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Zhang Q, Lian D, Xu Z, Zhao S, Chen J, Dai D, Shi Y. Four directional circular optical phased array for uniform two-dimensional beam steering at visible wavelength. OPTICS EXPRESS 2025; 33:15954-15963. [PMID: 40219495 DOI: 10.1364/oe.559081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2025] [Accepted: 03/18/2025] [Indexed: 04/14/2025]
Abstract
Optical phased arrays (OPAs), owing to their remarkable capacity for rapid and precise beam steering, have emerged as a pivotal technology in various applications such as augmented reality, free-space optical communication, and optical imaging. In this paper, we present a 64-element two-dimensional (2D) circular OPA operating at a visible wavelength of 632.5 nm. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first time that 2D continuous beam steering with pure phase control has been realized at the visible wavelengths. We propose arrowhead antennas to reduce residual energy while maintaining the integrity of the far-field pattern. Furthermore, a four-directional array arrangement has been introduced to expand the field of view and enhance the uniformity of the side lobe suppression ratio (SLSR) at different azimuth angles. The measurement for the fabricated OPA shows 2D beam steering with an elevation angle of 9° and an azimuth angle of 360° with an SLSR of over 3 dB.
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Ahmed Taha B, Addie AJ, Saeed AQ, Haider AJ, Chaudhary V, Arsad N. Nanostructured Photonics Probes: A Transformative Approach in Neurotherapeutics and Brain Circuitry. Neuroscience 2024; 562:106-124. [PMID: 39490518 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2024.10.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2024] [Revised: 10/23/2024] [Accepted: 10/24/2024] [Indexed: 11/05/2024]
Abstract
Neuroprobes that use nanostructured photonic interfaces are capable of multimodal sensing, stimulation, and imaging with unprecedented spatio-temporal resolution. In addition to electrical recording, optogenetic modulation, high-resolution optical imaging, and molecular sensing, these advanced probes combine nanophotonic waveguides, optical transducers, nanostructured electrodes, and biochemical sensors. The potential of this technology lies in unraveling the mysteries of neural coding principles, mapping functional connectivity in complex brain circuits, and developing new therapeutic interventions for neurological disorders. Nevertheless, achieving the full potential of nanostructured photonic neural probes requires overcoming challenges such as ensuring long-term biocompatibility, integrating nanoscale components at high density, and developing robust data-analysis pipelines. In this review, we summarize and discuss the role of photonics in neural probes, trends in electrode diameter for neural interface technologies, nanophotonic technologies using nanostructured materials, advances in nanofabrication photonics interface engineering, and challenges and opportunities. Finally, interdisciplinary efforts are required to unlock the transformative potential of next-generation neuroscience therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bakr Ahmed Taha
- UKM-Department of Electrical, Electronic and Systems Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, UKM Bangi 43600, Malaysia.
| | - Ali J Addie
- Center of Industrial Applications and Materials Technology, Scientific Research Commission, Iraq
| | - Ali Q Saeed
- Computer Center / Northern Technical University, Iraq
| | - Adawiya J Haider
- Applied Sciences Department/Laser Science and Technology Branch, University of Technology, Iraq.
| | - Vishal Chaudhary
- Research Cell & Department of Physics, Bhagini Nivedita College, University of Delhi, New Delhi 110045, India; Centre for Research Impact & Outcome, Chitkara University, Punjab, 140401 India
| | - Norhana Arsad
- UKM-Department of Electrical, Electronic and Systems Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, UKM Bangi 43600, Malaysia.
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3
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Notaros M, Dyer T, Garcia Coleto A, Hattori A, Fealey K, Kruger S, Notaros J. Mechanically-flexible wafer-scale integrated-photonics fabrication platform. Sci Rep 2024; 14:10623. [PMID: 38724580 PMCID: PMC11082232 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-61055-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2023] [Accepted: 04/30/2024] [Indexed: 05/12/2024] Open
Abstract
The field of integrated photonics has advanced rapidly due to wafer-scale fabrication, with integrated-photonics platforms and fabrication processes being demonstrated at both infrared and visible wavelengths. However, these demonstrations have primarily focused on fabrication processes on silicon substrates that result in rigid photonic wafers and chips, which limit the potential application spaces. There are many application areas that would benefit from mechanically-flexible integrated-photonics wafers, such as wearable healthcare monitors and pliable displays. Although there have been demonstrations of mechanically-flexible photonics fabrication, they have been limited to fabrication processes on the individual device or chip scale, which limits scalability. In this paper, we propose, develop, and experimentally characterize the first 300-mm wafer-scale platform and fabrication process that results in mechanically-flexible photonic wafers and chips. First, we develop and describe the 300-mm wafer-scale CMOS-compatible flexible platform and fabrication process. Next, we experimentally demonstrate key optical functionality at visible wavelengths, including chip coupling, waveguide routing, and passive devices. Then, we perform a bend-durability study to characterize the mechanical flexibility of the photonic chips, demonstrating bending a single chip 2000 times down to a bend diameter of 0.5 inch with no degradation in the optical performance. Finally, we experimentally characterize polarization-rotation effects induced by bending the flexible photonic chips. This work will enable the field of integrated photonics to advance into new application areas that require flexible photonic chips.
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Affiliation(s)
- Milica Notaros
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Thomas Dyer
- New York Center for Research, Economic Advancement, Technology, Engineering, and Science, Albany, NY, 12203, USA
| | - Andres Garcia Coleto
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Ashton Hattori
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Kevin Fealey
- New York Center for Research, Economic Advancement, Technology, Engineering, and Science, Albany, NY, 12203, USA
| | - Seth Kruger
- New York Center for Research, Economic Advancement, Technology, Engineering, and Science, Albany, NY, 12203, USA
| | - Jelena Notaros
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA.
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Chen FD, Sharma A, Roszko DA, Xue T, Mu X, Luo X, Chua H, Lo PGQ, Sacher WD, Poon JKS. Development of wafer-scale multifunctional nanophotonic neural probes for brain activity mapping. LAB ON A CHIP 2024; 24:2397-2417. [PMID: 38623840 DOI: 10.1039/d3lc00931a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/17/2024]
Abstract
Optical techniques, such as optogenetic stimulation and functional fluorescence imaging, have been revolutionary for neuroscience by enabling neural circuit analysis with cell-type specificity. To probe deep brain regions, implantable light sources are crucial. Silicon photonics, commonly used for data communications, shows great promise in creating implantable devices with complex optical systems in a compact form factor compatible with high volume manufacturing practices. This article reviews recent developments of wafer-scale multifunctional nanophotonic neural probes. The probes can be realized on 200 or 300 mm wafers in commercial foundries and integrate light emitters for photostimulation, microelectrodes for electrophysiological recording, and microfluidic channels for chemical delivery and sampling. By integrating active optical devices to the probes, denser emitter arrays, enhanced on-chip biosensing, and increased ease of use may be realized. Silicon photonics technology makes possible highly versatile implantable neural probes that can transform neuroscience experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fu Der Chen
- Max Planck Institute of Microstructure Physics, Weinberg 2, 06120 Halle, Germany.
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Toronto, 10 King's College Road, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G4, Canada
| | - Ankita Sharma
- Max Planck Institute of Microstructure Physics, Weinberg 2, 06120 Halle, Germany.
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Toronto, 10 King's College Road, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G4, Canada
| | - David A Roszko
- Max Planck Institute of Microstructure Physics, Weinberg 2, 06120 Halle, Germany.
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Toronto, 10 King's College Road, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G4, Canada
| | - Tianyuan Xue
- Max Planck Institute of Microstructure Physics, Weinberg 2, 06120 Halle, Germany.
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Toronto, 10 King's College Road, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G4, Canada
| | - Xin Mu
- Max Planck Institute of Microstructure Physics, Weinberg 2, 06120 Halle, Germany.
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Toronto, 10 King's College Road, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G4, Canada
| | - Xianshu Luo
- Advanced Micro Foundry Pte Ltd, 11 Science Park Road, Singapore Science Park II, 117685, Singapore
| | - Hongyao Chua
- Advanced Micro Foundry Pte Ltd, 11 Science Park Road, Singapore Science Park II, 117685, Singapore
| | - Patrick Guo-Qiang Lo
- Advanced Micro Foundry Pte Ltd, 11 Science Park Road, Singapore Science Park II, 117685, Singapore
| | - Wesley D Sacher
- Max Planck Institute of Microstructure Physics, Weinberg 2, 06120 Halle, Germany.
| | - Joyce K S Poon
- Max Planck Institute of Microstructure Physics, Weinberg 2, 06120 Halle, Germany.
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Toronto, 10 King's College Road, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G4, Canada
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5
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Jia Q, Liu Y, Lv S, Wang Y, Jiao P, Xu W, Xu Z, Wang M, Cai X. Wireless closed-loop deep brain stimulation using microelectrode array probes. J Zhejiang Univ Sci B 2024; 25:803-823. [PMID: 39420519 PMCID: PMC11494161 DOI: 10.1631/jzus.b2300400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2023] [Accepted: 08/25/2023] [Indexed: 03/02/2024]
Abstract
Deep brain stimulation (DBS), including optical stimulation and electrical stimulation, has been demonstrated considerable value in exploring pathological brain activity and developing treatments for neural disorders. Advances in DBS microsystems based on implantable microelectrode array (MEA) probes have opened up new opportunities for closed-loop DBS (CL-DBS) in situ. This technology can be used to detect damaged brain circuits and test the therapeutic potential for modulating the output of these circuits in a variety of diseases simultaneously. Despite the success and rapid utilization of MEA probe-based CL-DBS microsystems, key challenges, including excessive wired communication, need to be urgently resolved. In this review, we considered recent advances in MEA probe-based wireless CL-DBS microsystems and outlined the major issues and promising prospects in this field. This technology has the potential to offer novel therapeutic options for psychiatric disorders in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qianli Jia
- State Key Laboratory of Transducer Technology, Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
- School of Electronic, Electrical and Communication Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Yaoyao Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Transducer Technology, Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
- School of Electronic, Electrical and Communication Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Shiya Lv
- State Key Laboratory of Transducer Technology, Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
- School of Electronic, Electrical and Communication Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Yiding Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Transducer Technology, Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
- School of Electronic, Electrical and Communication Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Peiyao Jiao
- State Key Laboratory of Transducer Technology, Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
- School of Electronic, Electrical and Communication Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Wei Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Transducer Technology, Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
- School of Electronic, Electrical and Communication Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Zhaojie Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Transducer Technology, Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
- School of Electronic, Electrical and Communication Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Mixia Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Transducer Technology, Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China.
- School of Electronic, Electrical and Communication Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China.
| | - Xinxia Cai
- State Key Laboratory of Transducer Technology, Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China. ,
- School of Electronic, Electrical and Communication Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China. ,
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Corato-Zanarella M, Ji X, Mohanty A, Lipson M. Absorption and scattering limits of silicon nitride integrated photonics in the visible spectrum. OPTICS EXPRESS 2024; 32:5718-5728. [PMID: 38439290 DOI: 10.1364/oe.505892] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2023] [Accepted: 11/27/2023] [Indexed: 03/06/2024]
Abstract
Visible-light photonic integrated circuits (PICs) promise scalability for technologies such as quantum information, biosensing, and scanning displays, yet extending large-scale silicon photonics to shorter wavelengths has been challenging due to the higher losses. Silicon nitride (SiN) has stood out as the leading platform for visible photonics, but the propagation losses strongly depend on the film's deposition and fabrication processes. Current loss measurement techniques cannot accurately distinguish between absorption and surface scattering, making it difficult to identify the dominant loss source and reach the platform's fundamental limit. Here we demonstrate an ultra-low loss, high-confinement SiN platform that approaches the limits of absorption and scattering across the visible spectrum. Leveraging the sensitivity of microresonators to loss, we probe and discriminate each loss contribution with unparalleled sensitivity, and derive their fundamental limits and scaling laws as a function of wavelength, film properties and waveguide parameters. Through the design of the waveguide cross-section, we show how to approach the absorption limit of the platform, and demonstrate the lowest propagation losses in high-confinement SiN to date across the visible spectrum. We envision that our techniques for loss characterization and minimization will contribute to the development of large-scale, dense PICs that redefine the loss limits of integrated platforms across the electromagnetic spectrum.
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7
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McKay E, Pruiti NG, May S, Sorel M. High-confinement alumina waveguides with sub-dB/cm propagation losses at 450 nm. Sci Rep 2023; 13:19917. [PMID: 37963923 PMCID: PMC10645771 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-46877-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2023] [Accepted: 11/06/2023] [Indexed: 11/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Amorphous alumina is highly transparent across the visible spectrum, making it a promising candidate for low-loss waveguiding at short wavelengths. However, previous alumina waveguide demonstrations in the visible region have focused on low- to moderate-confinement waveguides, where the diffuse mode reduces the design flexibility and integration density of photonic integrated circuits. Here, we have developed a high-quality etch mask and a highly selective BCl3 plasma etch, allowing etching of amorphous alumina waveguides up to 800 nm thick. Using this process, we have fabricated waveguides using an alumina film grown by atomic layer deposition (ALD) which are the lowest-loss high-confinement waveguides for blue light to date: we achieve single-mode propagation losses of 0.8 dB/cm at a propagation wavelength of 450 nm.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Marc Sorel
- University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
- Istituto di Tecnologie della Comunicazione, dell'Informazione e della Percezione, Pisa, Italy
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8
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Almasri RM, Ladouceur F, Mawad D, Esrafilzadeh D, Firth J, Lehmann T, Poole-Warren LA, Lovell NH, Al Abed A. Emerging trends in the development of flexible optrode arrays for electrophysiology. APL Bioeng 2023; 7:031503. [PMID: 37692375 PMCID: PMC10491464 DOI: 10.1063/5.0153753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2023] [Accepted: 08/08/2023] [Indexed: 09/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Optical-electrode (optrode) arrays use light to modulate excitable biological tissues and/or transduce bioelectrical signals into the optical domain. Light offers several advantages over electrical wiring, including the ability to encode multiple data channels within a single beam. This approach is at the forefront of innovation aimed at increasing spatial resolution and channel count in multichannel electrophysiology systems. This review presents an overview of devices and material systems that utilize light for electrophysiology recording and stimulation. The work focuses on the current and emerging methods and their applications, and provides a detailed discussion of the design and fabrication of flexible arrayed devices. Optrode arrays feature components non-existent in conventional multi-electrode arrays, such as waveguides, optical circuitry, light-emitting diodes, and optoelectronic and light-sensitive functional materials, packaged in planar, penetrating, or endoscopic forms. Often these are combined with dielectric and conductive structures and, less frequently, with multi-functional sensors. While creating flexible optrode arrays is feasible and necessary to minimize tissue-device mechanical mismatch, key factors must be considered for regulatory approval and clinical use. These include the biocompatibility of optical and photonic components. Additionally, material selection should match the operating wavelength of the specific electrophysiology application, minimizing light scattering and optical losses under physiologically induced stresses and strains. Flexible and soft variants of traditionally rigid photonic circuitry for passive optical multiplexing should be developed to advance the field. We evaluate fabrication techniques against these requirements. We foresee a future whereby established telecommunications techniques are engineered into flexible optrode arrays to enable unprecedented large-scale high-resolution electrophysiology systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reem M. Almasri
- Graduate School of Biomedical Engineering, UNSW, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | | | - Damia Mawad
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, UNSW, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Dorna Esrafilzadeh
- Graduate School of Biomedical Engineering, UNSW, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Josiah Firth
- Australian National Fabrication Facility, UNSW, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Torsten Lehmann
- School of Electrical Engineering and Telecommunications, UNSW, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | | | | | - Amr Al Abed
- Graduate School of Biomedical Engineering, UNSW, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
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9
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Mu X, Chen FD, Dang KM, Brunk MGK, Li J, Wahn H, Stalmashonak A, Ding P, Luo X, Chua H, Lo GQ, Poon JKS, Sacher WD. Implantable photonic neural probes with 3D-printed microfluidics and applications to uncaging. Front Neurosci 2023; 17:1213265. [PMID: 37521687 PMCID: PMC10373094 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2023.1213265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2023] [Accepted: 06/13/2023] [Indexed: 08/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Advances in chip-scale photonic-electronic integration are enabling a new generation of foundry-manufacturable implantable silicon neural probes incorporating nanophotonic waveguides and microelectrodes for optogenetic stimulation and electrophysiological recording in neuroscience research. Further extending neural probe functionalities with integrated microfluidics is a direct approach to achieve neurochemical injection and sampling capabilities. In this work, we use two-photon polymerization 3D printing to integrate microfluidic channels onto photonic neural probes, which include silicon nitride nanophotonic waveguides and grating emitters. The customizability of 3D printing enables a unique geometry of microfluidics that conforms to the shape of each neural probe, enabling integration of microfluidics with a variety of existing neural probes while avoiding the complexities of monolithic microfluidics integration. We demonstrate the photonic and fluidic functionalities of the neural probes via fluorescein injection in agarose gel and photoloysis of caged fluorescein in solution and in fixed brain tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Mu
- Max Planck Institute of Microstructure Physics, Halle, Germany
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Fu-Der Chen
- Max Planck Institute of Microstructure Physics, Halle, Germany
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Max Planck-University of Toronto Centre for Neural Science and Technology, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Ka My Dang
- Max Planck Institute of Microstructure Physics, Halle, Germany
- Max Planck-University of Toronto Centre for Neural Science and Technology, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Michael G. K. Brunk
- Max Planck Institute of Microstructure Physics, Halle, Germany
- Max Planck-University of Toronto Centre for Neural Science and Technology, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Jianfeng Li
- Max Planck Institute of Microstructure Physics, Halle, Germany
- Max Planck-University of Toronto Centre for Neural Science and Technology, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Hannes Wahn
- Max Planck Institute of Microstructure Physics, Halle, Germany
| | | | - Peisheng Ding
- Max Planck Institute of Microstructure Physics, Halle, Germany
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Xianshu Luo
- Advanced Micro Foundry Pte. Ltd., Singapore, Singapore
| | - Hongyao Chua
- Advanced Micro Foundry Pte. Ltd., Singapore, Singapore
| | - Guo-Qiang Lo
- Advanced Micro Foundry Pte. Ltd., Singapore, Singapore
| | - Joyce K. S. Poon
- Max Planck Institute of Microstructure Physics, Halle, Germany
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Max Planck-University of Toronto Centre for Neural Science and Technology, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Wesley D. Sacher
- Max Planck Institute of Microstructure Physics, Halle, Germany
- Max Planck-University of Toronto Centre for Neural Science and Technology, Toronto, ON, Canada
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Chen S, Huang J, Yin S, Milosevic MM, Pi H, Yan J, Chong HMH, Fang X. Metasurfaces integrated with a single-mode waveguide array for off-chip wavefront shaping. OPTICS EXPRESS 2023; 31:15876-15887. [PMID: 37157678 DOI: 10.1364/oe.488959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Integration of metasurfaces and SOI (silicon-on-insulator) chips can leverage the advantages of both metamaterials and silicon photonics, enabling novel light shaping functionalities in planar, compact devices that are compatible with CMOS (complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor) production. To facilitate light extraction from a two-dimensional metasurface vertically into free space, the established approach is to use a wide waveguide. However, the multi-modal feature of such wide waveguides can render the device vulnerable to mode distortion. Here, we propose a different approach, where an array of narrow, single-mode waveguides is used instead of a wide, multi-mode waveguide. This approach tolerates nano-scatterers with a relatively high scattering efficiency, for example Si nanopillars that are in direct contact with the waveguides. Two example devices are designed and numerically studied as demonstrations: the first being a beam deflector that deflects light into the same direction regardless of the direction of input light, and the second being a light-focusing metalens. This work shows a straightforward approach of metasurface-SOI chip integration, which could be useful for emerging applications such as metalens arrays and neural probes that require off-chip light shaping from relatively small metasurfaces.
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Customizable, wireless and implantable neural probe design and fabrication via 3D printing. Nat Protoc 2023; 18:3-21. [PMID: 36271159 PMCID: PMC10059091 DOI: 10.1038/s41596-022-00758-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2021] [Accepted: 07/07/2022] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
This Protocol Extension describes the low-cost production of rapidly customizable optical neural probes for in vivo optogenetics. We detail the use of a 3D printer to fabricate minimally invasive microscale inorganic light-emitting-diode-based neural probes that can control neural circuit activity in freely behaving animals, thus extending the scope of two previously published protocols describing the fabrication and implementation of optoelectronic devices for studying intact neural systems. The 3D-printing fabrication process does not require extensive training and eliminates the need for expensive materials, specialized cleanroom facilities and time-consuming microfabrication techniques typical of conventional manufacturing processes. As a result, the design of the probes can be quickly optimized, on the basis of experimental need, reducing the cost and turnaround for customization. For example, 3D-printed probes can be customized to target multiple brain regions or scaled up for use in large animal models. This protocol comprises three procedures: (1) probe fabrication, (2) wireless module preparation and (3) implantation for in vivo assays. For experienced researchers, neural probe and wireless module fabrication requires ~2 d, while implantation should take 30-60 min per animal. Time required for behavioral assays will vary depending on the experimental design and should include at least 5 d of animal handling before implantation of the probe, to familiarize each animal to their handler, thus reducing handling stress that may influence the result of the behavioral assays. The implementation of customized probes improves the flexibility in optogenetic experimental design and increases access to wireless probes for in vivo optogenetic research.
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12
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Hsieh PY, Fang SL, Lin YS, Huang WH, Shieh JM, Yu P, Chang YC. Integrated metasurfaces on silicon photonics for emission shaping and holographic projection. NANOPHOTONICS (BERLIN, GERMANY) 2022; 11:4687-4695. [PMID: 39634746 PMCID: PMC11501560 DOI: 10.1515/nanoph-2022-0344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2022] [Accepted: 10/10/2022] [Indexed: 12/07/2024]
Abstract
The emerging applications of silicon photonics in free space, such as LiDARs, free-space optical communications, and quantum photonics, urge versatile emission shaping beyond the capabilities of conventional grating couplers. In these applications, silicon photonic chips deliver free-space emission to detect or manipulate external objects. Light needs to emit from a silicon photonic chip to the free space with specific spatial modes, which produce focusing, collimation, orbital angular momentum, or even holographic projection. A platform that offers versatile shaping of free-space emission, while maintaining the CMOS compatibility and monolithic integration of silicon photonics is in pressing need. Here we demonstrate a platform that integrates metasurfaces monolithically on silicon photonic integrated circuits. The metasurfaces consist of amorphous silicon nanopillars evanescently coupled to silicon waveguides. We demonstrate experimentally diffraction-limited beam focusing with a Strehl ratio of 0.82. The focused spot can be switched between two positions by controlling the excitation direction. We also realize a meta-hologram experimentally that projects an image above the silicon photonic chip. This platform can add a highly versatile interface to the existing silicon photonic ecosystems for precise delivery of free-space emission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ping-Yen Hsieh
- Department of Photonics, College of Electrical and Computer Engineering, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu30010, Taiwan
| | - Shun-Lin Fang
- Department of Photonics, College of Electrical and Computer Engineering, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu30010, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Siang Lin
- Department of Photonics, College of Electrical and Computer Engineering, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu30010, Taiwan
| | - Wen-Hsien Huang
- Taiwan Semiconductor Research Institute, Hsinchu30078, Taiwan
| | - Jia-Min Shieh
- Department of Photonics, College of Electrical and Computer Engineering, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu30010, Taiwan
- Taiwan Semiconductor Research Institute, Hsinchu30078, Taiwan
| | - Peichen Yu
- Department of Photonics, College of Electrical and Computer Engineering, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu30010, Taiwan
| | - You-Chia Chang
- Department of Photonics, College of Electrical and Computer Engineering, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu30010, Taiwan
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13
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Free-Space Applications of Silicon Photonics: A Review. MICROMACHINES 2022; 13:mi13070990. [PMID: 35888807 PMCID: PMC9322159 DOI: 10.3390/mi13070990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2022] [Revised: 06/22/2022] [Accepted: 06/23/2022] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Silicon photonics has recently expanded its applications to delivering free-space emissions for detecting or manipulating external objects. The most notable example is the silicon optical phased array, which can steer a free-space beam to achieve a chip-scale solid-state LiDAR. Other examples include free-space optical communication, quantum photonics, imaging systems, and optogenetic probes. In contrast to the conventional optical system consisting of bulk optics, silicon photonics miniaturizes an optical system into a photonic chip with many functional waveguiding components. By leveraging the mature and monolithic CMOS process, silicon photonics enables high-volume production, scalability, reconfigurability, and parallelism. In this paper, we review the recent advances in beam steering technologies based on silicon photonics, including optical phased arrays, focal plane arrays, and dispersive grating diffraction. Various beam-shaping technologies for generating collimated, focused, Bessel, and vortex beams are also discussed. We conclude with an outlook of the promises and challenges for the free-space applications of silicon photonics.
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Notaros M, Dyer T, Raval M, Baiocco C, Notaros J, Watts MR. Integrated visible-light liquid-crystal-based phase modulators. OPTICS EXPRESS 2022; 30:13790-13801. [PMID: 35472984 DOI: 10.1364/oe.454494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2022] [Accepted: 03/28/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
In this work, an integrated liquid-crystal-based phase modulator operating at visible wavelengths was developed and experimentally demonstrated. A visible-light silicon-nitride-based 300-mm-wafer foundry platform and a liquid-crystal integration process were developed to leverage the birefringence of liquid crystal to actively tune the effective index of a section of silicon-nitride waveguide and induce a phase shift over its length. The device was experimentally shown to achieve a 41π phase shift within 4.8 Vpp for a 500-µm-long modulator, which means that a 2π phase shifter would need to be only 24.4 µm long. This device is a compact and low-power solution to the challenge of integrated phase modulation in silicon nitride and paves the way for future low-power small-form-factor integrated systems at visible wavelengths.
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15
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Enhanced photonics devices based on low temperature plasma-deposited dichlorosilane-based ultra-silicon-rich nitride (Si 8N). Sci Rep 2022; 12:5267. [PMID: 35347190 PMCID: PMC8960789 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-09227-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2021] [Accepted: 03/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Ultra-silicon-rich nitride with refractive indices ~ 3 possesses high nonlinear refractive index-100× higher than stoichiometric silicon nitride and presents absence of two-photon absorption, making it attractive to be used in nonlinear integrated optics at telecommunications wavelengths. Despite its excellent nonlinear properties, ultra-silicon-rich nitride photonics devices reported so far still have fairly low quality factors of [Formula: see text], which could be mainly attributed by the material absorption bonds. Here, we report low temperature plasma-deposited dichlorosilane-based ultra-silicon-rich nitride (Si8N) with lower material absorption bonds, and ~ 2.5× higher quality factors compared to ultra-silicon-rich nitride conventionally prepared with silane-based chemistry. This material is found to be highly rich in silicon with refractive indices of ~ 3.12 at telecommunications wavelengths and atomic concentration ratio Si:N of ~ 8:1. The material morphology, surface roughness and binding energies are also investigated. Optically, the material absorption bonds are quantified and show an overall reduction. Ring resonators fabricated exhibit improved intrinsic quality factors [Formula: see text], ~ 2.5× higher compared to conventional silane-based ultra-silicon-rich nitride films. This enhanced quality factor from plasma-deposited dichlorosilane-based ultra-silicon-rich nitride signifies better photonics device performance using these films. A pathway has been opened up for further improved device performance of ultra-silicon-rich nitride photonics devices at material level tailored by choice of different chemistries.
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16
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Nazempour R, Zhang B, Ye Z, Yin L, Lv X, Sheng X. Emerging Applications of Optical Fiber-Based Devices for Brain Research. ADVANCED FIBER MATERIALS 2022; 4:24-42. [DOI: 10.1007/s42765-021-00092-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2021] [Accepted: 07/01/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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17
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Lin Y, Mak JCC, Chen H, Mu X, Stalmashonak A, Jung Y, Luo X, Lo PGQ, Sacher WD, Poon JKS. Low-loss broadband bi-layer edge couplers for visible light. OPTICS EXPRESS 2021; 29:34565-34576. [PMID: 34809243 DOI: 10.1364/oe.435669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2021] [Accepted: 09/13/2021] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Low-loss broadband fiber-to-chip coupling is currently challenging for visible-light photonic-integrated circuits (PICs) that need both high confinement waveguides for high-density integration and a minimum feature size above foundry lithographical limit. Here, we demonstrate bi-layer silicon nitride (SiN) edge couplers that have ≤ 4 dB/facet coupling loss with the Nufern S405-XP fiber over a broad optical wavelength range from 445 to 640 nm. The design uses a thin layer of SiN to expand the mode at the facet and adiabatically transfers the input light into a high-confinement single-mode waveguide (150-nm thick) for routing, while keeping the minimum nominal lithographic feature size at 150 nm. The achieved fiber-to-chip coupling loss is about 3 to 5 dB lower than that of single-layer designs with the same waveguide confinement and minimum feature size limitation.
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18
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Lanzio V, Telian G, Koshelev A, Micheletti P, Presti G, D’Arpa E, De Martino P, Lorenzon M, Denes P, West M, Sassolini S, Dhuey S, Adesnik H, Cabrini S. Small footprint optoelectrodes using ring resonators for passive light localization. MICROSYSTEMS & NANOENGINEERING 2021; 7:40. [PMID: 34567754 PMCID: PMC8433201 DOI: 10.1038/s41378-021-00263-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2020] [Revised: 02/16/2021] [Accepted: 03/30/2021] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
The combination of electrophysiology and optogenetics enables the exploration of how the brain operates down to a single neuron and its network activity. Neural probes are in vivo invasive devices that integrate sensors and stimulation sites to record and manipulate neuronal activity with high spatiotemporal resolution. State-of-the-art probes are limited by tradeoffs involving their lateral dimension, number of sensors, and ability to access independent stimulation sites. Here, we realize a highly scalable probe that features three-dimensional integration of small-footprint arrays of sensors and nanophotonic circuits to scale the density of sensors per cross-section by one order of magnitude with respect to state-of-the-art devices. For the first time, we overcome the spatial limit of the nanophotonic circuit by coupling only one waveguide to numerous optical ring resonators as passive nanophotonic switches. With this strategy, we achieve accurate on-demand light localization while avoiding spatially demanding bundles of waveguides and demonstrate the feasibility with a proof-of-concept device and its scalability towards high-resolution and low-damage neural optoelectrodes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vittorino Lanzio
- The Molecular Foundry, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720 USA
- Department of Applied Science and Technology, Politecnico di Torino, Torino, 10129 Italy
| | - Gregory Telian
- Adesnik Lab, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720 USA
| | | | - Paolo Micheletti
- Department of Applied Science and Technology, Politecnico di Torino, Torino, 10129 Italy
| | - Gianni Presti
- The Molecular Foundry, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720 USA
| | - Elisa D’Arpa
- Department of Applied Science and Technology, Politecnico di Torino, Torino, 10129 Italy
| | - Paolo De Martino
- Department of Applied Science and Technology, Politecnico di Torino, Torino, 10129 Italy
| | - Monica Lorenzon
- The Molecular Foundry, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720 USA
| | - Peter Denes
- Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, (LBNL), Berkeley, CA 94720 USA
| | - Melanie West
- The Molecular Foundry, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720 USA
| | - Simone Sassolini
- The Molecular Foundry, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720 USA
| | - Scott Dhuey
- The Molecular Foundry, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720 USA
| | - Hillel Adesnik
- Adesnik Lab, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720 USA
| | - Stefano Cabrini
- The Molecular Foundry, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720 USA
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19
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Hoque MM, Abdelazim H, Jenkins-Houk C, Wright D, Patel BM, Chappell JC. The cerebral microvasculature: Basic and clinical perspectives on stroke and glioma. Microcirculation 2021; 28:e12671. [PMID: 33171539 PMCID: PMC11064683 DOI: 10.1111/micc.12671] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2020] [Revised: 10/13/2020] [Accepted: 11/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Microvascular networks are vital components of the cardiovascular system, performing many key roles in maintaining the health and homeostasis of the tissues and organs in which they develop. As discussed in this review, the molecular and cellular components within the microcirculation orchestrate critical processes to establish functional capillary beds, including organization of endothelial cell (EC) polarity, guiding investment of vascular pericytes (PCs), and building the specialized extracellular matrix (ECM) that comprises the vascular basement membrane (vBM). Herein, we further discuss the unique features of the microvasculature in the central nervous system (CNS), focusing on the cells contributing to the neurovascular unit (NVU) that form and maintain the blood-brain barrier (BBB). With a focus on vascular PCs, we offer basic and clinical perspectives on neurovascular-related pathologies that involve defects within the cerebral microvasculature. Specifically, we present microvascular anomalies associated with glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) including defects in vascular-immune cell interactions and associated clinical therapies targeting microvessels (ie, vascular-disrupting/anti-angiogenic agents and focused ultrasound). We also discuss the involvement of the microcirculation in stroke responses and potential therapeutic approaches. Our goal was to compare the cellular and molecular changes that occur in the microvasculature and NVU, and to provide a commentary on factors driving disease progression in GBM and stroke. We conclude with a forward-looking perspective on the importance of microcirculation research in developing clinical treatments for these devastating conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maruf M. Hoque
- Center for Heart and Reparative Medicine Research, Fralin Biomedical Research Institute at Virginia Tech-Carilion, Roanoke, VA 24016, USA
- Graduate Program in Translational Biology, Medicine and Health, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
| | - Hanaa Abdelazim
- Center for Heart and Reparative Medicine Research, Fralin Biomedical Research Institute at Virginia Tech-Carilion, Roanoke, VA 24016, USA
- Graduate Program in Translational Biology, Medicine and Health, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
| | | | - Dawn Wright
- Virginia Tech Carilion School of Medicine, Roanoke, VA, 24016, USA
| | - Biraj M. Patel
- Virginia Tech Carilion School of Medicine, Roanoke, VA, 24016, USA
- Department of Radiology, Carilion Clinic, Roanoke, VA, 24016, USA
| | - John C. Chappell
- Center for Heart and Reparative Medicine Research, Fralin Biomedical Research Institute at Virginia Tech-Carilion, Roanoke, VA 24016, USA
- Virginia Tech Carilion School of Medicine, Roanoke, VA, 24016, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering and Mechanics, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
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20
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Sacher WD, Chen FD, Moradi-Chameh H, Luo X, Fomenko A, Shah PT, Lordello T, Liu X, Almog IF, Straguzzi JN, Fowler TM, Jung Y, Hu T, Jeong J, Lozano AM, Lo PGQ, Valiante TA, Moreaux LC, Poon JKS, Roukes ML. Implantable photonic neural probes for light-sheet fluorescence brain imaging. NEUROPHOTONICS 2021; 8:025003. [PMID: 33898636 PMCID: PMC8059764 DOI: 10.1117/1.nph.8.2.025003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2020] [Accepted: 03/04/2021] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Significance: Light-sheet fluorescence microscopy (LSFM) is a powerful technique for high-speed volumetric functional imaging. However, in typical light-sheet microscopes, the illumination and collection optics impose significant constraints upon the imaging of non-transparent brain tissues. We demonstrate that these constraints can be surmounted using a new class of implantable photonic neural probes. Aim: Mass manufacturable, silicon-based light-sheet photonic neural probes can generate planar patterned illumination at arbitrary depths in brain tissues without any additional micro-optic components. Approach: We develop implantable photonic neural probes that generate light sheets in tissue. The probes were fabricated in a photonics foundry on 200-mm-diameter silicon wafers. The light sheets were characterized in fluorescein and in free space. The probe-enabled imaging approach was tested in fixed, in vitro, and in vivo mouse brain tissues. Imaging tests were also performed using fluorescent beads suspended in agarose. Results: The probes had 5 to 10 addressable sheets and average sheet thicknesses < 16 μ m for propagation distances up to 300 μ m in free space. Imaging areas were as large as ≈ 240 μ m × 490 μ m in brain tissue. Image contrast was enhanced relative to epifluorescence microscopy. Conclusions: The neural probes can lead to new variants of LSFM for deep brain imaging and experiments in freely moving animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wesley D. Sacher
- California Institute of Technology, Division of Physics, Mathematics, and Astronomy, Pasadena, California, United States
- Kavli Nanoscience Institute, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, United States
- University of Toronto, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Max Planck Institute of Microstructure Physics, Halle, Germany
- Address all correspondence to Wesley D. Sacher, ; Michael L. Roukes,
| | - Fu-Der Chen
- University of Toronto, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Homeira Moradi-Chameh
- University Health Network, Krembil Research Institute, Division of Clinical and Computational Neuroscience, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | | | - Anton Fomenko
- University Health Network, Krembil Research Institute, Division of Clinical and Computational Neuroscience, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Prajay T. Shah
- University Health Network, Krembil Research Institute, Division of Clinical and Computational Neuroscience, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Thomas Lordello
- University of Toronto, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Xinyu Liu
- California Institute of Technology, Division of Physics, Mathematics, and Astronomy, Pasadena, California, United States
| | - Ilan Felts Almog
- University of Toronto, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | | | - Trevor M. Fowler
- California Institute of Technology, Division of Physics, Mathematics, and Astronomy, Pasadena, California, United States
| | - Youngho Jung
- University of Toronto, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Max Planck Institute of Microstructure Physics, Halle, Germany
| | - Ting Hu
- Agency for Science Technology and Research (A*STAR), Institute of Microelectronics, Singapore
| | - Junho Jeong
- University of Toronto, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Andres M. Lozano
- University Health Network, Krembil Research Institute, Division of Clinical and Computational Neuroscience, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- University of Toronto, Toronto Western Hospital, Division of Neurosurgery, Department of Surgery, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | | | - Taufik A. Valiante
- University of Toronto, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- University Health Network, Krembil Research Institute, Division of Clinical and Computational Neuroscience, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- University of Toronto, Toronto Western Hospital, Division of Neurosurgery, Department of Surgery, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- University of Toronto, Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Laurent C. Moreaux
- California Institute of Technology, Division of Physics, Mathematics, and Astronomy, Pasadena, California, United States
| | - Joyce K. S. Poon
- University of Toronto, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Max Planck Institute of Microstructure Physics, Halle, Germany
| | - Michael L. Roukes
- California Institute of Technology, Division of Physics, Mathematics, and Astronomy, Pasadena, California, United States
- Kavli Nanoscience Institute, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, United States
- Address all correspondence to Wesley D. Sacher, ; Michael L. Roukes,
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21
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Gundelach LA, Hüser MA, Beutner D, Ruther P, Bruegmann T. Towards the clinical translation of optogenetic skeletal muscle stimulation. Pflugers Arch 2020; 472:527-545. [PMID: 32415463 PMCID: PMC7239821 DOI: 10.1007/s00424-020-02387-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2020] [Revised: 03/05/2020] [Accepted: 04/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Paralysis is a frequent phenomenon in many diseases, and to date, only functional electrical stimulation (FES) mediated via the innervating nerve can be employed to restore skeletal muscle function in patients. Despite recent progress, FES has several technical limitations and significant side effects. Optogenetic stimulation has been proposed as an alternative, as it may circumvent some of the disadvantages of FES enabling cell type–specific, spatially and temporally precise stimulation of cells expressing light-gated ion channels, commonly Channelrhodopsin2. Two distinct approaches for the restoration of skeletal muscle function with optogenetics have been demonstrated: indirect optogenetic stimulation through the innervating nerve similar to FES and direct optogenetic stimulation of the skeletal muscle. Although both approaches show great promise, both have their limitations and there are several general hurdles that need to be overcome for their translation into clinics. These include successful gene transfer, sustained optogenetic protein expression, and the creation of optically active implantable devices. Herein, a comprehensive summary of the underlying mechanisms of electrical and optogenetic approaches is provided. With this knowledge in mind, we substantiate a detailed discussion of the advantages and limitations of each method. Furthermore, the obstacles in the way of clinical translation of optogenetic stimulation are discussed, and suggestions on how they could be overcome are provided. Finally, four specific examples of pathologies demanding novel therapeutic measures are discussed with a focus on the likelihood of direct versus indirect optogenetic stimulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lili A Gundelach
- Institute of Cardiovascular Physiology, University Medical Center, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Marc A Hüser
- Institute of Cardiovascular Physiology, University Medical Center, Göttingen, Germany
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, University Medical Center, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Dirk Beutner
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, University Medical Center, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Patrick Ruther
- Microsystem Materials Laboratory, Department of Microsystems Engineering (IMTEK), University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- BrainLinks-BrainTools Cluster of Excellence at the University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Tobias Bruegmann
- Institute of Cardiovascular Physiology, University Medical Center, Göttingen, Germany.
- DZHK e.V. (German Center for Cardiovascular Research), Partner Site Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany.
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22
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Chul Shin M, Mohanty A, Watson K, Bhatt GR, Phare CT, Miller SA, Zadka M, Lee BS, Ji X, Datta I, Lipson M. Chip-scale blue light phased array. OPTICS LETTERS 2020; 45:1934-1937. [PMID: 32236036 DOI: 10.1364/ol.385201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2019] [Accepted: 02/14/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Compact beam steering in the visible spectral range is required for a wide range of emerging applications, such as augmented and virtual reality displays, optical traps for quantum information processing, biological sensing, and stimulation. Optical phased arrays (OPAs) can shape and steer light to enable these applications with no moving parts on a compact chip. However, OPA demonstrations have been mainly limited to the near-infrared spectral range due to the fabrication and material challenges imposed by the shorter wavelengths. Here, we demonstrate the first chip-scale phased array operating at blue wavelengths (488 nm) using a high-confinement silicon nitride platform. We use a sparse aperiodic emitter layout to mitigate fabrication constraints at this short wavelength and achieve wide-angle beam steering over a 50° field of view with a full width at half-maximum beam size of 0.17°. Large-scale integration of this platform paves the way for fully reconfigurable chip-scale three-dimensional volumetric light projection across the entire visible range.
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23
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Mohanty A, Li Q, Tadayon MA, Roberts SP, Bhatt GR, Shim E, Ji X, Cardenas J, Miller SA, Kepecs A, Lipson M. Reconfigurable nanophotonic silicon probes for sub-millisecond deep-brain optical stimulation. Nat Biomed Eng 2020; 4:223-231. [PMID: 32051578 DOI: 10.1038/s41551-020-0516-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2018] [Accepted: 01/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The use of nanophotonics to rapidly and precisely reconfigure light beams for the optical stimulation of neurons in vivo has remained elusive. Here we report the design and fabrication of an implantable silicon-based probe that can switch and route multiple optical beams to stimulate identified sets of neurons across cortical layers and simultaneously record the produced spike patterns. Each switch in the device consists of a silicon nitride waveguide structure that can be rapidly (<20 μs) reconfigured by electrically tuning the phase of light. By using an eight-beam probe, we show in anaesthetized mice that small groups of single neurons can be independently stimulated to produce multineuron spike patterns at sub-millisecond precision. We also show that a probe integrating co-fabricated electrical recording sites can simultaneously optically stimulate and electrically measure deep-brain neural activity. The technology is scalable, and it allows for beam focusing and steering and for structured illumination via beam shaping. The high-bandwidth optical-stimulation capacity of the device might facilitate the probing of the spatiotemporal neural codes underlying behaviour.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aseema Mohanty
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA.,School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Qian Li
- Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, New York, NY, USA.,Department of Neuroscience, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | | | - Samantha P Roberts
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Gaurang R Bhatt
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Euijae Shim
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Xingchen Ji
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA.,School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Jaime Cardenas
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA.,Institute of Optics, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - Steven A Miller
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Adam Kepecs
- Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, New York, NY, USA. .,Department of Neuroscience, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA. .,Department of Psychiatry, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA.
| | - Michal Lipson
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA.
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24
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Sacher WD, Luo X, Yang Y, Chen FD, Lordello T, Mak JCC, Liu X, Hu T, Xue T, Guo-Qiang Lo P, Roukes ML, Poon JKS. Visible-light silicon nitride waveguide devices and implantable neurophotonic probes on thinned 200 mm silicon wafers. OPTICS EXPRESS 2019; 27:37400-37418. [PMID: 31878521 PMCID: PMC7046040 DOI: 10.1364/oe.27.037400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
We present passive, visible light silicon nitride waveguides fabricated on ≈ 100 µm thick 200 mm silicon wafers using deep ultraviolet lithography. The best-case propagation losses of single-mode waveguides were ≤ 2.8 dB/cm and ≤ 1.9 dB/cm over continuous wavelength ranges of 466-550 nm and 552-648 nm, respectively. In-plane waveguide crossings and multimode interference power splitters are also demonstrated. Using this platform, we realize a proof-of-concept implantable neurophotonic probe for optogenetic stimulation of rodent brains. The probe has grating coupler emitters defined on a 4 mm long, 92 µm thick shank and operates over a wide wavelength range of 430-645 nm covering the excitation spectra of multiple opsins and fluorophores used for brain stimulation and imaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wesley D. Sacher
- Division of Physics, Mathematics, and Astronomy, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, USA
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Toronto, 10 King’s College Rd., Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G4, Canada
- Max Planck Institute of Microstructure Physics, Weinberg 2, 06120, Halle, Germany
| | - Xianshu Luo
- Advanced Micro Foundry Pte Ltd, 11 Science Park Road, Singapore Science Park II, 117685, Singapore
| | - Yisu Yang
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Toronto, 10 King’s College Rd., Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G4, Canada
| | - Fu-Der Chen
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Toronto, 10 King’s College Rd., Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G4, Canada
| | - Thomas Lordello
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Toronto, 10 King’s College Rd., Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G4, Canada
| | - Jason C. C. Mak
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Toronto, 10 King’s College Rd., Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G4, Canada
- Max Planck Institute of Microstructure Physics, Weinberg 2, 06120, Halle, Germany
| | - Xinyu Liu
- Division of Physics, Mathematics, and Astronomy, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, USA
| | - Ting Hu
- Institute of Microelectronics, A*STAR (Agency for Science, Technology and Research), 11 Science Park Road, Singapore Science Park 11, 117685, Singapore
| | - Tianyuan Xue
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Toronto, 10 King’s College Rd., Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G4, Canada
| | - Patrick Guo-Qiang Lo
- Advanced Micro Foundry Pte Ltd, 11 Science Park Road, Singapore Science Park II, 117685, Singapore
| | - Michael L. Roukes
- Division of Physics, Mathematics, and Astronomy, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, USA
| | - Joyce K. S. Poon
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Toronto, 10 King’s College Rd., Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G4, Canada
- Max Planck Institute of Microstructure Physics, Weinberg 2, 06120, Halle, Germany
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25
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Choi J, Taal AJ, Pollmann EH, Lee C, Kim K, Moreaux LC, Roukes ML, Shepard KL. A 512-Pixel, 51-kHz-Frame-Rate, Dual-Shank, Lens-less, Filter-less Single Photon Avalanche Diode CMOS Neural Imaging Probe. IEEE JOURNAL OF SOLID-STATE CIRCUITS 2019; 54:2957-2968. [PMID: 31798187 PMCID: PMC6886722 DOI: 10.1109/jssc.2019.2941529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
We present an implantable single photon shank-based imager, monolithically integrated onto a single CMOS IC. The imager comprises of 512 single photon avalanche diodes distributed along two shanks, with a 6-bit depth in-pixel memory and an on-chip digital-to-time converter. To scale down the system to a minimally invasive form factor, we substitute optical filtering and focusing elements with a time-gated, angle-sensitive detection system. The imager computationally reconstructs the position of fluorescent sources within a three-dimensional volume of 3.4 mm × 600 µm × 400 µm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaebin Choi
- Electrical Engineering Department, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Adriaan J Taal
- Electrical Engineering Department, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Eric H Pollmann
- Electrical Engineering Department, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Changhyuk Lee
- Brain Science Institute, Korea Institute of Science and Technology, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Kukjoo Kim
- Electronics and Telecommunications Research Institute, Daejeon, South Korea
| | | | | | - Kenneth L Shepard
- Bioelectronic Systems Laboratories, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
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Sun S, Zhang G, Cheng Z, Gan W, Cui M. Large-scale femtosecond holography for near simultaneous optogenetic neural modulation. OPTICS EXPRESS 2019; 27:32228-32234. [PMID: 31684439 PMCID: PMC7045872 DOI: 10.1364/oe.27.032228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
For better understanding of brain functions, optogenetic neural modulation has been widely employed in neural science research. For deep tissue in vivo applications, large-scale two-photon based near simultaneous 3D laser excitation is needed. Although 3D holographic laser excitation is nowadays common practice, the inherent short coherence length of the commonly used femtosecond pulses fundamentally restricts the achievable field-of-view. Here we report a technique for near simultaneous large-scale femtosecond holographic 3D excitation. Specifically, we achieved two-photon excitation over 1.3 mm field-of-view within 1.3 milliseconds, which is sufficiently fast even for spike timing recording. The method is scalable and compatible with the commonly used two-photon sources and imaging systems in neuroscience research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiyi Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Modern Optical Instrumentation, Department of Optical Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
- Bindley Bioscience Center, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Guangle Zhang
- Center for Magnetic Resonance Research, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - Zongyue Cheng
- Bindley Bioscience Center, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
- Institute of Life Science and School of Life Science, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330031, China
- Skirball Institute, Department of Neuroscience and Physiology, Department of Anesthesiology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016, USA
| | - Wenbiao Gan
- Skirball Institute, Department of Neuroscience and Physiology, Department of Anesthesiology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016, USA
| | - Meng Cui
- Bindley Bioscience Center, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
- School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
- Department of Biology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
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27
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A high efficiency silicon nitride waveguide grating coupler with a multilayer bottom reflector. Sci Rep 2019; 9:12988. [PMID: 31506482 PMCID: PMC6736935 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-49324-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2018] [Accepted: 08/14/2019] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
We propose a high efficiency apodized grating coupler with a bottom reflector for silicon nitride photonic integrated circuits. The reflector consists of a stack of alternate silicon nitride and silicon dioxide quarter-wave films. The design, fabrication and optical characterization of the couplers has been presented. The measured fiber to detector insertion loss was −3.5 dB which corresponds to a peak coupling efficiency of −1.75 dB. A 3 dB wavelength bandwidth of 76.34 nm was demonstrated for the grating coupler with a 20-layer reflector. The fabrication process is CMOS-compatible and requires only a single etching step.
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28
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Pisano F, Pisanello M, De Vittorio M, Pisanello F. Single-cell micro- and nano-photonic technologies. J Neurosci Methods 2019; 325:108355. [PMID: 31319100 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2019.108355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2019] [Revised: 07/02/2019] [Accepted: 07/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Since the advent of optogenetics, the technology development has focused on new methods to optically interact with single nerve cells. This gave rise to the field of photonic neural interfaces, intended as the set of technologies that can modify light radiation in either a linear or non-linear fashion to control and/or monitor cellular functions. This set includes the use of plasmonic effects, up-conversion, electron transfer and integrated light steering, with some of them already implemented in vivo. This article will review available approaches in this framework, with a particular emphasis on methods operating at the single-unit level or having the potential to reach single-cell resolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Filippo Pisano
- Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Center for Biomolecular Nanotechnologies, Via Barsanti, 73010 Arnesano (Lecce), Italy
| | - Marco Pisanello
- Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Center for Biomolecular Nanotechnologies, Via Barsanti, 73010 Arnesano (Lecce), Italy
| | - Massimo De Vittorio
- Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Center for Biomolecular Nanotechnologies, Via Barsanti, 73010 Arnesano (Lecce), Italy; Dipartimento di Ingeneria dell'Innovazione, Università del Salento, via per Monteroni, 73100 Lecce, Italy
| | - Ferruccio Pisanello
- Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Center for Biomolecular Nanotechnologies, Via Barsanti, 73010 Arnesano (Lecce), Italy.
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29
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Alt MT, Mittnacht A, Stieglitz T. Implantable Glass Waveguides and Coating Materials for Chronic Optical Medical Applications. ANNUAL INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE OF THE IEEE ENGINEERING IN MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY SOCIETY. IEEE ENGINEERING IN MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY SOCIETY. ANNUAL INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 2018; 2018:4595-4598. [PMID: 30441375 DOI: 10.1109/embc.2018.8513121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
An innovative fabrication process of glass waveguides on silicon substrates for miniaturized implants is presented. Thin glass was bonded on oxidized silicon wafers and patterned using wet etching. Multimode waveguides with different shapes and a low surface roughness as well as low scattering of light were successfully fabricated. For efficient coupling of light and accurate alignment, KOH-grooves were etched in the silicon with respect to the glass waveguides to attach optical fibers from external light sources. Towards higher biostability, several coating materials were evaluated in accelerated in vitro tests in 60°C PBS for the first time over a long period of time regarding their optical properties. Ti02, SiC, polyimide, Parylene C and SU-8 showed a very stable optical transmittance after 320 days in accelerated aging while PECVDSi3N4 showed significant changes within the first days.
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30
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Reddy JW, Chamanzar M. Low-loss flexible Parylene photonic waveguides for optical implants. OPTICS LETTERS 2018; 43:4112-4115. [PMID: 30160729 DOI: 10.1364/ol.43.004112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2018] [Accepted: 07/22/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
We demonstrate compact, low-loss (<5 dB/cm) Parylene C photonic waveguides in a flexible, biocompatible, all-polymer platform suitable for implantable applications. The scattering loss due to the sidewall roughness resulting from the reactive ion etching of Parylene C was identified as the primary source of propagation loss. A fabrication process utilizing the conformal coating of Parylene C was developed to significantly reduce waveguide propagation loss (by more than 30 dB/cm). We also performed thermal annealing at 300°C to smoothen the sidewalls; however, it was found to adversely affect the waveguide performance.
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31
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Kampasi K, English DF, Seymour J, Stark E, McKenzie S, Vöröslakos M, Buzsáki G, Wise KD, Yoon E. Dual color optogenetic control of neural populations using low-noise, multishank optoelectrodes. MICROSYSTEMS & NANOENGINEERING 2018; 4:10. [PMID: 30766759 PMCID: PMC6220186 DOI: 10.1038/s41378-018-0009-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2017] [Revised: 02/04/2018] [Accepted: 02/13/2018] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Optogenetics allows for optical manipulation of neuronal activity and has been increasingly combined with intra- and extra-cellular electrophysiological recordings. Genetically-identified classes of neurons are optically manipulated, though the versatility of optogenetics would be increased if independent control of distinct neural populations could be achieved on a sufficient spatial and temporal resolution. We report a scalable multi-site optoelectrode design that allows simultaneous optogenetic control of two spatially intermingled neuronal populations in vivo. We describe the design, fabrication, and assembly of low-noise, multi-site/multi-color optoelectrodes. Each shank of the four-shank assembly is monolithically integrated with 8 recording sites and a dual-color waveguide mixer with a 7 × 30 μm cross-section, coupled to 405 nm and 635 nm injection laser diodes (ILDs) via gradient-index (GRIN) lenses to meet optical and thermal design requirements. To better understand noise on the recording channels generated during diode-based activation, we developed a lumped-circuit modeling approach for EMI coupling mechanisms and used it to limit artifacts to amplitudes under 100 μV upto an optical output power of 450 μW. We implanted the packaged devices into the CA1 pyramidal layer of awake mice, expressing Channelrhodopsin-2 in pyramidal cells and ChrimsonR in paravalbumin-expressing interneurons, and achieved optical excitation of each cell type using sub-mW illumination. We highlight the potential use of this technology for functional dissection of neural circuits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Komal Kampasi
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48105 USA
- Center for Micro and Nanotechnology, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA 94550 USA
| | - Daniel F. English
- NYU Neuroscience Institute, School of Medicine, East River Science Park, Alexandria Center, 450 East 29th St, 9th Floor, New York, NY 10016 USA
| | - John Seymour
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48105 USA
| | - Eran Stark
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, 69978 Tel Aviv, Israel
- Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University, 69978 Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Sam McKenzie
- NYU Neuroscience Institute, School of Medicine, East River Science Park, Alexandria Center, 450 East 29th St, 9th Floor, New York, NY 10016 USA
| | - Mihály Vöröslakos
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48105 USA
| | - György Buzsáki
- NYU Neuroscience Institute, School of Medicine, East River Science Park, Alexandria Center, 450 East 29th St, 9th Floor, New York, NY 10016 USA
| | - Kensall D. Wise
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48105 USA
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48105 USA
| | - Euisik Yoon
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48105 USA
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48105 USA
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Li B, Lee K, Masmanidis SC, Li M. A nanofabricated optoelectronic probe for manipulating and recording neural dynamics. J Neural Eng 2018; 15:046008. [PMID: 29629879 DOI: 10.1088/1741-2552/aabc94] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The convergence of optogenetic and large-scale neural recording technologies opens enormous opportunities for studying brain function. However, compared to the widespread use of optogenetics or recordings as standalone methods, the joint use of these techniques in behaving animals is much less well developed. A simple but poorly scalable solution has been to implant conventional optical fibers together with extracellular microelectrodes. A more promising approach has been to combine microfabricated light emission sources with multielectrode arrays. However, a challenge remains in how to compactly and scalably integrate optical output and electronic readout structures on the same device. Here we took a step toward addressing this issue by using nanofabrication techniques to develop a novel implantable optoelectronic probe. APPROACH This device contains multiple photonic grating couplers connected with waveguides for out-of-plane light emission, monolithically integrated with a microlectrode array on the same silicon substrate. To demonstrate the device's operation in vivo, we record cortical activity from awake head-restrained mice. MAIN RESULTS We first characterize photo-stimulation effects on electrophysiological signals. We then assess the probe's ability to both optogenetically stimulate and electrically record neural firing. SIGNIFICANCE This device relies on nanofabrication techniques to integrate optical stimulation and electrical readout functions on the same structure. Due to the device miniaturization capabilities inherent to nanofabrication, this optoelectronic probe technology can be further scaled to increase the throughput of manipulating and recording neural dynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bingzhao Li
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, United States of America
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33
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Libbrecht S, Hoffman L, Welkenhuysen M, Van den Haute C, Baekelandt V, Braeken D, Haesler S. Proximal and distal modulation of neural activity by spatially confined optogenetic activation with an integrated high-density optoelectrode. J Neurophysiol 2018; 120:149-161. [PMID: 29589813 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00888.2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Optogenetic manipulations are widely used for investigating the contribution of genetically identified cell types to behavior. Simultaneous electrophysiological recordings are less common, although they are critical for characterizing the specific impact of optogenetic manipulations on neural circuits in vivo. This is at least in part because combining photostimulation with large-scale electrophysiological recordings remains technically challenging, which also poses a limitation for performing extracellular identification experiments. Currently available interfaces that guide light of the appropriate wavelength into the brain combined with an electrophysiological modality suffer from various drawbacks such as a bulky size, low spatial resolution, heat dissipation, or photovoltaic artifacts. To address these challenges, we have designed and fabricated an integrated ultrathin neural interface with 12 optical outputs and 24 electrodes. We used the device to measure the effect of localized stimulation in the anterior olfactory cortex, a paleocortical structure involved in olfactory processing. Our experiments in adult mice demonstrate that because of its small dimensions, our novel tool causes far less tissue damage than commercially available devices. Moreover, optical stimulation and recording can be performed simultaneously, with no measurable electrical artifact during optical stimulation. Importantly, optical stimulation can be confined to small volumes with approximately single-cortical layer thickness. Finally, we find that even highly localized optical stimulation causes inhibition at more distant sites. NEW & NOTEWORTHY In this study, we establish a novel tool for simultaneous extracellular recording and optogenetic photostimulation. Because the device is built using established microchip technology, it can be fabricated with high reproducibility and reliability. We further show that even very localized stimulation affects neural firing far beyond the stimulation site. This demonstrates the difficulty in predicting circuit-level effects of optogenetic manipulations and highlights the importance of closely monitoring neural activity in optogenetic experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Libbrecht
- Laboratory for Neurobiology and Gene Therapy, Department of Neurosciences, KU Leuven, Leuven , Belgium
| | - Luis Hoffman
- Life Science Technologies and Imaging Department, Imec, Leuven , Belgium.,Neuroelectronics Research Flanders, Leuven , Belgium
| | | | - Chris Van den Haute
- Laboratory for Neurobiology and Gene Therapy, Department of Neurosciences, KU Leuven, Leuven , Belgium
| | - Veerle Baekelandt
- Laboratory for Neurobiology and Gene Therapy, Department of Neurosciences, KU Leuven, Leuven , Belgium
| | - Dries Braeken
- Life Science Technologies and Imaging Department, Imec, Leuven , Belgium
| | - Sebastian Haesler
- Research Group Neurophysiology, Department of Neurosciences, KU Leuven, Leuven , Belgium.,VIB, Leuven , Belgium.,Neuroelectronics Research Flanders, Leuven , Belgium
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34
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Rudmann L, Alt MT, Ashouri Vajari D, Stieglitz T. Integrated optoelectronic microprobes. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2018; 50:72-82. [PMID: 29414738 DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2018.01.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2017] [Revised: 01/08/2018] [Accepted: 01/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Optogenetics opened not only new exciting opportunities to interrogate the nervous system but also requires adequate probes to facilitate these wishes. Therefore, a multidisciplinary effort is essential to match these technical opportunities with biological needs in order to establish a stable and functional material-tissue interface. This in turn can address an optical intervention of the genetically modified, light sensitive cells in the nervous system and recording of electrical signals from single cells and neuronal networks that result in behavioral changes. In this review, we present the state of the art of optoelectronic probes and assess advantages and challenges of the different design approaches. At first, we discuss mechanisms and processes at the material-tissue interface that influence the performance of optoelectronic probes in acute and chronic implantations. We classify optoelectronic probes by their property of delivering light to the tissue: by waveguides or by integrated light sources at the sites of intervention. Both approaches are discussed with respect to size, spatial resolution, opportunity to integrate electrodes for electrical recording and potential interactions with the target tissue. At last, we assess translational aspects of the state of the art. Long-term stability of probes and the opportunity to integrate them into fully implantable, wireless systems are a prerequisite for chronic applications and a transfer from fundamental neuroscientific studies into treatment options for diseases and clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Rudmann
- Laboratory for Biomedical Microsystems, Department of Microsystems Engineering - IMTEK & BrainLinks-BrainTools Center, University of Freiburg, Georges-Koehler-Allee 102, 79110 Freiburg, Germany
| | - M T Alt
- Laboratory for Biomedical Microsystems, Department of Microsystems Engineering - IMTEK & BrainLinks-BrainTools Center, University of Freiburg, Georges-Koehler-Allee 102, 79110 Freiburg, Germany
| | - D Ashouri Vajari
- Laboratory for Biomedical Microsystems, Department of Microsystems Engineering - IMTEK & BrainLinks-BrainTools Center, University of Freiburg, Georges-Koehler-Allee 102, 79110 Freiburg, Germany
| | - T Stieglitz
- Laboratory for Biomedical Microsystems, Department of Microsystems Engineering - IMTEK & BrainLinks-BrainTools Center, University of Freiburg, Georges-Koehler-Allee 102, 79110 Freiburg, Germany.
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35
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Tung JK, Shiu FH, Ding K, Gross RE. Chemically activated luminopsins allow optogenetic inhibition of distributed nodes in an epileptic network for non-invasive and multi-site suppression of seizure activity. Neurobiol Dis 2018; 109:1-10. [PMID: 28923596 PMCID: PMC5696076 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2017.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2017] [Revised: 09/05/2017] [Accepted: 09/14/2017] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Although optogenetic techniques have proven to be invaluable for manipulating and understanding complex neural dynamics over the past decade, they still face practical and translational challenges in targeting networks involving multiple, large, or difficult-to-illuminate areas of the brain. We utilized inhibitory luminopsins to simultaneously inhibit the dentate gyrus and anterior nucleus of the thalamus of the rat brain in a hardware-independent and cell-type specific manner. This approach was more effective at suppressing behavioral seizures than inhibition of the individual structures in a rat model of epilepsy. In addition to elucidating mechanisms of seizure suppression never directly demonstrated before, this work also illustrates how precise multi-focal control of pathological circuits can be advantageous for the treatment and understanding of disorders involving broad neural circuits such as epilepsy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jack K Tung
- Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, United States; Department of Neurosurgery, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Fu Hung Shiu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Kevin Ding
- Department of Neurosurgery, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Robert E Gross
- Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, United States; Department of Neurosurgery, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, United States.
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36
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Photonic Needles for Light Delivery in Deep Tissue-like Media. Sci Rep 2017; 7:5627. [PMID: 28717142 PMCID: PMC5514084 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-05746-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2017] [Accepted: 06/19/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
We demonstrate a new platform for minimally invasive, light delivery probes leveraging the maturing field of silicon photonics, enabling massively parallel fabrication of photonic structures. These Photonic Needles probes have sub-10 μm cross-sectional dimensions, lengths greater than 3 mm–surpassing 1000 to 1 aspect ratio, and are released completely into air without a substrate below. We show the Photonic Needles to be mechanically robust when inserted into 2% agarose. The propagation loss of these waveguides is low–on the order of 4 dB/cm.
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Abstract
More than a decade has passed since optics and genetics came together and lead to the emerging technologies of optogenetics. The advent of light-sensitive opsins made it possible to optically trigger the neurons into activation or inhibition by using visible light. The importance of spatiotemporally isolating a segment of a neural network and controlling nervous signaling in a precise manner has driven neuroscience researchers and engineers to invest great efforts in designing high precision in vivo implantable devices. These efforts have focused on delivery of sufficient power to deep brain regions, while monitoring neural activity with high resolution and fidelity. In this review, we report the progress made in the field of hybrid optoelectronic neural interfaces that combine optical stimulation with electrophysiological recordings. Different approaches that incorporate optical or electrical components on implantable devices are discussed in detail. Advantages of various different designs as well as practical and fundamental limitations are summarized to illuminate the future of neurotechnology development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ege Iseri
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of California, San Diego, CA, United States of America
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38
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Segev E, Reimer J, Moreaux LC, Fowler TM, Chi D, Sacher WD, Lo M, Deisseroth K, Tolias AS, Faraon A, Roukes ML. Patterned photostimulation via visible-wavelength photonic probes for deep brain optogenetics. NEUROPHOTONICS 2017; 4:011002. [PMID: 27990451 PMCID: PMC5136672 DOI: 10.1117/1.nph.4.1.011002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2016] [Accepted: 10/24/2016] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Optogenetic methods developed over the past decade enable unprecedented optical activation and silencing of specific neuronal cell types. However, light scattering in neural tissue precludes illuminating areas deep within the brain via free-space optics; this has impeded employing optogenetics universally. Here, we report an approach surmounting this significant limitation. We realize implantable, ultranarrow, silicon-based photonic probes enabling the delivery of complex illumination patterns deep within brain tissue. Our approach combines methods from integrated nanophotonics and microelectromechanical systems, to yield photonic probes that are robust, scalable, and readily producible en masse. Their minute cross sections minimize tissue displacement upon probe implantation. We functionally validate one probe design in vivo with mice expressing channelrhodopsin-2. Highly local optogenetic neural activation is demonstrated by recording the induced response-both by extracellular electrical recordings in the hippocampus and by two-photon functional imaging in the cortex of mice coexpressing GCaMP6.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eran Segev
- Kavli Nanoscience Institute, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, United States
- California Institute of Technology, Departments of Physics, Applied Physics, and Bioengineering, 1200 East California Boulevard, MC149-33, Pasadena, California 91125, United States
| | - Jacob Reimer
- Baylor College of Medicine, Department of Neuroscience, One Baylor Plaza, Suite S553, Houston, Texas 77030, United States
| | - Laurent C. Moreaux
- California Institute of Technology, Departments of Physics, Applied Physics, and Bioengineering, 1200 East California Boulevard, MC149-33, Pasadena, California 91125, United States
| | - Trevor M. Fowler
- Kavli Nanoscience Institute, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, United States
- California Institute of Technology, Departments of Physics, Applied Physics, and Bioengineering, 1200 East California Boulevard, MC149-33, Pasadena, California 91125, United States
| | - Derrick Chi
- Kavli Nanoscience Institute, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, United States
- California Institute of Technology, Departments of Physics, Applied Physics, and Bioengineering, 1200 East California Boulevard, MC149-33, Pasadena, California 91125, United States
| | - Wesley D. Sacher
- Kavli Nanoscience Institute, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, United States
- California Institute of Technology, Departments of Physics, Applied Physics, and Bioengineering, 1200 East California Boulevard, MC149-33, Pasadena, California 91125, United States
| | - Maisie Lo
- Stanford University, Department of Bioengineering, Stanford, West 250, Clark Center, 318 Campus Drive West, California 94305, United States
| | - Karl Deisseroth
- Stanford University, Department of Bioengineering, Stanford, West 250, Clark Center, 318 Campus Drive West, California 94305, United States
- Stanford University, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, West 083, Clark Center, 318 Campus Drive West, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Andreas S. Tolias
- Baylor College of Medicine, Department of Neuroscience, One Baylor Plaza, Suite S553, Houston, Texas 77030, United States
| | - Andrei Faraon
- Kavli Nanoscience Institute, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, United States
- California Institute of Technology, Departments of Applied Physics and Medical Engineering, 1200 East California Boulevard, MC107-81, Pasadena, California 91125, United States
| | - Michael L. Roukes
- Kavli Nanoscience Institute, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, United States
- California Institute of Technology, Departments of Physics, Applied Physics, and Bioengineering, 1200 East California Boulevard, MC149-33, Pasadena, California 91125, United States
- Address all correspondence to: Michael L. Roukes, E-mail:
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Behavioral Neuroscience: Who's Afraid of the C57BL/6 Mouse? Curr Biol 2016; 26:R1188-R1189. [PMID: 27875698 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2016.09.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Behavioral paradigms in which laboratory rodents express behaviors that their wild counterparts presumably need every day are rare: a novel prey-capture model for laboratory mice has been developed for examining the neurophysiological underpinnings of prey capture in mice.
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