved throughout the ADCSF, is required for catalysis. Tyrosine 252, which is unique to Sbi00515, is hypothesized to orient the incoming aldehyde in the condensation reaction. Transient state kinetics and an intermediate-bound crystal structure aid in completing a proposed mechanism for Sbi00515.

Features and structure of a cold active N-acetylneuraminate lyase

N-acetylneuraminate lyases (NALs) are enzymes that catalyze the reversible cleavage and synthesis of sialic acids. They are therefore commonly used for the production of these high-value sugars. This study presents the recombinant production, together with biochemical and structural data, of the NAL from the psychrophilic bacterium Aliivibrio salmonicida LFI1238 (AsNAL). Our characterization shows that AsNAL possesses high activity and stability at alkaline pH. We confirm that these properties allow for the use in a one-pot reaction at alkaline pH for the synthesis of N-acetylneuraminic acid (Neu5Ac, the most common sialic acid) from the inexpensive precursor N-acetylglucosamine. We also show that the enzyme has a cold active nature with an optimum temperature for Neu5Ac synthesis at 20°C. The equilibrium constant for the reaction was calculated at different temperatures, and the formation of Neu5Ac acid is favored at low temperatures, making the cold active enzyme a well-suited candidate for use in such exothermic reactions. The specific activity is high compared to the homologue from Escherichia coli at three tested temperatures, and the enzyme shows a higher catalytic efficiency and turnover number for cleavage at 37°C. Mutational studies reveal that amino acid residue Asn 168 is important for the high k_cat. The crystal structure of AsNAL was solved to 1.65 Å resolution and reveals a compact, tetrameric protein similar to other NAL structures. The data presented provides a framework to guide further optimization of its application in sialic acid production and opens the possibility for further design of the enzyme.

Crystal structures and kinetics of N-acetylneuraminate lyase from Fusobacterium nucleatum

N-Acetyl-D-neuraminic acid lyase (NanA) catalyzes the breakdown of sialic acid (Neu5Ac) to N-acetyl-D-mannosamine (ManNAc) and pyruvate. NanA plays a key role in Neu5Ac catabolism in many pathogenic and bacterial commensals where sialic acid is available as a carbon and nitrogen source. Several pathogens or commensals decorate their surfaces with sialic acids as a strategy to escape host innate immunity. Catabolism of sialic acid is key to a range of host-pathogen interactions. In this study, atomic resolution structures of NanA from Fusobacterium nucleatum (FnNanA) in ligand-free and ligand-bound forms are reported at 2.32 and 1.76 Å resolution, respectively. F. nucleatum is a Gram-negative pathogen that causes gingival and periodontal diseases in human hosts. Like other bacterial N-acetylneuraminate lyases, FnNanA also shares the triosephosphate isomerase (TIM)-barrel fold. As observed in other homologous enzymes, FnNanA forms a tetramer. In order to characterize the structure-function relationship, the steady-state kinetic parameters of the enzyme are also reported.

Molecular Characterization of a Novel N-Acetylneuraminate Lyase from a Deep-Sea Symbiotic Mycoplasma

N-acetylneuraminic acid (Neu5Ac) based novel pharmaceutical agents and diagnostic reagents are highly required in medical fields. However, N-acetylneuraminate lyase（NAL）for Neu5Ac synthesis is not applicable for industry due to its low catalytic efficiency. In this study, we biochemically characterized a deep-sea NAL enzyme (abbreviated form: MyNal) from a symbiotic Mycoplasma inhabiting the stomach of a deep-sea isopod, Bathynomus jamesi. Enzyme kinetic studies of MyNal showed that it exhibited a very low K_m for both cleavage and synthesis activities compared to previously described NALs. Though it favors the cleavage process, MyNal out-competes the known NALs with respect to the efficiency of Neu5Ac synthesis and exhibits the highest k_cat/K_m values. High expression levels of recombinant MyNal could be achieved (9.56 mol L⁻¹ culture) with a stable activity in a wide pH (5.0–9.0) and temperature (40–60 °C) range. All these features indicated that the deep-sea NAL has potential in the industrial production of Neu5Ac. Furthermore, we found that the amino acid 189 of MyNal (equivalent to Phe190 in Escherichia coli NAL), located in the sugar-binding domain, GX189DE, was also involved in conferring its enzymatic features. Therefore, the results of this study improved our understanding of the NALs from different environments and provided a model for protein engineering of NAL for biosynthesis of Neu5Ac.

In Vivo Multienzyme Complex Coconstruction of N-Acetylneuraminic Acid Lyase and N-Acetylglucosamine-2-epimerase for Biosynthesis of N-Acetylneuraminic Acid

Metabolic channeling enables efficient transfer of the intermediates by forming a multienzyme complex. To leverage the metabolic channeling for improved biosynthesis, we coexpressed N-acetylneuraminic acid lyase from C. glutamicum ATCC 13032 (CgNal) and N-acetylglucosamine-2-epimerase from Anabaena sp. CH1 (anAGE) in Escherichia coli and used the whole cell to synthesize N-acetylneuraminic acid (Neu5Ac) from N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc) and pyruvate. To get the multienzyme complex, polycistronic plasmid with high levels of CgNal and anAGE expression was constructed by tuning the orders of the genes. The Shine-Dalgarno (SD) sequence and aligned spacing (AS) distance were optimized. The E. coli Rosetta harboring the polycistronic plasmid pET-28a-SD₂-AS₁-CgNal-SD-AS-anAGE increased the production of Neu5Ac by 58.7% to 92.5 g/L in 36 h by whole-cell catalysis and by 21.9% up to 112.8 g/L in 24 h with the addition of Triton X-100.

Pathway optimization and key enzyme evolution of N-acetylneuraminate biosynthesis using an in vivo aptazyme-based biosensor

N-acetylneuraminate (NeuAc) biosynthesis has drawn much attention owing to its wide applications in many aspects. Previously, we engineered for the first time an artificial NeuAc biosynthetic pathway in Escherichia coli using glucose as sole substrate. However, rigorous requirements for the flux and cofactor balance make subsequent strain improvement rather difficult. In this study, an in vivo NeuAc biosensor was designed and applied for genetic screening the mutant library of NeuAc producer. Its NeuAc responsive manner was demonstrated using sfgfp as a reporter and a Ni²⁺-based selection system was developed to couple the cell growth with in vivo NeuAc concentration. Employing this selection system, the NeuAc biosynthesis pathway was optimized and the key enzyme NeuAc synthase was evolved, which improved the titer by 34% and 23%, respectively. The final strain produced up to 8.31g/L NeuAc in minimal medium using glucose as sole carbon source. This work demonstrated the effectiveness of NeuAc biosensor in genetic screening and great potential in metabolic engineering of other organisms.

Regiospecific synthesis of prenylated flavonoids by a prenyltransferase cloned from Fusarium oxysporum

Due to their impressive pharmaceutical activities and safety, prenylated flavonoids have a high potent to be applied as medicines and nutraceuticals. Biocatalysis is an effective technique to synthesize prenylated flavonoids. The major concern of this technique is that the microbe-derived prenyltransferases usually have poor regiospecificity and generate multiple prenylated products. In this work, a highly regiospecific prenyltransferase (FoPT1) was found from Fusarium oxysporum. It could recognize apigenin, naringenin, genistein, dihydrogenistein, kampferol, luteolin and hesperetin as substrates, and only 6-C-prenylated flavonoids were detected as the products. The catalytic efficiency of FoPT1 on flavonoids was in a decreasing order with hesperetin >naringenin >apigenin >genistein >luteolin >dihydrogenistein >kaempferol. Chalcones, flavanols and stilbenes were not active when acting as the substrates. 5,7-Dihydroxy and 4-carbonyl groups of flavonid were required for the catalysis. 2,3-Alkenyl was beneficial to the catalysis whereas 3-hydroxy impaired the prenylation reaction. Docking studies simulated the prenyl transfer reaction of FoPT1. E186 was involved in the formation of prenyl carbonium ion. E98, F89, F182, Y197 and E246 positioned apigenin for catalysis.