Biodegradable PEI modified complex micelles as gene carriers with tunable gene transfection efficiency for ECs

Biomaterial-based vascularization strategies for enhanced treatment of peripheral arterial disease

Peripheral arterial disease (PAD) poses a global health challenge, particularly in its advanced stages known as critical limb ischemia (CLI). Conventional treatments often fail to achieve satisfactory outcomes. Patients with CLI face high rates of morbidity and mortality, underscoring the urgent need for innovative therapeutic strategies. Recent advancements in biomaterials and biotechnology have positioned biomaterial-based vascularization strategies as promising approaches to improve blood perfusion and ameliorate ischemic conditions in affected tissues. These materials have shown potential to enhance therapeutic outcomes while mitigating toxicity concerns. This work summarizes the current status of PAD and highlights emerging biomaterial-based strategies for its treatment, focusing on functional genes, cells, proteins, and metal ions, as well as their delivery and controlled release systems. Additionally, the limitations associated with these approaches are discussed. This review provides a framework for designing therapeutic biomaterials and offers insights into their potential for clinical translation, contributing to the advancement of PAD treatments.

Peptide functionalized biomimetic gene complexes enhance specificity for vascular endothelial regeneration

Gene delivery presents great potential in endothelium regeneration and prevention of vascular diseases, but its outcome is inevitably limited by high shear stress and instable microenvironment. Highly efficient nanosystems may alleviate the problem with strong dual-specificity for diseased site and targeted cells. Hence, biomimetic coatings incorporating EC-targeting peptides were constructed by platelets and endothelial cells (ECs) for surface modification. A series of biomimetic gene complexes were fabricated by the biomimetic coatings to deliver pcDNA3.1-VEGF165 plasmid (pVEGF) for rapid recovery of endothelium. The gene complexes possessed good biocompatibility with macrophages, stability with serum and showed no evident cytotoxicity for ECs even at very high concentrations. Furthermore, the peptide modified gene complexes achieved selective internalization in ECs and significant accumulation in endothelium-injured site, especially the REDV-modified and EC-derived gene complexes. They substantially enhanced VEGF expression at mRNA and protein levels, thereby enabling a wound to heal completely within 24 h according to wound healing assay. In an artery endothelium-injured mouse model, the REDV-modified and EC-derived gene complexes presented efficient re-endothelialization with the help of enhanced specificity. The biomimetic gene complexes offer an efficient dual-targeting strategy for rapid recovery of endothelium, and hold potential in vascular tissue regeneration.

Polyethylenimine-modified graphene quantum dots promote endothelial cell proliferation

Endothelial cell proliferation plays an important role in angiogenesis and treatment of related diseases. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of polyethylenimine (PEI)-modified graphene quantum dots (GQDs) gene vectors on endothelial cell proliferation. The GQDs-cationic polymer gene vectors were synthesized by amidation reaction, and used to deliver pZNF580 gene to Human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) for promoting their proliferation. The chemical modification of GQDs can adjust gene vectors' surface properties and charge distribution, thereby enhancing their interaction with gene molecules, which could effectively compress the pZNF580 gene. The CCK-8 assay showed that the cell viability was higher than 80% at higher vector concentration (40 μg/mL), demonstrating that the GQDs-cationic polymer gene vectors and their gene complex nanoparticles (NPs) having low cytotoxicity. The results of the live/dead cell double staining assay were consistent with those of the CCK-8 assay, in which the cell viability of the A-GQDs/pZNF580 (94.38 ± 6.39%), C-GQDs-PEI- polylactic acid-co-polyacetic acid (PLGA)/pZNF580 (98.65 ± 6.60%) and N-GQDs-PEI-PLGA/pZNF580 (90.08 ± 1.60%) groups was significantly higher than that of the Lipofectamine 2000/pZNF580 (71.98 ± 3.53%) positive treatment group. The results of transfection and western blot experiments showed that the vector significantly enhanced the delivery of plasmid to HUVECs and increased the expression of pZNF580 in HUVECs. In addition, the gene NPs better promote endothelial cell migration and proliferation. The cell migration rate and proliferation ability of C-GQDs-PEI-PLGA/pZNF580 and N-GQDs-PEI-PLGA/pZNF580 treatment groups were higher than those of Lipofectamine 2000/pDNA treatment group. Modified GQDs possess the potential to serve as efficient gene carriers. They tightly bind gene molecules through charge and other non-covalent interactions, significantly improving the efficiency of gene delivery and ensuring the smooth release of genes within the cell. This innovative strategy provides a powerful means to promote endothelial cell proliferation.

Exploring the Application of Micellar Drug Delivery Systems in Cancer Nanomedicine

Various formulations of polymeric micelles, tiny spherical structures made of polymeric materials, are currently being investigated in preclinical and clinical settings for their potential as nanomedicines. They target specific tissues and prolong circulation in the body, making them promising cancer treatment options. This review focuses on the different types of polymeric materials available to synthesize micelles, as well as the different ways that micelles can be tailored to be responsive to different stimuli. The selection of stimuli-sensitive polymers used in micelle preparation is based on the specific conditions found in the tumor microenvironment. Additionally, clinical trends in using micelles to treat cancer are presented, including what happens to micelles after they are administered. Finally, various cancer drug delivery applications involving micelles are discussed along with their regulatory aspects and future outlooks. As part of this discussion, we will examine current research and development in this field. The challenges and barriers they may have to overcome before they can be widely adopted in clinics will also be discussed.

Bovine serum albumin-based biomimetic gene complexes with specificity facilitate rapid re-endothelialization for anti-restenosis

Re-endothelialization is a critical problem to inhibit postoperative restenosis, and gene delivery exhibits great potential in rapid endothelialization. Unfortunately, the therapeutic effect is enormously limited by inefficient specificity, poor biocompatibility and in vivo stability owing largely to the complicated in vivo environment. Herein, we developed a series of platelet membrane (PM) cloaked gene complexes based on natural bovine serum albumin (BSA) and polyethyleneimine (PEI). The gene complexes aimed to accelerate re-endothelialization for anti-restenosis via pcDNA3.1-VEGF165 (VEGF) plasmid delivery. Based on BSA and PM coating, these gene complexes exhibited good biocompatibility, stability with serum and robust homing to endothelium-injured site inherited from platelets. Besides, they enhanced the expression of VEGF protein by their high internalization and nucleus accumulation efficiency, and also substantially promoted migration and proliferation of vascular endothelial cells. The biological properties were further optimized via altering PEI and PM content. Finally, rapid recovery of endothelium in a carotid artery injured mouse model (79% re-endothelialization compared with model group) was achieved through two weeks' treatment by the PM cloaked gene complexes. High level of expressed VEGF in vivo was also realized by the gene complexes. Moreover, neointimal hyperplasia (IH) was significantly inhibited by the gene complexes according to in vivo study. The results verified the great potential of the PM cloaked gene complexes in re-endothelialization for anti-restenosis. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Rapid re-endothelialization is a major challenge to inhibit postoperative restenosis. Herein, a series of biodegradable and biocompatible platelet membrane (PM) cloaked gene complexes were designed to accelerate re-endothelialization for anti-restenosis via pcDNA3.1-VEGF165 (VEGF) plasmid delivery. The PM cloaked gene complexes provided high VEGF expression in vascular endothelial cells (VECs), rapid migration and proliferation of VECs and robust homing to endothelium-injured site. In a carotid artery injured mouse model, PM cloaked gene complexes significantly promoted VEGF expression in vivo, accelerated re-endothelialization and inhibited neointimal hyperplasia due to their good biocompatibility and superior specificity. Overall, the optimized PM cloaked gene complexes overcomes multiple obstacles in gene delivery for re-endothelialization and can be a promising candidate for gene delivery and therapy of postoperative restenosis.

Thermosensitive Tri-Block Polymer Nanoparticle-Hydrogel Composites as Payloads of Natamycin for Antifungal Therapy Against Fusarium Solani

Purpose

Fusarium Solani is the principal pathogen associated with fungal keratitis. As a sensitive drug to F. Solani, natamycin (NAT) was limited by the poor penetration and low bioavailability in clinical application. The aim of this study was to develop a new type of tri-block polymer nanoparticle-gel complex (Gel@PLGA-PEI-PEG@NAT) for delivering NAT and evaluate its physicochemical properties, antifungal activity, safety, penetrability, adhesion, and efficacy in treating fungal keratitis.

Methods

PLGA-PEI-PEG@NAT was prepared and characterized with a nano-particle size analyzer, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), cytotoxicity, penetrability of NAT (Natacyn^® 5% ophthalmic suspension; Alcon) and PLGA-PEI-PEG@NAT with different concentrations were assessed. The eye surface retention time, ocular irritation, and curative effect of the NAT ophthalmic suspension and Gel@PLGA-PEI-PEG@NAT on a rabbit fungal keratitis model were evaluated.

Results

PLGA-PEI-PEG@NAT had a particle size of 150 nm, a positive surface charge, and a sustained-release effect. The MIC for F. Solani was 2 μg/mL. A cytotoxicity test and ocular irritation test showed that PLGA-PEI-PEG@NAT and Gel@PLGA-PEI-PEG@NAT had good biocompatibility and no obvious irritation for rabbit corneas. Penetration experiments confirmed that PLGA-PEI-PEG@NAT can successfully enter corneal epithelial cells and through the cornea to enter the anterior chamber. Compared with NAT ophthalmic suspension, Gel@PLGA-PEI-PEG@NAT had stronger cornea permeation at the same concentration. The therapeutic effect and precorneal retention ability of the NAT ophthalmic suspension and Gel@PLGA-PEI-PEG@NAT on the fungal keratitis rabbit model were compared. Gel@PLGA-PEI-PEG@NAT achieved a better therapeutic effect at a lower drug concentration, and its eye surface retention time was significantly longer than that of the NAT ophthalmic suspension.

Conclusion

Gel@PLGA-PEI-PEG@NAT was shown to be a safe and effective nanodrug delivery system for NAT. It has great potential to improve the cure rate of fungal keratitis, reduce the administration frequency during the treatment process, and improve patient compliance.

Polymeric nano-carriers for on-demand delivery of genes via specific responses to stimuli

Polymeric nano-carriers have been developed as a most capable and feasible technology platform for gene therapy. As vehicles, polymeric nano-carriers are obliged to possess high gene loading capability, low immunogenicity, safety, and the ability to transfer various genetic materials into specific sites of target cells to express therapeutic proteins or block a process of gene expression. To this end, various types of polymeric nano-carriers have been prepared to release genes in response to stimuli such as pH, redox, enzymes, light and temperature. These stimulus-responsive nano-carriers exhibit high gene transfection efficiency and low cytotoxicity. In particular, dual- and multi-stimulus-responsive polymeric nano-carriers can respond to a combination of signals. Markedly, these combined responses take place either simultaneously or in a sequential manner. These dual-stimulus-responsive polymeric nano-carriers can control gene delivery with high gene transfection both in vitro and in vivo. In this review paper, we highlight the recent exciting developments in stimulus-responsive polymeric nano-carriers for gene delivery applications.

Redox stimulus disulfide conjugated polyethyleneimine as a shuttle for gene transfer

Redox-responsive cationic polymers have gained considerable attention in gene delivery due to low cytotoxicity and spatio-temporal release of DNA into the cells. Here, we reported the synthesis of reducible disulfide conjugated polyethyleneimine (1.8 kDa) (denoted as SS-PEI) and its application to transfer pEGFP-ZNF580 plasmid (pZNF580) into EA.hy926 cell. This reducible SS-PEI polymer was prepared by one-step polycondensation reaction of low molecular weight PEI with bis-(p-nitrophenyl)-3,3'-dithiodipropionate. The SS-PEI successfully condensed pZNF580 into nano-sized complexes (170 ± 1.5 nm to 255 ± 1.6 nm) with zeta potentials of 3 ± 0.4 mV to 17 ± 0.9 mV. The complexes could be triggered to release pZNF580 when exposed to the reducing environment of 5 mM dithiothreitol. Besides, the SS-PEI exhibited low cytotoxicity. In vitro transfection results showed that SS-PEI exhibited good transfection efficiency comparable to PEI25kDa. Thus, the SS-PEI could act as an reducible gene carrier with good transfection efficiency and low cytotoxicity.

Surface Engineering of Cardiovascular Devices for Improved Hemocompatibility and Rapid Endothelialization

Cardiovascular devices have been widely applied in the clinical treatment of cardiovascular diseases. However, poor hemocompatibility and slow endothelialization on their surface still exist. Numerous surface engineering strategies have mainly sought to modify the device surface through physical, chemical, and biological approaches to improve surface hemocompatibility and endothelialization. The alteration of physical characteristics and pattern topographies brings some hopeful outcomes and plays a notable role in this respect. The chemical and biological approaches can provide potential signs of success in the endothelialization of vascular device surfaces. They usually involve therapeutic drugs, specific peptides, adhesive proteins, antibodies, growth factors and nitric oxide (NO) donors. The gene engineering can enhance the proliferation, growth, and migration of vascular cells, thus boosting the endothelialization. In this review, the surface engineering strategies are highlighted and summarized to improve hemocompatibility and rapid endothelialization on the cardiovascular devices. The potential outlook is also briefly discussed to help guide endothelialization strategies and inspire further innovations. It is hoped that this review can assist with the surface engineering of cardiovascular devices and promote future advancements in this emerging research field.

Nanoscale cationic micelles of amphiphilic copolymers based on star-shaped PLGA and PEI cross-linked PEG for protein delivery application

To enhance the bioavailability of protein therapeutants and improve the stability of storage and delivery, a series of branched amphiphilic block copolymers consisting of cholic acid (CA) initiated poly(D,L-lactide-co-glycolide) (CA-PLGA) and water-soluble polyethyleneimine cross-linked polyethylene glycol (PEI-PEG) denoted as CA-PLGA-b-(PEI-PEG) were synthesized and characterized. CA-PLGA-b-(PEI-PEG) presented low cytotoxicity by MTT and cck-8 assay. The cationic CA-PLGA-b-(PEI-PEG) micelles (diameter about 100 nm and zeta potential 34-61 mV) were prepared through self-assembly method, and complexed with insulin via electrostatic interaction to obtain nanoscale micelle/insulin complexes. The micelle/insulin complexes-loaded CA-PLGA microspheres (MIC-MS, 10.4 ± 3.85 μm) were manufactured by employing a double emulsion (W₁/O/W₂) method. The in vitro insulin release behavior and in vivo hypoglycaemic effect of MIC-MS on streptozotocin (STZ) induced diabetic rats were compared with those of the insulin-loaded CA-PLGA microspheres (INS-MS, 7.8 ± 2.57 μm). The initial burst in vitro release of MIC-MS was markedly lower than that of INS-MS (P < 0.01), and the pharmacological availability of MIC-MS via subcutaneous administration was 148.9% relative to INS-MS. Therefore, the cationic CA-PLGA-b-(PEI-PEG) micelles can effectively increase the bioavailability of insulin in CA-PLGA microspheres and can be considered as a potential protein carrier.

A PEG-b-poly(disulfide-l-lysine) based redox-responsive cationic polymer for efficient gene transfection

Gene therapy is concerned with the transfer of complement genes to functionally defective cells in a safe and directed manner for the treatment of the most challenging diseases. But safety issues and low transfection efficiency of the gene vectors are the major challenges, which need to be overcome. Recently, redox-responsive bioreducible polymers containing disulfide linkages have been considered as efficient gene vectors, owing to the selective degradation of the disulfide bond in the reducing environment of the cells. This enables spatiotemporal release of pDNA with no or minimum toxicity. Herein, we reported a bioreducible poly(ethyleneglycol)-b-poly(disulfide-l-lysine) cationic polymer (denoted as PEG-SSL) via a Michael addition reaction of poly(ethyleneglycol)tetraacrylate PEG(Ac)₄ and the terminal amine group of poly(disulfide-l-lysine). PEG-SSL efficiently condensed the plasmid ZNF580 gene (pZNF580) forming nano-sized polyplexes (155 ± 4 to 285 ± 3 nm) with zeta potentials of 1.9 ± 0.1 to 26.7 ± 0.4 mV. PEG-SSL successfully retarded pZNF580 at a small polymer/pDNA weight ratio of 10/1 and higher. When exposed to a reducing environment of 5 mM DTT, it rapidly released genes even at higher weight ratios of the PEG-SSL polymer in the PEG-SSL/pDNA complexes. The PEG-SSL/pZNF580 complexes exhibited good stability when exposed to DNase I and efficiently protected pDNA from degradation. In vitro transfection and cytotoxicity were investigated in EA.hy926 cells. The results showed that PEG-SSL successfully delivered pZNF580 into the cells with less cytotoxicity compared to PEI25kDa. The flow cytometry and confocal scanning laser microscopy results indicated that PEG-SSL polyplexes exhibited good cellular uptake and nuclear co-localization rates. All these results implied that PEG-SSL had the potential as a non-viral vector for gene transfection.

Multifunctional gene delivery systems with targeting ligand CAGW and charge reversal function for enhanced angiogenesis

A charge reversible polyanion with a targeting peptide was assembled onto binary gene complexes to enhance their endosomal escape and transfection efficiency.

Cationized Bombyx mori silk fibroin as a delivery carrier of the VEGF165-Ang-1 coexpression plasmid for dermal tissue regeneration

The angiogenesis of an implanted construct is among the most important issues in tissue engineering. In this study, spermine was used to modify Bombyx mori silk fibroin (BSF) to synthesize cationized BSF (CBSF). BSF and CBSF were coated in sequence on the surface of polyethyleneimine (PEI)/vascular endothelial growth factor 165/angiopoietin-1 coexpression plasmid DNA (pDNA) complexes to form CBSF/BSF/PEI/pDNA quaternary complexes. BSF scaffolds loaded with carrier/pDNA complexes were prepared as dermal regeneration scaffolds by freeze-drying. In one set of experiments, scaffolds were used to cover a chick embryo chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) to investigate the influence of carrier/pDNA complexes on angiogenesis; in another set of experiments, scaffolds were implanted into dorsal full-thickness wounds in Sprague-Dawley rats to evaluate the effect of carrier/pDNA complex-loaded BSF scaffolds on neovascularization and dermal tissue regeneration. After modification with spermine, the surface zeta potential value of BSF rose to +11 mV from an initial value of -9 mV, and the isoelectric point of BSF increased from 4.20 to 9.04. The in vitro transfection of human umbilical vein endothelial cells (EA.hy926) with quaternary complexes revealed that the CBSF/BSF/PEI/pDNA complexes clearly exhibited lower cytotoxicity and higher transfection efficiency than the PEI/pDNA complexes. The CAM assay showed a more abundant branching pattern of blood vessels in BSF scaffolds loaded with CBSF/BSF/PEI/pDNA complexes than in BSF scaffolds without complexes or loaded with PEI/pDNA complexes. The in vivo experimental results demonstrated that the incorporation of CBSF/BSF/PEI/pDNA complexes could effectively enhance angiogenesis in the implanted BSF scaffolds, thereby promoting the regeneration of dermal tissue, providing a new scaffold for the regeneration of dermal tissue and other tissues containing blood vessels.

Red-blood-cell-mimetic gene delivery systems for long circulation and high transfection efficiency in ECs

Recently, the red blood cell (RBC) membrane has been used as a mimetic nanocoating for nanoparticles for drug delivery systems to promote their biocompatibility. In the present study, the nano-sized RBC membrane was coated on the surface of gene complexes through electrostatic interactions to prepare biomimetic gene delivery systems so as to improve their biocompatibility and prolong their circulation time in vivo. The structure of the biomimetic gene delivery systems was determined by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM). They exhibited low cytotoxicity and high transfection efficiency in endothelial cells (ECs), which could improve the migration ability of ECs. Besides, the biomimetic gene delivery systems exhibited strong immune evasion and long in vivo circulation time. The phagocytic rate of these biomimetic gene delivery systems reduced 52% compared with that of the PLGA-PEI/pZNF580 control group (without RBC membrane modification). Their circulation time in vivo was more than 2 times higher than that of the control group. Consequently, we provide a simple method for the preparation of camouflaged gene delivery systems, which can further facilitate the development of a gene delivery platform for the therapy of vascular diseases via enhancing EC transfection. This strategy will open up a new avenue for gene delivery systems by RBC membrane camouflage.

[Synthesis of amphiphilic block copolymer of PLGA-b-(PEI-co-PEG) and characterization of the self-assembled cationic micelles]

OBJECTIVE

To synthesize a biodegradable and minimally cytotoxic amphiphilic block copolymer of PLGA-b-(PEI-co- PEG) and study its micellization behavior.

METHODS

PLGA was synthesized by ring-opening polymerization. The cross-linked copolymer of PEI-co-PEG was synthesized from the low-molecular-weight polyethyleneimine (PEI, 1800 D) and hydrophilic poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG, 2000 D). PLGA-b-(PEI-co-PEG) was synthesized by dehydration condensation reaction of PLGA and water soluble PEI-co-PEG. The biodegradability of PEI-co-PEG was evaluated according to the molecular weight change after incubation at 37 ℃ for different time. The cytotoxicity of PLGA- b-(PEI-co-PEG) and PEI-co-PEG in MCF-7 cells was determined by MTT assay. The cationic PLGA-b-(PEI-co-PEG) micelles were prepared by standard dialysis method. The particle size and Zeta potential of the micelles were measured by a Malvern laser particle size analyzer. Micelle/insulin complexes were prepared by simple mixing method and their morphology were characterized by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The fluorescence quenching method was used to determine the stability of the micelle/insulin complexes at different salt concentrations.

RESULTS

Amphiphilic block copolymer of PLGA-b-(PEI-co-PEG) was successfully synthesized. The half-life of PEI-co-PEG degradation in PBS at 37 ℃ was about 48 h. The 50% cell inhibiting concentration (IC50) of PLGA-b-(PEIco- PEG) and PEI-co-PEG in MCF-7 cells were 1375.7 μg/mL and 425.1 μg/mL, respectively. The micelles of PLGA-b-(PEI-co- PEG) (particle size: 99.5±2.61 nm, Zeta potential: 52.9±2.38 mV) were complexed with insulin via electrostatic interaction and formed nanoscale micelle/insulin complexes. The dissociation rate of micelle/insulin complexes in 150 mmol/L NaCl solution was 27.6%.

CONCLUSIONS

The synthesized PEI-co-PEG shows good degradability in vitro. The cytotoxicity of PLGA-b-(PEI-co- PEG) is significantly lower than PEI-co-PEG, and PLGA-b-(PEI-co-PEG) micelle/insulin complexes have good salt- resistant stability in physiological condition.

POSS-cored and peptide functionalized ternary gene delivery systems with enhanced endosomal escape ability for efficient intracellular delivery of plasmid DNA

Biocompatibility, stability and high efficiency profiles are critical points for promoting the practical applications of gene delivery systems. The incorporation of cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs), REDV, and a nuclear localization signal (NLS) peptide sequence has been considered to be a promising strategy for developing efficient gene carriers to transfect vascular endothelial cells (ECs). However, these integrated multifunctional peptide carriers are usually limited by their inefficient targeting function and weak endosomal escape ability. Aiming to develop more efficient gene carriers, the integrated multifunctional REDV-G-TAT-G-NLS-C sequence was conjugated to polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane (POSS) by heterobifunctional poly(ethylene glycol) in the current study. This star-shaped polymer carrier complexed with the pZNF580 plasmid to form gene complexes, and then the histidine-rich peptide of REDV-TAT-NLS-H₁₂ (TP-H12) was incorporated into their surface to obtain ternary gene delivery systems with enhanced endosomal escape ability. These ternary gene delivery systems exhibited low cytotoxicity towards ECs and possessed high REDV-mediated cellular uptake, excellent internalization efficiency, rapid endosomal escape and high nucleus translocation capacity. The endosomal escape of the ternary complexes was improved due to the pH buffering capacity of the histidine residue in TP-H12 and the optimized macropinocytosis internalization pathway. Moreover, these CPP-based ternary gene delivery systems have high gene delivery efficiency and could improve the migration of ECs as demonstrated by gene expression and transwell assay. These systems may serve as a promising candidate for gene delivery and transfection in ECs, which is advantageous for EC migration and endothelialization on the biomaterial surface.

Core/Shell Gene Carriers with Different Lengths of PLGA Chains to Transfect Endothelial Cells

In order to improve the transfection efficiency and reduce the cytotoxicity of gene carriers, many strategies have been used to develop novel gene carriers. In this study, five complex micelles (MSP(2 k), MSP(4 k), MSP(6 k), MSP(8 k), and MSP(10 k)) were prepared from methoxy-poly(ethylene glycol)-b-poly(d,l-lactide-co-glycolide) (mPEG-b-PLGA) and sorbitol-poly(d,l-lactide-co-glycolide)-graft-PEI (sorbitol-PLGA-g-PEI, where the designed molecular weights of PLGA chains were 2 kDa, 4 kDa, 6 kDa, 8 kDa, and 10 kDa, respectively) copolymers by a self-assembly method, and the mass ratio of mPEG-b-PLGA to sorbitol-PLGA-g-PEI was 1/3. These complex micelles and their gene complexes had appropriate sizes and zeta potentials, and pEGFP-ZNF580 (pDNA) could be efficiently internalized into EA.hy926 cells by their gene complexes (MSP(2 k)/pDNA, MSP(4 k)/pDNA, MSP(6 k)/pDNA, MSP(8 k)/pDNA, and MSP(10 k)/pDNA). The MTT assay results demonstrated that the gene complexes had low cytotoxicity in vitro. When the hydrophobic PLGA chain increased above 6 kDa, the gene complexes showed higher performance than that prepared from short hydrophobic chains. Moreover, the relative ZNF580 protein expression levels in MSP(6 k)/pDNA, MSP(8 k)/pDNA, and MSP(10 k)/pDNA) groups were 79.6%, 71.2%, and 73%, respectively. These gene complexes could promote the transfection of endothelial cells, while providing important information and insight for the design of new and effective gene carriers to promote the proliferation and migration of endothelial cells.

Multifunctional Gene Carriers with Enhanced Specific Penetration and Nucleus Accumulation to Promote Neovascularization of HUVECs in Vivo

Recently, gene therapy has attracted much attention, especially for the treatment of vascular disease. However, it is still challenging to develop the gene carriers with high biocompatibility as well as highly efficient gene delivery to overcome multiple barriers. Herein, a frequently used cell-penetrating peptide PKKKRKV (TAT) was selected as a functional sequence of the gene carrier with distinctive cell-penetrating ability. REDV peptide with selectively targeting function for endothelial cells (ECs) and nuclear localization signals (NLS) were integrated with this TAT peptide to obtain a highly efficient gene delivery system with ECs specificity and nucleus accumulation capacity. Besides, the glycine sequences with different repeat numbers were inserted into the above integrated peptide. These glycine sequences acted as a flexible spacer arm to exert the targeting, cell-penetrating, and nucleus accumulation functions of each functional peptide. Three tandem peptides REDV-G_m-TAT-G_m-NLS (m = 0, 1, and 4) complexed with pZNF580 plasmid to form gene complexes. The results of hemocompatibility and cytocompatibility indicated that these peptides and gene complexes were nontoxic and biocompatible. The internalization efficiency and mechanism of these gene complexes were investigated. The internalization efficiency was improved as the introduction of targeting REDV and glycine sequence, and the REDV-G₄-TAT-G₄-NLS/pZNF580 (TP-G4/pZNF580) complexes showed the highest cellular uptake among the gene complexes. The TP-G4/pZNF580 complexes also presented significantly higher internalization efficiency (∼1.36 times) in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) than human umbilical artery smooth muscle cells. TP-G4/pZNF580 complexes substantially promoted the expression of pZNF580 by confocal live cell imaging, gene delivery efficiency, and HUVECs migration assay. The in vitro and in vivo revascularization ability of transfected HUVECs was further enhanced obviously. In conclusion, these multifunctional REDV-G_m-TAT-G_m-NLS peptides offer a promising and efficacious delivery option for neovascularization to treat vascular diseases.

Tunable PEGylation of branch-type PEI/DNA polyplexes with a compromise of low cytotoxicity and high transgene expression: in vitro and in vivo gene delivery

Although PEGylated polyplexes for gene delivery are widespread, there is a need for an in-depth investigation of the role of the PEGylation degree on the delivery efficiency of the systems. For this, a low-toxicity series of polymers for gene delivery were designed via Michael addition of poly(ethylene glycol)methyl ether methacrylate (PEGMA) onto branched polyethylenimine PEI. The goal was to finely tune the PEGylation degree in order to determine the system offering the best compromise between low cytotoxicity and high transfection efficiency under both in vitro and in vivo conditions. From dynamic light scattering tests, zeta potential measurements and gel retardation assay, it was found that nanoparticle assembly of PEI-g-PEGMA and DNA exhibited stable complex formation when the PEGylation degree was below 2.9%. In addition, complexes formed from polymers with a PEGylation degree of at least 1.67% (from PEI-g-PEGMA-6 to PEI-g-PEGMA-18) all showed very low hemolysis activity. Transfection efficiencies of the prepared complexes were determined using the pEGFP-C3 vector and β-galactosidase. Complexes made of PEI-g-PEGMA-6 and PEI-g-PEGMA-10 at a polymer nitrogen/DNA phosphorus weight ratio (W_n/W_p) of 5 led to the best transfection efficiencies. Moreover, PEGylation ensured low cytotoxicity of the complexes in particular at high W_n/W_p ratios. In vivo tests in a mouse model confirmed the in vitro results obtained for PEI-g-PEGMA-6-based complexes, at all W_n/W_p ratios tested, but also showed that a high PEGylation degree (5.2% for PEI-g-PEGMA-18), though inefficient in vitro could still lead to successful delivery in vivo, due to a prolonged contact time between the complex and the cells, and to the change in the biological environment. Overall, provided a fine tuning of the grafting density of PEGMA onto PEI and the polymer nitrogen/DNA phosphorus weight ratio, our results prove that PEI-g-PEGMA polymers constitute an efficient platform for successful in vitro and in vivo gene delivery, and ensure low cytotoxicity and prolonged cell viability.

Bioreducible, hydrolytically degradable and targeting polymers for gene delivery

Recently, synthetic gene carriers have been intensively developed owing to their promising application in gene therapy and considered as a suitable alternative to viral vectors because of several benefits. But cationic polymers still face some problems like low transfection efficiency, cytotoxicity, and poor cell recognition and internalization. The emerging engineered and smart polymers can respond to some changes in the biological environment like pH change, ionic strength change and redox potential, which is beneficial for cellular uptake. Redox-sensitive disulfide based and hydrolytically degradable cationic polymers serve as gene carriers with excellent transfection efficiency and good biocompatibility owing to degradation in the cytoplasm. Additionally, biodegradable polymeric micelles with cell-targeting function are recently emerging gene carriers, especially for the transfection of endothelial cells. In this review, some strategies for gene carriers based on these bioreducible and hydrolytically degradable polymers will be illustrated.

CAGW Peptide- and PEG-Modified Gene Carrier for Selective Gene Delivery and Promotion of Angiogenesis in HUVECs in Vivo

Gene therapy is a promising strategy for angiogenesis, but developing gene carriers with low cytotoxicity and high gene delivery efficiency in vivo is a key issue. In the present study, we synthesized the CAGW peptide- and poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG)-modified amphiphilic copolymers. CAGW peptide serves as a targeting ligand for endothelial cells (ECs). Different amounts of CAGW peptide were effectively conjugated to the amphiphilic copolymer via heterofunctional poly(ethylene glycol). These CAG- and PEG-modified copolymers could form nanoparticles (NPs) by self-assembly method and were used as gene carriers for the pEGFP-ZNF580 (pZNF580) plasmid. CAGW and PEG modification coordinately improved the hemocompatibility and cytocompatibility of NPs. The results of cellular uptake showed significantly enhanced internalization efficiency of pZNF580 after CAGW modification. Gene expression at mRNA and protein levels demonstrated that EC-targeted NPs possessed high gene delivery efficiency, especially the NPs with higher content of CAGW peptide (1.16 wt %). Furthermore, in vitro and in vivo vascularization assays also showed outstanding vascularization ability of human umbilical vein endothelial cells treated by the NP/pZNF580 complexes. This study demonstrates that the CAGW peptide-modified NP is a promising candidate for gene therapy in angiogenesis.

Star-shaped copolymer grafted PEI and REDV as a gene carrier to improve migration of endothelial cells

A transfection process of EA.hy926 cells treated by REDV peptide targeted micelles/pDNA complexes.

Electrospun PCL-PIBMD/SF blend scaffolds with plasmid complexes for endothelial cell proliferation

PCL-PIBMD/SF scaffolds can maintain the integrity of plasmid complexes loaded in scaffolds, and thereby enhance the proliferation of endothelial cells.

Multi-targeting peptides for gene carriers with high transfection efficiency

Non-viral gene carriers for gene therapy have been developed for many years.

Application of nanodiamonds in Cu(ii)-based rhodamine B probes for NO detection and cell imaging

A nanodiamond-conjugated rhodamine fluorescent sensor for Cu(ii) which could then be developed as an excellent NO selective fluorescent particle.