Nanocellulose: a bioadsorbent for chemical contaminant remediation

Squaramide-based supramolecular gels for the removal of organic dyes from water matrices

A novel family of symmetric squaramide-based LMWGs has been synthesised, functionalized with both dansyl moieties and alkyl chain spacers of different lengths (n = 3 and n = 4 named L1 and L2, respectively). L1 and L2 are able to form hydrogels in the DMSO : H2O mixture in different ratios and concentrations. The gels obtained were characterized by means of rheology, TEM and small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS). Afterwards, the adsorption properties of these materials were studied and the gels were used for the removal of dyes, in particular Nile Blue A, Rose Bengal and Naphthol Yellow S from water samples. The reported results demonstrated the potential use of these materials for the removal of dyes in real polluted water matrices.

Activated Nanocellulose from Corn Husk: Application to As and Pb Adsorption Kinetics in Batch Wastewater

The aim of this study was to evaluate the removal of Pb and As from an aqueous solution using corn residue cellulose nanocrystals (NCCs). The corn husk was subjected to alkaline digestion, followed by bleaching and esterification with 3% citric acid to obtain NCCs. A 10 ppm multimetal solution of Pb and As was prepared. The adsorption process was evaluated by adjusting the pH and NCC dosage, optimized through the nonlinear regression of empirical mathematical models. Based on the optimal parameters, the kinetics were evaluated using the PFO and PSO models. The NCCs displayed nanometer-level characteristics with a particle size less than 383.7 nm, a ζ potential in the range of -28-70 mV, pHZCP with an acidic tendency, a porous crystal structure as evaluated through SEM images, and the presence of functional groups with a high chelating capacity, as identified via FTIR. Optimum values of pH 8.0 and 20 mg/L of the NCC dose were found, from which it was observed that the PFO, PSO, and Elovich kinetics showed R2 > 0.974, with an adsorption capacity in the order Pb > As. The adsorbent-formulated NCCs presented a good capacity to remove heavy metals from aqueous media.

Recent advancements in bamboo nanocellulose-based bioadsorbents and their potential in wastewater applications: A review

The research interest in sustainable and eco-friendly materials based on natural sources has increased dramatically due to their recyclability, biodegradability, compatibility, and nontoxic behavior. Recently, nanocellulose-based green composites are under extensive exploration and have gained popularity among researchers owing to their lightweight, lost cost, low density, excellent mechanical and physical characteristics. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the recent advancements in the extraction, modification, and application of bamboo nanocellulose as a high-performance bioadsorbent. Bamboo, a rapidly renewable resource, offers an eco-friendly alternative to traditional materials due to its abundant availability and unique structural properties. Significantly, bamboo comprises a considerable amount of cellulose, approximately 40 % to 50%, rendering it a valuable source of cellulose fiber for the fabrication of cellulose nanocrystals. The review highlights different various modification techniques which enhance the adsorption capacities and selectivity of bamboo nanocellulose. Furthermore, the integration of bamboo nanocellulose into novel composite materials and its performance in removing contaminants such as heavy metals, dyes, and organic pollutants from wastewater are critically analyzed. Emphasis is placed on the mechanisms of adsorption, regeneration potential, and the economic and environmental benefits of using bamboo-based bioadsorbents. The findings underscore the potential of bamboo nanocellulose to play a pivotal role in developing sustainable wastewater treatment technologies, offering a promising pathway towards cleaner water and a greener future.

Application of Anionic Hydrogels from Date Palm Waste for Dye Adsorption in Wastewater Treatment

This work aimed to develop an anionic cellulose nanofiber (CNF) bio-adsorbent from date palm tree waste and to investigate its removal efficiency compared to cationic methylene blue dye from contaminated water. Date palm pulp was first prepared from date palm leaves through acid hydrolysis using H2SO4, followed by hydrolysis in a basic medium using KOH, in which the process completely removed the components of hemicellulose, lignin, and silica. To obtain anionic CNF, the resulting pulp was further treated with H2SO4, followed by centrifugation. Biogel formation of the CNF suspension was promoted by sonication, where its removal efficiency of methylene blue dye was studied as a function of dye concentration, temperature, contact time, and pH value. In this work, we investigated two isotherms, i.e., Langmuir and Freundlich. The Langmuir model's consistency with the experimental data suggests that the adsorption of methylene blue dye onto CNF is monolayer and surface-limited. The reported maximum removal efficiency of 5 mg/g at 60 °C indicates the optimal temperature for adsorption in this specific case. Additionally, a pseudo-second-order model and Elovich model were also utilized to obtain a better understanding of the adsorption mechanism, in which we found not just physical adsorption but also an indication of a chemical reaction occurring between methylene blue dye and CNF. According to the results, that pseudo-second-order model's consistency with the experimental data suggests that the adsorption of methylene blue (MB) onto CNF is rate-limiting step involving chemisorption between the two. The study reveals that CNF adsorbents derived from renewable natural waste sources such as date palm leaves can be effective in removing cationic contaminants such as methylene blue dye.

Nanocellulose-Based Materials for Water Pollutant Removal: A Review

Cellulose in the nano regime, defined as nanocellulose, has been intensively used for water treatment. Nanocellulose can be produced in various forms, including colloidal, water redispersible powders, films, membranes, papers, hydrogels/aerogels, and three-dimensional (3D) objects. They were reported for the removal of water contaminants, e.g., heavy metals, dyes, drugs, pesticides, pharmaceuticals, microbial cells, and other pollutants from water systems. This review summarized the recent technologies for water treatment using nanocellulose-based materials. A scientometric analysis of the topic was also included. Cellulose-based materials enable the removal of water contaminants, and salts offer advanced technologies for water desalination. They are widely used as substrates, adsorbents, and catalysts. They were applied for pollutant removal via several methods such as adsorption, filtration, disinfection, coagulation/flocculation, chemical precipitation, sedimentation, filtration (e.g., ultrafiltration (UF), nanofiltration (NF)), electrofiltration (electrodialysis), ion-exchange, chelation, catalysis, and photocatalysis. Processing cellulose into commercial products enables the wide use of nanocellulose-based materials as adsorbents and catalysts.

Magnetically nanorized seaweed residue for the adsorption of methylene blue in aqueous solutions

The cost-effective and green separation of dye pollutants from wastewater is of great importance in environmental remediation. Industrial seaweed residue (SR), as a low-cost cellulose source, was used to produce carboxylated nanorized-SR (NSR) via oxalic acid (OA)-water pretreatments followed by ultrasonic disintegration. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, X-ray polycrystalline diffraction, nitrogen isotherms, scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, vibrating sample magnetometry, X-ray photoelectron spectrometry, particle charge detection, zeta potential and retro titration experiments were utilized to explore the physiochemical properties of samples. The NSRs with carboxyl content of 4.58-6.73 mmol g-1 were prepared using 10-60% OA-water pretreatment. In the case of 20% OA-water pretreatment, the highest NSR yield (73.9%) and nanocellulose content (80.2%) were obtained. Through self-assembly induced by the electrostatic interaction, magnetic NSR composite adsorbents (MNSRs) were prepared with the combination of NSR and Fe3O4 nanoparticles (NPs). The carboxylated NSR with negative charge demonstrated good affinity for Fe3O4 NPs. The Fe3O4 NPs were perfectly microencapsulated with the NSR when the NSR/Fe3O4 mass ratio was higher than 1/1. The adsorption properties of the MNSR for methylene blue (MB) removal from aqueous solution were investigated. The adsorbent with NSR/Fe3O4 mass ratio of 1/1 (MNSR1/1) exhibited optimum performance in terms of the magnetic properties and adsorption capacity. The MNSR1/1 showed high adsorption ability in a pH ≥7 environment. According to the Langmuir fitting, the maximum adsorption capacity of MNSR1/1 for MB reached 184.25 mg g-1. The adsorption of MB complies with the pseudo-second-order kinetic model. MNSR1/1 still maintained good adsorption properties after the fifth cycle of adsorption-desorption. MNSR1/1 could selectively adsorb cationic dye (i.e., MB and methyl violet) from wastewater, with hydrogen bonding and electrostatic interaction as the main force.

Flexible electronics for heavy metal ion detection in water: a comprehensive review

Flexible electronics offer a versatile, rapid, cost-effective and portable solution to monitor water contamination, which poses serious threat to the environment and human health. This review paper presents a comprehensive exploration of the versatile platforms of flexible electronics in the context of heavy metal ion detection in water systems. The review overviews of the fundamental principles of heavy metal ion detection, surveys the state-of-the-art materials and fabrication techniques for flexible sensors, analyses key performance metrics and limitations, and discusses future opportunities and challenges. By highlighting recent advances in nanomaterials, polymers, wireless integration, and sustainability, this review aims to serve as an essential resource for researchers, engineers, and policy makers seeking to address the critical challenge of heavy metal contamination in water resources. The versatile promise of flexible electronics is thoroughly elucidated to inspire continued innovation in this emerging technology arena.

Response surface methodology for optimization of nitrocellulose preparation from nata de coco bacterial cellulose for propellant formulation

Nitrocellulose (NC) has garnered significant interest among researchers due to its versatile applications, contingent upon the degree of nitration that modifies the cellulose structure. For instance, NC with a high nitrogen content, exceeding 12.5%, finds utility as a key ingredient in propellant formulations, while variants with lower nitrogen content prove suitable for a range of other applications, including the formulation of printing inks, varnishes, and coatings. This communication aims to present the outcomes of our efforts to optimize the nitration reaction of bacterial cellulose to produce high-nitrogen-content NC, employing the response surface methodology (RSM). Our investigation delves into the influence of the mole ratio of sulfuric and nitric acids, reaction temperature, and nitration duration on the nitrogen content of the resultant products. Utilizing a central composite design (CCD), we identified the optimal conditions for NC synthesis. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) underscored the substantial impact of these reaction conditions on the percentage of nitrogen content (%N) yield. By implementing the predicted optimal conditions-namely, a H2SO4:HNO3 mole ratio of 3:1, a reaction temperature of 35 °C, and a reaction period of 22 min-we successfully produced NC with a nitrogen content of 12.64%. Characterization of these products encompassed elemental analysis, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD), thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA), and field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM).

Nanostructured cellulose sponge engineered for marine environmental remediation: Eco-safety assessment of its leachate on sea urchin reproduction (Part A)

Nanostructured cellulose sponges (CNS) have been developed as eco-friendly and sustainable engineered materials for marine environmental remediation. Despite their functionality, sensitivity, efficiency and specificity have been proved, CNS application is still limited since their environmental safety (eco-safety) has not been completely assessed. In this study, CNS were allowed to leach in natural seawater simulating the remediation process condition and the eco-safety of CNS leachate on sea urchin reproduction has been assessed by carrying out a multi-response integrated approach, combining standardized ecotoxicity tests, innovative bioassays and gamete quality assessment. Overall, the ecotoxicity data indicate that CNS leachate affects gamete quality, gamete fertilisation competence, and embryo development probably associated with the release of chemical additives used during the synthesis process. However, in the framework of the eco-design approach, consecutive leaching treatments and conditioning of CNS in seawater open the route for a new safety protocol successfully solving the ecotoxicity while maintaining CNS sorbent properties. A safe environmental application of the resulting conditioned CNS for seawater pollution remediation is envisaged.

Ni(II) and Pb(II) Removal Using Bacterial Cellulose Membranes

Bacterial cellulose (BC) is a highly crystalline nanosized material with a high number of active groups. This study focuses on the synthesis of BC membranes through fermentation, their characterization and application to remove Ni(II) and Pb(II) from wastewater by adsorption under different conditions. Four-day-grown BC membranes form three-dimensional nanofibril networks with a pH of 6.3 and a high cationic demand (52.5 μeq·g-1). The pseudo-second-order kinetic model and the Sips isotherm model best describe the adsorption of both metals. The intraparticle diffusion model of Ni(II) revealed a three-step mechanism of adsorption-plateau-adsorption, while Pb(II) adsorption followed a typical reducing-slope trend up to saturation. The highest removal of Ni(II) and Pb(II) was obtained at pH 4 with a BC dosage of 400 mg·L-1. The maximum adsorption capacities were 28.18 mg·g-1 and 8.49 mg·g-1 for Ni(II) and Pb(II), respectively, involving the total coverage of the material active sites. Thermodynamically, Ni(II) adsorption was exothermic, and Pb(II) was endothermic. The obtained values of sorption heat, activation and Gibbs' energy depicted a physisorption process. Ni(II) removal mechanism was ruled by crystallization on the metals adsorbed on the BC active groups, while Pb(II) was driven by the adsorption process, as shown by TEM images of the spent material.

Nano/micro-cellulose-based materials as remarkable sorbents for the remediation of agricultural resources from chemical pollutants

Overusing pesticides, fertilizers, and synthetic dyes has significantly increased their presence in various parts of the environment. The transportation of these pollutants into agricultural soil and water through rivers, soils, and groundwater has seriously threatened human and ecosystem health. Applying techniques and materials to clean up agricultural sources from pesticides, heavy metals (HMs), and synthetic dyes (SDs) is one of the major challenges in this century. The sorption technique offers a viable solution to remediate these chemical pollutants (CHPs). Cellulose-based materials have become popular in nano and micro scales because they are widely available, safe to use, biodegradable, and have a significant ability to absorb substances. Nanoscale cellulose-based materials exhibit greater capacity in absorbing pollutants compared to their microscale counterparts because they possess a larger surface area. Many available hydroxyl groups (-OH) and chemical and physical modifications enable the incorporation of CHPs on to cellulose-based materials. Following this potential, this review aims to comprehensively summarize recent advancements in the field of nano- and micro-cellulose-based materials as effective adsorbents for CHPs, given the abundance of cellulosic waste materials from agricultural residues. The recent developments pertaining to the enhancement of the sorption capacity of cellulose-based materials against pesticides, HMs, and SDs, are deliberated.

Preparation and characterization of cellulose nanocrystals from corncob via ionic liquid [Bmim][HSO4] hydrolysis: effects of major process conditions on dimensions of the product

In this study, cellulose nanocrystals were prepared via the hydrolysis of corncob (CC) biomass using Brønsted acid ionic liquid 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium hydrogen sulfate [Bmim][HSO₄]. The corncob was subjected to alkaline pretreatment, and was then hydrolysed by [Bmim][HSO₄], which acted as both solvent and catalyst. The effects of process conditions, including mass percent of CC (1.0-10.0%), reaction temperature (46-110 °C), and reaction time (1.2-2.8 h) on the size of cellulose nanocrystals (IL-CCCNC) were investigated by response surface methodology-central composite design. The obtained IL-CCCNC was characterized by Fourier transforms infrared spectroscopy, zeta sizer, scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, and thermogravimetry. The results showed that the dimensions of the nanocellulose products were affected by the mass percent of CC and the reaction temperature, but were not significantly influenced by the reaction time under the studied conditions. The optimal conditions, estimated by the developed model, were a mass percent of 2.49%, reaction temperature of 100 °C, and reaction time of 1.5 h. The process successfully produced IL-CCCNC with a yield of 40.13%, average size of 166 nm, and crystallinity index (CrI) of 62.5%. The morphology, chemical fingerprints, and thermal properties of the obtained IL-CCCNC were comparable to those extracted by alkaline and acid hydrolysis. After the reaction, [Bmim][HSO₄] could be recovered with a yield of 88.32%, making it a viable green catalyst for the hydrolysis of CC cellulose. The findings are of direct industrial relevance as optimal processes can be developed to produce nanocellulose crystals with desirable size and physicochemical characteristics.

Experimental and Modeling Optimization of Strontium Adsorption on Microbial Nanocellulose, Eco-friendly Approach

Green synthesized cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) was prepared using Neurospora intermedia, characterized, and used to remove Strontium ions (Sr2+) from an aqueous solution with high efficiency. The characterization of CNCs was performed using a UV-Vis Spectrophotometer, Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS), Zeta Potential (ZP), Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), X-Ray Diffraction (XRD), and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) mapping, EDX elemental analysis and BET surface analyzer. In this study, Response Surface Methodology (RSM) based on Box-Behnken Design (BBD) was successfully applied for the first time to optimize the dynamic adsorption conditions for the maximum removal of Sr2+ ions from aqueous solutions using CNCs as adsorbent. The effects of parameters, such as initial concentration of Sr2+ (50–500 ppm), adsorbent dosage (0.05–0.2 g/50ml), and contact time (15–120 min.) on removal efficiency were investigated. A mathematical model was studied to predict the removal performance. The significance and adequacy of the model were surveyed using the analysis of variance (ANOVA). The results showed that the second-order polynomial model is suitable for the prediction removal of Sr2+ with regression coefficient (R2 = 97.41%). The highest sorption capacity value of Sr2+ was obtained (281.89 mg/g) at the adsorbent dosage of 0.05 g/50 ml, contact time of 120 min., and the pollutant (Sr2+) concentration of 275 ppm.

Biodegradable Polymers and Polymer Composites with Antibacterial Properties

Antibiotic resistance is one of the greatest threats to global health and food security today. It becomes increasingly difficult to treat infectious disorders because antibiotics, even the newest ones, are becoming less and less effective. One of the ways taken in the Global Plan of Action announced at the World Health Assembly in May 2015 is to ensure the prevention and treatment of infectious diseases. In order to do so, attempts are made to develop new antimicrobial therapeutics, including biomaterials with antibacterial activity, such as polycationic polymers, polypeptides, and polymeric systems, to provide non-antibiotic therapeutic agents, such as selected biologically active nanoparticles and chemical compounds. Another key issue is preventing food from contamination by developing antibacterial packaging materials, particularly based on degradable polymers and biocomposites. This review, in a cross-sectional way, describes the most significant research activities conducted in recent years in the field of the development of polymeric materials and polymer composites with antibacterial properties. We particularly focus on natural polymers, i.e., polysaccharides and polypeptides, which present a mechanism for combating many highly pathogenic microorganisms. We also attempt to use this knowledge to obtain synthetic polymers with similar antibacterial activity.

Ixora coccinea L. - A reliable source of nanocellulose for bio-adsorbent applications

Nanocellulose, a subset of nanomaterials made from cellulose, one of the world's most plentiful natural resources, has the potential to offer environmentally friendly, renewable, and sustainable building blocks with enhanced properties for a variety of applications in the nanotechnology field. This article describes the impact of glutaraldehyde (GA) on glycerol plasticized nanocellulose derived from I. coccinea L. plant root. Using a variety of characterization techniques, including Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray Powder Diffraction (XRD), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), AFM, tensile and Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) analysis, the effect of GA on glycerol plasticized nano-cellulose was investigated. The tensile modulus of the GA-crosslinked, 2 % glycerol-plasticized nanocellulose scaffolds is higher (88.82 MPa) than that of the regular nanocellulose scaffolds (78.8 MPa). The scaffold Young's modulus has been increased to 86.3 MPa. The results of the BET study proved that the surface area of the GA crosslinked nano-cellulose scaffold improved to129.703 m²/g. The larger surface area in turn results in a greater number of contact sites between consecutive fibers. This enhances the utility of the scaffold as a bio-adsorbent for waste water treatment. The absorbance of textile black dye and methylene blue dye in sunlight using nanocellulose composites as photocatalyst revealed a significant decrease in dye concentration after each hour, demonstrating the composites' bio-adsorbent property. The non-toxic nature, inertness, increased crystallinity index values, and good mechanical qualities are other characteristics of the GA-treated nanocellulose encourages its uses as product packaging, bioengineering materials, tissue engineering, and insulation coatings.

Barley thermoplastic starch nanocomposite films reinforced with nanocellulose

Despite being one of the starch producers, barley has yet to be widely studied for thermoplastic starch applications, including nanocellulose thermoplastic composites, due to its uses in the food and beverage industries. However, only 20% of barley is used in the malting industry to produce both alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages, and 5% is used as an ingredient in a wide variety of foods. As the fourth most important cereal in the world after wheat, corn, and rice, barley can be considered an interesting biomass source to produce biodegradable thermoplastics, stemming from its starch constitution. Therefore, this review attempts to highlight the barley starch properties and its potential utilization for nanocellulose thermoplastic starch composites. Several studies involving barley-based starch in thermoplastic production and nanocellulose reinforcement for properties enhancement are also reviewed, particularly in the attempt to provide various options to reduce and replace the uses of harmful petroleum-based plastic.

Wheat thermoplastic starch composite films reinforced with nanocellulose

The rising costs of non-renewable plastic and environmental concerns with their industrial usage have encouraged the study and development of renewable products. As an alternative, biological-based materials create a huge opportunity for a healthy and safe environment by replacing non-renewable plastic in a variety of applications. Wheat is one of the world’s most widely cultivated crops. Due to its mechanical and physical properties, wheat starch is vital in the biopolymer industry. Wheat thermoplastic starch exhibits useable properties when plasticizers, elevated temperatures and shear are present. Thus, make it very suitable to be used as packaging material. However, this material suffers from low mechanical properties, which limit its applications. Several studies looked at the feasibility of using plant components which is nanocellulose as a reinforcing agent in wheat starch thermoplastic composites. Overall, the addition of nanocellulose can improve the performance of wheat thermoplastic starch, especially for its mechanical properties. It can potentially be used in several areas of packaging and biomedical. The objective of this review is to discuss several achievements regarding wheat starch/nanocellulose-based composites. Several important aspects of the mechanical performance and the thermal properties of the composites were evaluated. The discussion on wheat starch and nanocellulose was also tackled in this review.

Potato thermoplastic starch nanocomposite films reinforced with nanocellulose

Potato is a widely available feedstock with biocompatibility and biodegradability properties, making it a strong candidate for producing thermoplastic starch. The application of thermoplastic starch to replace petroleum-based plastic as a sustainable and environmentally friendly approach led to its further improvement through various techniques such as modification and filler reinforcement. Numerous studies have been done addressing the properties enhancement of potato thermoplastic starch through filler reinforcement including nanocellulose. This review focus on the recent and future potential of potato-based starch as one of the feedstocks for producing potato thermoplastic starch composites reinforced with nanocellulose.

Sorption of hazardous industrial organic liquids with environmentally friendly functionalized cellulosic sorbents

The performances of five cellulosic polymers with different functional groups (cellulose, cellulose acetate, cellulose phosphate, chitosan, and chitin) as sorbents of seven frequently used hazardous polar organic liquids (acrolein, butanone peroxide, epichlorohydrin, formaldehyde, furfuryl alcohol, propylene oxide, and vinyl acetate) are investigated in this study. Amongst the cellulosic sorbents, cellulose phosphate exhibited enhanced sorption properties (as high as 3.09–7.03 g/g) against all seven polar organic liquids investigated, and chitosan and chitin also demonstrated comparable sorption efficiencies (2.28–7.72 g/g and 2.55–5.86 g/g, respectively) to those of cellulose phosphate. According to our investigation, the enhanced sorption efficiency could be achieved due to low powder density of cellulose phosphate, which is caused by the weak intramolecular interaction amongst the polymer chains. In addition, cellulose phosphate, chitosan, and chitin also showed enhanced absorbed solvent recovery percents (71.4, 60.6, and 61.1%, respectively, in average) compared with that of pristine cellulose (43.8%). With excellent sorption efficiency, enhanced solvent recovery rate, and reusability after drying, these functionalized cellulosic sorbents can be excellent candidates to replace the conventional carbon and vermiculites-based sorbents, especially for liquid polar organic spill sorption.

The Frontiers of Functionalized Nanocellulose-Based Composites and Their Application as Chemical Sensors

Chemical sensors are a rapidly developing technology that has received much attention in diverse industries such as military, medicine, environmental surveillance, automotive power and mobility, food manufacturing, infrastructure construction, product packaging and many more. The mass production of low-cost devices and components for use as chemical sensors is a major driving force for improvements in each of these industries. Recently, studies have found that using renewable and eco-friendly materials would be advantageous for both manufacturers and consumers. Thus, nanotechnology has led to the investigation of nanocellulose, an emerging and desirable bio-material for use as a chemical sensor. The inherent properties of nanocellulose, its high tensile strength, large specific surface area and good porous structure have many advantages in its use as a composite material for chemical sensors, intended to decrease response time by minimizing barriers to mass transport between an analyte and the immobilized indicator in the sensor. Besides which, the piezoelectric effect from aligned fibers in nanocellulose composites is beneficial for application in chemical sensors. Therefore, this review presents a discussion on recent progress and achievements made in the area of nanocellulose composites for chemical sensing applications. Important aspects regarding the preparation of nanocellulose composites using different functionalization with other compounds are also critically discussed in this review.

Recent advances and future perspective on nanocellulose-based materials in diverse water treatment applications

Over the past few years, nanocellulose and its derivatives have drawn attention as promising bio-based materials for water treatment applications due to their high surface area, high strength, and renewable, biocompatible nature. The abundance of hydroxyl functional groups on the surfaces of cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) and cellulose nanofibrils (CNFs) enables a broad range of surface modifications which results in propitious nanocomposites with tunable characteristics. In this context, this review describes the continuously developing applications of nanocellulose-based materials in the areas of adsorption, catalysis, filtration, and flocculation, with a special emphasis on the removal of contaminants such as heavy metals, dyes, and pharmaceutical compounds from diverse water systems. Recent progresses in the diverse forms of application of nanocellulose adsorbents (suspension, hydrogel, aerogel, and membrane) are also highlighted. Finally, challenges and future perspectives on emerging nanocellulose-based materials and their possible industrial applications are presented and discussed.

Nanocellulose-Based Nanocomposites for Sustainable Applications: A Review

Nanocellulose has emerged in recent years as one of the most notable green materials available due to its numerous appealing factors, including its non-toxic nature, biodegradability, high aspect ratio, superior mechanical capabilities, remarkable optical properties, anisotropic shape, high mechanical strength, excellent biocompatibility and tailorable surface chemistry. It is proving to be a promising material in a range of applications pertinent to the material engineering to biomedical applications. In this review, recent advances in the preparation, modification, and emerging application of nanocellulose, especially cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs), are described and discussed based on the analysis of the latest investigations. This review presents an overview of general concepts in nanocellulose-based nanocomposites for sustainable applications. Beginning with a brief introduction of cellulose, nanocellulose sources, structural characteristics and the extraction process for those new to the area, we go on to more in-depth content. Following that, the research on techniques used to modify the surface properties of nanocellulose by functionalizing surface hydroxyl groups to impart desirable hydrophilic-hydrophobic balance, as well as their characteristics and functionalization strategies, were explained. The usage of nanocellulose in nanocomposites in versatile fields, as well as novel and foreseen markets of nanocellulose products, are also discussed. Finally, the difficulties, challenges and prospects of materials based on nanocellulose are then discussed in the last section for readers searching for future high-end eco-friendly functional materials.

The synthesis of nanocellulose-based nanocomposites for the effective removal of hexavalent chromium ions from aqueous solution

The present study reports the synthesis of a polydopamine (PDA)/nanocellulose (NC) nanocomposite for the effective removal of chromium ions from water. PDA was used to modify NC surface producing a nanocomposite namely PDA/NC, by in situ polymerization of dopamine on the surface of NC. Thereafter, the as-synthesized nanocomposite was characterized using familiar techniques such as Fourier transform infrared, X-ray diffraction, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy, and transmission electron microscopy. All results indicated the successful combination of PDA and NC in one nanocomposite. The PDA/NC nanocomposite was evaluated for the removal of hexavalent Cr(vi) ions from an aqueous solution. The adsorption conditions, such as pH, contact time, and initial Cr(vi) concentration, were optimized. Adsorption kinetic studies revealed that Cr(vi) removal on the surface of PDA/NC nanocomposite followed the pseudo-second-order kinetic model. Furthermore, isotherm studies revealed that Cr(vi) removal followed the Langmuir isotherm model with a maximum adsorption capacity (q m) of 210 mg/g. The adsorption mechanism study indicated that the Cr(vi) removal was reached via complexation, adsorption, and chemical reduction. The reusability of a PDA/NC nanocomposite for the removal of Cr(vi) ions was studied up to five cycles with acceptable results. The high adsorption capacity and multiple removal mechanisms validated the effective applicability of PDA/NC nanocomposite as a useful adsorbent for the removal of Cr(vi) ions from aqueous solution.

Modeling of Hexavalent Chromium Removal with Hydrophobically Modified Cellulose Nanofibers

Cellulose nanofibers (CNF) are sustainable nanomaterials, obtained by the mechanical disintegration of cellulose, whose properties make them an interesting adsorbent material due to their high specific area and active groups. CNF are easily functionalized to optimize the performance for different uses. The hypothesis of this work is that hydrophobization can be used to improve their ability as adsorbents. Therefore, hydrophobic CNF was applied to adsorb hexavalent chromium from wastewater. CNF was synthetized by TEMPO-mediated oxidation, followed by mechanical disintegration. Hydrophobization was performed using methyl trimetoxysilane (MTMS) as a hydrophobic coating agent. The adsorption treatment of hexavalent chromium with hydrophobic CNF was optimized by studying the influence of contact time, MTMS dosage (0-3 mmol·g^-1 CNF), initial pH of the wastewater (3-9), initial chromium concentration (0.10-50 mg·L^-1), and adsorbent dosage (250-1000 mg CNF·L^-1). Furthermore, the corresponding adsorption mechanism was identified. Complete adsorption of hexavalent chromium was achieved with CNF hydrophobized with 1.5 mmol MTMS·g^-1 CNF with the faster adsorption kinetic, which proved the initial hypothesis that hydrophobic CNF improves the adsorption capacity of hydrophilic CNF. The optimal adsorption conditions were pH 3 and the adsorbent dosage was over 500 mg·L^-1. The maximum removal was found for the initial concentrations of hexavalent chromium below 1 mg·L^-1 and a maximum adsorption capacity of 70.38 mg·g^-1 was achieved. The kinetic study revealed that pseudo-second order kinetics was the best fitting model at a low concentration while the intraparticle diffusion model fit better for higher concentrations, describing a multi-step mechanism of hexavalent chromium onto the adsorbent surface. The Freundlich isotherm was the best adjustment model.

Synthesis, Characterization, and Application of Magnetized Lanthanum (III)-Based Metal-Organic Framework for the Organic Dye Removal from Water

A hybrid composite based on metal-organic framework (MOF) was chemically fabricated by embedding the magnetic Fe3O4 nanoparticles within amino-functionalized porous La-MOF (MOF/NH2) to produce a highly efficient and reusable composite of MOF/NH2/Fe3O4. Different proper techniques were used for the characterization of surface morphology and chemical arrangement of the prepared MOF/NH2/Fe3O4 composite. The characterization results using various techniques including Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscope (SEM), Brunauer, Emmett, and Teller analysis (BET), and vibrating sample magnetometer (VSM) approved the successful fabrication of MOF with amino arms on its surface besides the well magnetization using magnetic nanoparticles. The MOF/NH2/Fe3O4 composite showed enhanced adsorption capacity (618 mg/g) toward methyl orange (MO) anionic dye which is higher than many commercial reported adsorbents due to the presence of many types of adsorption sites (NH2 groups and lanthanum sites), large surface area of MOF, and the synergetic effect of magnetic nanoparticles. Moreover, the MOF/NH2/Fe3O4 composite showed selective adsorption of MO dye from dye mixtures owing to the electrostatic attraction. Also, the MOF/NH2/Fe3O4 composite retained over 90% of its efficiency for the dye removal even after six successive cycles. So, the present study provided a practical strategy for the design of functional MOF hybrid composites. Furthermore, due to the adaptability of its architectural form, it is a potential adsorbent material for industrial wastewater treatment uses.

A Comprehensive Review of Types, Properties, Treatment Methods and Application of Plant Fibers in Construction and Building Materials

Sustainable development involves the usage of alternative sustainable materials in order to sustain the excessive depletion of natural resources. Plant fibers, as a "green" material, are progressively gaining the attention of various researchers in the field of construction for their potential use in composites for stepping towards sustainable development. This study aims to provide a scientometric review of the summarized background of plant fibers and their applications as construction and building materials. Studies from the past two decades are summarized. Quantitative assessment of research progress is made by using connections and maps between bibliometric data that are compiled for the analysis of plant fibers using Scopus. Data refinement techniques are also used. Plant fibers are potentially used to enhance the mechanical properties of a composite. It is revealed from the literature that plant-fiber-reinforced composites have comparable properties in comparison to composites reinforced with artificial/steel fibers for civil engineering applications, such as construction materials, bridge piers, canal linings, soil reinforcement, pavements, acoustic treatment, insulation materials, etc. However, the biodegradable nature of plant fibers is still a hindrance to their application as a structural material. For this purpose, different surface and chemical treatment methods have been proposed in past studies to improve their durability. It can be surmised from the gathered data that the compressive and flexural strengths of plant-fiber-reinforced cementitious composites are increased by up to 43% and 67%, respectively, with respect to a reference composite. In the literature, alkaline treatment has been reported as an effective and economical method for treating plant fibers. Environmental degradation due to excessive consumption of natural resources and fossil fuels for the construction industry, along with the burning of waste plant fibers, can be reduced by incorporating said fibers in cementitious composites to reduce landfill pollution and, ultimately, achieve sustainable development.

Emerging Developments on Nanocellulose as Liquid Crystals: A Biomimetic Approach

Biomimetics is the field of obtaining ideas from nature that can be applied in science, engineering, and medicine. The usefulness of cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) and their excellent characteristics in biomimetic applications are exciting and promising areas of present and future research. CNCs are bio-based nanostructured material that can be isolated from several natural biomasses. The CNCs are one-dimensional with a high aspect ratio. They possess high crystalline order and high chirality when they are allowed to assemble in concentrated dispersions. Recent studies have demonstrated that CNCs possess remarkable optical and chemical properties that can be used to fabricate liquid crystals. Research is present in the early stage to develop CNC-based solvent-free liquid crystals that behave like both crystalline solids and liquids and exhibit the phenomenon of birefringence in anisotropic media. All these characteristics are beneficial for several biomimetic applications. Moreover, the films of CNC show the property of iridescent colors, making it suitable for photonic applications in various devices, such as electro-optical devices and flat panel displays.

Recent advances on nanocellulose biomaterials for environmental health photoremediation: An overview

As one of the potential bionanomaterials, nanocellulose has appeared as a favorable candidate for photoremediation of the environment because of its abundance in nature, inexpensive, eco-friendly, decomposable, high surface area, and outstanding mechanical properties. The current review carefully summarized the diverse type of nanocellulose, their preparation approaches, and several previous works on the use of nanocellulose for photoremediation. These include the role of nanocellulose for the increased surface active site of the hybrid photocatalysts by providing a large surface area for enhanced adsorption of photons and pollutant molecules, as a dispersing agent to increase distribution of metal/non-metal dopants photocatalysts, as well as for controlled size and morphology of the dopants photocatalysts. Furthermore, the recommendations for upcoming research provided in this review are anticipated to ignite an idea for the development of other nanocellulose-based photocatalysts. Other than delivering beneficial information on the present growth of the nanocellulose biomaterials photocatalysts, this review is expected will attract more interest to the utilization of nanocellulose photocatalyst and distribute additional knowledge in this exciting area of environmental photoremediation. This could be attained by considering that a review on nanocellulose biomaterials for environmental health photoremediation has not been described elsewhere, notwithstanding intensive research works have been dedicated to this topic.

Nanocellulose as green material for remediation of hazardous heavy metal contaminants

Heavy metal pollution generated by urban and industrial activities has become a major global concern due to its high toxicity, minimal biodegradability, and persistence in the food chain. These are the severe pollutants that have the potential to harm humans and the environment as a whole. Mercury, chromium, copper, zinc, cadmium, lead, and nickel are the most often discharged hazardous heavy metals. Nanocellulose, reminiscent of many other sustainable nanostructured materials, is gaining popularity for application in bioremediation technologies owing to its many unique features and potentials. The adsorption of heavy metals from wastewaters is greatly improved when cellulose dimension is reduced to nanometric levels. For instance, the adsorption efficiency of Cr³⁺ and Cr⁶⁺ is found to be 42.02% and 5.79% respectively using microcellulose, while nanocellulose adsorbed 62.40% of Cr³⁺ ions and 5.98% of Cr⁶⁺ ions from contaminated water. These nanomaterials are promising in terms of their ease and low cost of regeneration. This review addresses the relevance of nanocellulose as biosorbent, scaffold, and membrane in various heavy metal bioremediation, as well as provides insights into the challenges, future prospects, and updates. The methods of designing better nanocellulose biosorbents to improve adsorption efficiency according to contaminant types are focused.

Natural Fiber-Reinforced Polycaprolactone Green and Hybrid Biocomposites for Various Advanced Applications

Recent developments within the topic of biomaterials has taken hold of researchers due to the mounting concern of current environmental pollution as well as scarcity resources. Amongst all compatible biomaterials, polycaprolactone (PCL) is deemed to be a great potential biomaterial, especially to the tissue engineering sector, due to its advantages, including its biocompatibility and low bioactivity exhibition. The commercialization of PCL is deemed as infant technology despite of all its advantages. This contributed to the disadvantages of PCL, including expensive, toxic, and complex. Therefore, the shift towards the utilization of PCL as an alternative biomaterial in the development of biocomposites has been exponentially increased in recent years. PCL-based biocomposites are unique and versatile technology equipped with several importance features. In addition, the understanding on the properties of PCL and its blend is vital as it is influenced by the application of biocomposites. The superior characteristics of PCL-based green and hybrid biocomposites has expanded their applications, such as in the biomedical field, as well as in tissue engineering and medical implants. Thus, this review is aimed to critically discuss the characteristics of PCL-based biocomposites, which cover each mechanical and thermal properties and their importance towards several applications. The emergence of nanomaterials as reinforcement agent in PCL-based biocomposites was also a tackled issue within this review. On the whole, recent developments of PCL as a potential biomaterial in recent applications is reviewed.

A Review on Antimicrobial Packaging from Biodegradable Polymer Composites

The development of antimicrobial packaging has been growing rapidly due to an increase in awareness and demands for sustainable active packaging that could preserve the quality and prolong the shelf life of foods and products. The addition of highly efficient antibacterial nanoparticles, antifungals, and antioxidants to biodegradable and environmentally friendly green polymers has become a significant advancement trend for the packaging evolution. Impregnation of antimicrobial agents into the packaging film is essential for impeding or destroying the pathogenic microorganisms causing food illness and deterioration. Higher safety and quality as well as an extended shelf life of sustainable active packaging desired by the industry are further enhanced by applying the different types of antimicrobial packaging systems. Antimicrobial packaging not only can offer a wide range of advantages, but also preserves the environment through usage of renewable and biodegradable polymers instead of common synthetic polymers, thus reducing plastic pollution generated by humankind. This review intended to provide a summary of current trends and applications of antimicrobial, biodegradable films in the packaging industry as well as the innovation of nanotechnology to increase efficiency of novel, bio-based packaging systems.

Environmentally Friendly Polyvinyl Alcohol-Alginate/Bentonite Semi-Interpenetrating Polymer Network Nanocomposite Hydrogel Beads as an Efficient Adsorbent for the Removal of Methylene Blue from Aqueous Solution

Hazardous chemicals like toxic organic dyes are very harmful to the environment and their removal is quite challenging. Therefore there is a necessity to develop techniques, which are environment friendly, cost-effective and easily available in nature for water purification and remediation. The present research work is focused on the development` and characterization of the ecofriendly semi-interpenetrating polymer network (semi-IPN) nanocomposite hydrogels composed of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and alginate (Alg) hydrogel beads incorporating natural bentonite (Bent) clay as a beneficial adsorbent for the removal of toxic methylene blue (MB) from aqueous solution. PVA-Alg/Bent nanocomposite hydrogel beads with different Bent content (0, 10, 20, and 30 wt%) were synthesized via external ionic gelation method. The designed porous and steady structure beads were characterized by the use of Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The performance of the beads as MB adsorbents was investigated by treating aqueous solutions in batch mode. The experimental results indicated that the incorporation of Bent (30 wt%) in the nanocomposite formulation sustained the porous structure, preserved water uptake, and increased MB removal efficiency by 230% compared to empty beads. Designed beads possessed higher affinity to MB at high pH 8, 30 °C, and fitted well to pseudo-second-order kinetic model with a high correlation coefficient. Moreover, the designed beads had good stability and reusability as they exhibited excellent removal efficiency (90%) after six consecutive adsorption-desorption cycles. The adsorption process was found be combination of both monolayer adsorption on homogeneous surface and multilayer adsorption on heterogeneous surface. The maximum adsorption capacity of the designed beads system as calculated by Langmuir isotherm was found to be 51.34 mg/g, which is in good agreement with the reported clay-related adsorbents. The designed semi-IPN PVA-Alg/Bent nanocomposite hydrogel beads demonstrated good adsorbent properties and could be potentially used for MB removal from polluted water.

Emerging Developments Regarding Nanocellulose-Based Membrane Filtration Material against Microbes

The wide availability and diversity of dangerous microbes poses a considerable problem for health professionals and in the development of new healthcare products. Numerous studies have been conducted to develop membrane filters that have antibacterial properties to solve this problem. Without proper protective filter equipment, healthcare providers, essential workers, and the general public are exposed to the risk of infection. A combination of nanotechnology and biosorption is expected to offer a new and greener approach to improve the usefulness of polysaccharides as an advanced membrane filtration material. Nanocellulose is among the emerging materials of this century and several studies have proven its use in filtering microbes. Its high specific surface area enables the adsorption of various microbial species, and its innate porosity can separate various molecules and retain microbial objects. Besides this, the presence of an abundant OH groups in nanocellulose grants its unique surface modification, which can increase its filtration efficiency through the formation of affinity interactions toward microbes. In this review, an update of the most relevant uses of nanocellulose as a new class of membrane filters against microbes is outlined. Key advancements in surface modifications of nanocellulose to enhance its rejection mechanism are also critically discussed. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first review focusing on the development of nanocellulose as a membrane filter against microbes.

Recent Advances in the Fabrication and Environmental Science Applications of Cellulose Nanofibril-Based Functional Materials

Cellulose is one of the important biomass materials in nature and has shown wide applications in various fields from materials science, biomedicine, tissue engineering, wearable devices, energy, and environmental science, as well as many others. Due to their one-dimensional nanostructure, high specific surface area, excellent biodegradability, low cost, and high sustainability, cellulose nanofibrils/nanofibers (CNFs) have been widely used for environmental science applications in the last years. In this review, we summarize the advance in the design, synthesis, and water purification applications of CNF-based functional nanomaterials. To achieve this aim, we firstly introduce the synthesis and functionalization of CNFs, which are further extended for the formation of CNF hybrid materials by combining with other functional nanoscale building blocks, such as polymers, biomolecules, nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes, and two-dimensional (2D) materials. Then, the fabrication methods of CNF-based 2D membranes/films, three-dimensional (3D) hydrogels, and 3D aerogels are presented. Regarding the environmental science applications, CNF-based nanomaterials for the removal of metal ions, anions, organic dyes, oils, and bio-contents are demonstrated and discussed in detail. Finally, the challenges and outlooks in this promising research field are discussed. It is expected that this topical review will guide and inspire the design and fabrication of CNF-based novel nanomaterials with high sustainability for practical applications.

3D-Printable Nanocellulose-Based Functional Materials: Fundamentals and Applications

Nanomaterials obtained from sustainable and natural sources have seen tremendous growth in recent times due to increasing interest in utilizing readily and widely available resources. Nanocellulose materials extracted from renewable biomasses hold great promise for increasing the sustainability of conventional materials in various applications owing to their biocompatibility, mechanical properties, ease of functionalization, and high abundance. Nanocellulose can be used to reinforce mechanical strength, impart antimicrobial activity, provide lighter, biodegradable, and more robust materials for packaging, and produce photochromic and electrochromic devices. While the fabrication and properties of nanocellulose are generally well established, their implementation in novel products and applications requires surface modification, assembly, and manufacturability to enable rapid tooling and scalable production. Additive manufacturing techniques such as 3D printing can improve functionality and enhance the ability to customize products while reducing fabrication time and wastage of materials. This review article provides an overview of nanocellulose as a sustainable material, covering the different properties, preparation methods, printability and strategies to functionalize nanocellulose into 3D-printed constructs. The applications of 3D-printed nanocellulose composites in food, environmental, and energy devices are outlined, and an overview of challenges and opportunities is provided.

Greener Pretreatment Approaches for the Valorisation of Natural Fibre Biomass into Bioproducts

The utilization of lignocellulosic biomass in various applications has a promising potential as advanced technology progresses due to its renowned advantages as cheap and abundant feedstock. The main drawback in the utilization of this type of biomass is the essential requirement for the pretreatment process. The most common pretreatment process applied is chemical pretreatment. However, it is a non-eco-friendly process. Therefore, this review aims to bring into light several greener pretreatment processes as an alternative approach for the current chemical pretreatment. The main processes for each physical and biological pretreatment process are reviewed and highlighted. Additionally, recent advances in the effect of different non-chemical pretreatment approaches for the natural fibres are also critically discussed with a focus on bioproducts conversion.

A Review on Mechanical Performance of Hybrid Natural Fiber Polymer Composites for Structural Applications

In the field of hybrid natural fiber polymer composites, there has been a recent surge in research and innovation for structural applications. To expand the strengths and applications of this category of materials, significant effort was put into improving their mechanical properties. Hybridization is a designed technique for fiber-reinforced composite materials that involves combining two or more fibers of different groups within a single matrix to manipulate the desired properties. They may be made from a mix of natural and synthetic fibers, synthetic and synthetic fibers, or natural fiber and carbonaceous materials. Owing to their diverse properties, hybrid natural fiber composite materials are manufactured from a variety of materials, including rubber, elastomer, metal, ceramics, glasses, and plants, which come in composite, sandwich laminate, lattice, and segmented shapes. Hybrid composites have a wide range of uses, including in aerospace interiors, naval, civil building, industrial, and sporting goods. This study intends to provide a summary of the factors that contribute to natural fiber-reinforced polymer composites' mechanical and structural failure as well as overview the details and developments that have been achieved with the composites.

Performance Evaluation of Cellulose Nanofiber with Residual Hemicellulose as a Nanofiller in Polypropylene-Based Nanocomposite

Residual hemicellulose could enhance cellulose nanofiber (CNF) processing as it impedes the agglomeration of the nanocellulose fibrils and contributes to complete nanofibrillation within a shorter period of time. Its effect on CNF performance as a reinforcement material is unclear, and hence this study seeks to evaluate the performance of CNF in the presence of amorphous hemicellulose as a reinforcement material in a polypropylene (PP) nanocomposite. Two types of CNF were prepared: SHS-CNF, which contained about 11% hemicellulose, and KOH-CNF, with complete hemicellulose removal. Mechanical properties of the PP/SHS-CNF and PP/KOH-CNF showed an almost similar increment in tensile strength (31% and 32%) and flexural strength (28% and 29%) when 3 wt.% of CNF was incorporated in PP, indicating that hemicellulose in SHS-CNF did not affect the mechanical properties of the PP nanocomposite. The crystallinity of both PP/SHS-CNF and PP/KOH-CNF nanocomposites showed an almost similar value at 55-56%. A slight decrement in thermal stability was seen, whereby the decomposition temperature at 10% weight loss (Td10%) of PP/SHS-CNF was 6 °C lower at 381 °C compared to 387 °C for PP/KOH-CNF, which can be explained by the degradation of thermally unstable hemicellulose. The results from this study showed that the presence of some portion of hemicellulose in CNF did not affect the CNF properties, suggesting that complete hemicellulose removal may not be necessary for the preparation of CNF to be used as a reinforcement material in nanocomposites. This will lead to less harsh pretreatment for CNF preparation and, hence, a more sustainable nanocomposite can be produced.