The crosstalk between non-coding RNAs and cell-cycle events: A new frontier in cancer therapy

The cell cycle comprises sequential events during which a cell duplicates its genome and divides it into two daughter cells. This process is tightly regulated to ensure that the daughter cell receives identical copied chromosomal DNA and that any errors in the DNA during replication are correctly repaired. Cyclins and their enzyme partners, cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs), are critical regulators of G- to M-phase transitions during the cell cycle. Mitogenic signals induce the formation of the cyclin/CDK complexes, resulting in phosphorylation and activation of the CDKs. Once activated, cyclin/CDK complexes phosphorylate specific substrates that drive the cell cycle forward. The sequential activation and inactivation of cyclin-CDK complexes are tightly controlled by activating and inactivating phosphorylation events induced by cell-cycle proteins. The non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs), which do not code for proteins, regulate cell-cycle proteins at the transcriptional and translational levels, thereby controlling their expression at different cell-cycle phases. Deregulation of ncRNAs can cause abnormal expression patterns of cell-cycle-regulating proteins, resulting in abnormalities in cell-cycle regulation and cancer development. This review explores how ncRNA dysregulation can disrupt cell division balance and discusses potential therapeutic approaches targeting these ncRNAs to control cell-cycle events in cancer treatment.

Multi-step control of homologous recombination via Mec1/ATR suppresses chromosomal rearrangements

The Mec1/ATR kinase is crucial for genome stability, yet the mechanism by which it prevents gross chromosomal rearrangements (GCRs) remains unknown. Here we find that in cells with deficient Mec1 signaling, GCRs accumulate due to the deregulation of multiple steps in homologous recombination (HR). Mec1 primarily suppresses GCRs through its role in activating the canonical checkpoint kinase Rad53, which ensures the proper control of DNA end resection. Upon loss of Rad53 signaling and resection control, Mec1 becomes hyperactivated and triggers a salvage pathway in which the Sgs1 helicase is recruited to sites of DNA lesions via the 911-Dpb11 scaffolds and phosphorylated by Mec1 to favor heteroduplex rejection and limit HR-driven GCR accumulation. Fusing an ssDNA recognition domain to Sgs1 bypasses the requirement of Mec1 signaling for GCR suppression and nearly eliminates D-loop formation, thus preventing non-allelic recombination events. We propose that Mec1 regulates multiple steps of HR to prevent GCRs while ensuring balanced HR usage when needed for promoting tolerance to replication stress.

S-phase checkpoint prevents leading strand degradation from strand-associated nicks at stalled replication forks

The S-phase checkpoint is involved in coupling DNA unwinding with nascent strand synthesis and is critical to maintain replication fork stability in conditions of replicative stress. However, its role in the specific regulation of leading and lagging strands at stalled forks is unclear. By conditionally depleting RNaseH2 and analyzing polymerase usage genome-wide, we examine the enzymology of DNA replication during a single S-phase in the presence of replicative stress and show that there is a differential regulation of lagging and leading strands. In checkpoint proficient cells, lagging strand replication is down-regulated through an Elg1-dependent mechanism. Nevertheless, when checkpoint function is impaired we observe a defect specifically at the leading strand, which was partially dependent on Exo1 activity. Further, our genome-wide mapping of DNA single-strand breaks reveals that strand discontinuities highly accumulate at the leading strand in HU-treated cells, whose dynamics are affected by checkpoint function and Exo1 activity. Our data reveal an unexpected role of Exo1 at the leading strand and support a model of fork stabilization through prevention of unrestrained Exo1-dependent resection of leading strand-associated nicks after fork stalling.

Extracellular DNA secreted in yeast cultures is metabolism-specific and inhibits cell proliferation

Extracellular DNA (exDNA) can be actively released by living cells and different putative functions have been attributed to it. Further, homologous exDNA has been reported to exert species-specific inhibitory effects on several organisms. Here, we demonstrate by different experimental evidence, including 1H-NMR metabolomic fingerprint, that the growth rate decline in Saccharomyces cerevisiae fed-batch cultures is determined by the accumulation of exDNA in the medium. Sequencing of such secreted exDNA represents a portion of the entire genome, showing a great similarity with extrachromosomal circular DNA (eccDNA) already reported inside yeast cells. The recovered DNA molecules were mostly single strands and specifically associated to the yeast metabolism displayed during cell growth. Flow cytometric analysis showed that the observed growth inhibition by exDNA corresponded to an arrest in the S phase of the cell cycle. These unprecedented findings open a new scenario on the functional role of exDNA produced by living cells.

Multi-Step Control of Homologous Recombination by Mec1/ATR Ensures Robust Suppression of Gross Chromosomal Rearrangements

The Mec1/ATR kinase is crucial for genome stability, yet the mechanism by which it prevents gross chromosomal rearrangements (GCRs) remains unknown. Here we find that in cells with deficient Mec1 signaling, GCRs accumulate due to the deregulation of multiple steps in homologous recombination (HR). Mec1 primarily suppresses GCRs through its role in activating the canonical checkpoint kinase Rad53, which ensures the proper control of DNA end resection. Upon loss of Rad53 signaling and resection control, Mec1 becomes hyperactivated and triggers a salvage pathway in which the Sgs1 helicase is recruited to sites of DNA lesions via the 911-Dpb11 scaffolds to favor heteroduplex rejection and limit HR-driven GCR accumulation. Fusing an ssDNA recognition domain to Sgs1 bypasses the requirement of Mec1 signaling for GCR suppression and nearly eliminates D-loop formation, thus preventing non-allelic recombination events. We propose that Mec1 regulates multiple steps of HR to prevent GCRs while ensuring balanced HR usage when needed for promoting tolerance to replication stress.

Checkpoint phosphorylation sites on budding yeast Rif1 protect nascent DNA from degradation by Sgs1-Dna2

In budding yeast the Rif1 protein is important for protecting nascent DNA at blocked replication forks, but the mechanism has been unclear. Here we show that budding yeast Rif1 must interact with Protein Phosphatase 1 to protect nascent DNA. In the absence of Rif1, removal of either Dna2 or Sgs1 prevents nascent DNA degradation, implying that Rif1 protects nascent DNA by targeting Protein Phosphatase 1 to oppose degradation by the Sgs1-Dna2 nuclease-helicase complex. This functional role for Rif1 is conserved from yeast to human cells. Yeast Rif1 was previously identified as a target of phosphorylation by the Tel1/Mec1 checkpoint kinases, but the importance of this phosphorylation has been unclear. We find that nascent DNA protection depends on a cluster of Tel1/Mec1 consensus phosphorylation sites in the Rif1 protein sequence, indicating that the intra-S phase checkpoint acts to protect nascent DNA through Rif1 phosphorylation. Our observations uncover the pathway by which budding yeast Rif1 stabilises newly synthesised DNA, highlighting the crucial role Rif1 plays in maintaining genome stability from lower eukaryotes to humans.

The multiple activations in budding yeast S-phase checkpoint are Poisson processes

Eukaryotic cells activate the S-phase checkpoint signal transduction pathway in response to DNA replication stress. Affected by the noise in biochemical reactions, such activation process demonstrates cell-to-cell variability. Here, through the analysis of microfluidics-integrated time-lapse imaging, we found multiple S-phase checkpoint activations in a certain budding yeast cell cycle. Yeast cells not only varied in their activation moments but also differed in the number of activations within the cell cycle, resulting in a stochastic multiple activation process. By investigating dynamics at the single-cell level, we showed that stochastic waiting times between consecutive activations are exponentially distributed and independent from each other. Finite DNA replication time provides a robust upper time limit to the duration of multiple activations. The mathematical model, together with further experimental evidence from the mutant strain, revealed that the number of activations under different levels of replication stress agreed well with Poisson distribution. Therefore, the activation events of S-phase checkpoint meet the criterion of Poisson process during DNA replication. In sum, the observed Poisson activation process may provide new insights into the complex stochastic dynamics of signal transduction pathways.

Restraint upon Embryonic Metatarsal Ex Vivo Growth by Hydrogel Reveals Interaction between Quasi-Static Load and the mTOR Pathway

Mechanical cues play a vital role in limb skeletal development, yet their influence and underpinning mechanisms in the regulation of endochondral ossification (EO) processes are incompletely defined. Furthermore, interactions between endochondral growth and mechanics and the mTOR/NF-ĸB pathways are yet to be explored. An appreciation of how mechanical cues regulate EO would also clearly be beneficial in the context of fracture healing and bone diseases, where these processes are recapitulated. The study herein addresses the hypothesis that the mTOR/NF-ĸB pathways interact with mechanics to control endochondral growth. To test this, murine embryonic metatarsals were incubated ex vivo in a hydrogel, allowing for the effects of quasi-static loading on longitudinal growth to be assessed. The results showed significant restriction of metatarsal growth under quasi-static loading during a 14-day period and concentration-dependent sensitivity to hydrogel-related restriction. This study also showed that hydrogel-treated metatarsals retain their viability and do not present with increased apoptosis. Metatarsals exhibited reversal of the growth-restriction when co-incubated with mTOR compounds, whilst it was found that these compounds showed no effects under basal culture conditions. Transcriptional changes linked to endochondral growth were assessed and downregulation of Col2 and Acan was observed in hydrogel-treated metatarsi at day 7. Furthermore, cell cycle analyses confirmed the presence of chondrocytes exhibiting S-G2/M arrest. These data indicate that quasi-static load provokes chondrocyte cell cycle arrest, which is partly overcome by mTOR, with a less marked interaction for NF-ĸB regulators.

Maize ATR safeguards genome stability during kernel development to prevent early endosperm endocycle onset and cell death

The ataxia-telangiectasia mutated (ATM) and ATM and Rad3-related (ATR) kinases coordinate the DNA damage response. The roles described for Arabidopsis thaliana ATR and ATM are assumed to be conserved over other plant species, but molecular evidence is scarce. Here, we demonstrate that the functions of ATR and ATM are only partially conserved between Arabidopsis and maize (Zea mays). In both species, ATR and ATM play a key role in DNA repair and cell cycle checkpoint activation, but whereas Arabidopsis plants do not suffer from the absence of ATR under control growth conditions, maize mutant plants accumulate replication defects, likely due to their large genome size. Moreover, contrarily to Arabidopsis, maize ATM deficiency does not trigger meiotic defects, whereas the ATR kinase appears to be crucial for the maternal fertility. Strikingly, ATR is required to repress premature endocycle onset and cell death in the maize endosperm. Its absence results in a reduction of kernel size, protein and starch content, and a stochastic death of kernels, a process being counteracted by ATM. Additionally, while Arabidopsis atr atm double mutants are viable, no such mutants could be obtained for maize. Therefore, our data highlight that the mechanisms maintaining genome integrity may be more important for vegetative and reproductive development than previously anticipated.

Sensing R-Loop-Associated DNA Damage to Safeguard Genome Stability

DNA transcription and replication are two essential physiological processes that can turn into a threat for genome integrity when they compete for the same DNA substrate. During transcription, the nascent RNA strongly binds the template DNA strand, leading to the formation of a peculiar RNA-DNA hybrid structure that displaces the non-template single-stranded DNA. This three-stranded nucleic acid transition is called R-loop. Although a programed formation of R-loops plays important physiological functions, these structures can turn into sources of DNA damage and genome instability when their homeostasis is altered. Indeed, both R-loop level and distribution in the genome are tightly controlled, and the list of factors involved in these regulatory mechanisms is continuously growing. Over the last years, our knowledge of R-loop homeostasis regulation (formation, stabilization, and resolution) has definitely increased. However, how R-loops affect genome stability and how the cellular response to their unscheduled formation is orchestrated are still not fully understood. In this review, we will report and discuss recent findings about these questions and we will focus on the role of ATM- and Rad3-related (ATR) and Ataxia-telangiectasia-mutated (ATM) kinases in the activation of an R-loop-dependent DNA damage response.

5-Aminouracil and other inhibitors of DNA replication induce biphasic interphase-mitotic cells in apical root meristems of Allium cepa

Induction of biphasic interphase-mitotic cells and PCC is connected with an increased level of metabolism in root meristem cells of Allium cepa. Previous experiments using primary roots of Allium cepa exposed to low concentrations of hydroxyurea have shown that long-term DNA replication stress (DRS) disrupts essential links of the S-M checkpoint mechanism, leading meristem cells either to premature chromosome condensation (PCC) or to a specific form of chromatin condensation, establishing biphasic organization of cell nuclei with both interphase and mitotic domains (IM cells). The present study supplements and extends these observations by describing general conditions under which both abnormal types of M-phase cells may occur. The analysis of root apical meristem (RAM) cell proliferation after prolonged mild DRS indicates that a broad spectrum of inhibitors is capable of generating PCC and IM organization of cell nuclei. These included: 5-aminouracil (5-AU, a thymine antagonist), characterized by the highest efficiency in creating cells with the IM phenotype, aphidicolin (APH), an inhibitor of DNA polymerase α, 5-fluorodeoxyuridine (FUdR), an inhibitor of thymidylate synthetase, methotrexate (MTX), a folic acid analog that inhibits purine and pyrimidine synthesis, and cytosine arabinoside (Ara-C), which inhibits DNA replication by forming cleavage complexes with topoisomerase I. As evidenced using fluorescence-based click chemistry assays, continuous treatment of onion RAM cells with 5-AU is associated with an accelerated dynamics of the DNA replication machinery and significantly enhanced levels of transcription and translation. Furthermore, DRS conditions bring about an intensified production of hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂), depletion of reduced glutathione (GSH), and some increase in DNA fragmentation, associated with only a slight increase in apoptosis-like programmed cell death events.

Protein phosphatase 2A controls ongoing DNA replication by binding to and regulating cell division cycle 45 (CDC45)

Genomic replication is a highly regulated process and represents both a potential benefit and liability to rapidly dividing cells; however, the precise post-translational mechanisms regulating genomic replication are incompletely understood. Protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) is a serine/threonine phosphatase that regulates a diverse array of cellular processes. Here, utilizing both a gain-of-function chemical biology approach and loss-of-function genetic approaches to modulate PP2A activity, we found that PP2A regulates DNA replication. We demonstrate that increased PP2A activity can interrupt ongoing DNA replication, resulting in a prolonged S phase. The impaired replication resulted in a collapse of replication forks, inducing dsDNA breaks, homologous recombination, and a PP2A-dependent replication stress response. Additionally, we show that during replication, PP2A exists in complex with cell division cycle 45 (CDC45) and that increased PP2A activity caused dissociation of CDC45 and polymerase α from the replisome. Furthermore, we found that individuals harboring mutations in the PP2A Aα gene have a higher fraction of genomic alterations, suggesting that PP2A regulates ongoing replication as a mechanism for maintaining genomic integrity. These results reveal a new function for PP2A in regulating ongoing DNA replication and a potential role for PP2A in the intra-S-phase checkpoint.

DNA damage kinase signaling: checkpoint and repair at 30 years

From bacteria to mammalian cells, damaged DNA is sensed and targeted by DNA repair pathways. In eukaryotes, kinases play a central role in coordinating the DNA damage response. DNA damage signaling kinases were identified over two decades ago and linked to the cell cycle checkpoint concept proposed by Weinert and Hartwell in 1988. Connections between the DNA damage signaling kinases and DNA repair were scant at first, and the initial perception was that the importance of these kinases for genome integrity was largely an indirect effect of their roles in checkpoints, DNA replication, and transcription. As more substrates of DNA damage signaling kinases were identified, it became clear that they directly regulate a wide range of DNA repair factors. Here, we review our current understanding of DNA damage signaling kinases, delineating the key substrates in budding yeast and humans. We trace the progress of the field in the last 30 years and discuss our current understanding of the major substrate regulatory mechanisms involved in checkpoint responses and DNA repair.

Mck1 defines a key S-phase checkpoint effector in response to various degrees of replication threats

The S-phase checkpoint plays an essential role in regulation of the ribonucleotide reductase (RNR) activity to maintain the dNTP pools. How eukaryotic cells respond appropriately to different levels of replication threats remains elusive. Here, we have identified that a conserved GSK-3 kinase Mck1 cooperates with Dun1 in regulating this process. Deleting MCK1 sensitizes dun1Δ to hydroxyurea (HU) reminiscent of mec1Δ or rad53Δ. While Mck1 is downstream of Rad53, it does not participate in the post-translational regulation of RNR as Dun1 does. Mck1 phosphorylates and releases the Crt1 repressor from the promoters of DNA damage-inducible genes as RNR2-4 and HUG1. Hug1, an Rnr2 inhibitor normally silenced, is induced as a counterweight to excessive RNR. When cells suffer a more severe threat, Mck1 inhibits HUG1 transcription. Consistently, only a combined deletion of HUG1 and CRT1, confers a dramatic boost of dNTP levels and the survival of mck1Δdun1Δ or mec1Δ cells assaulted by a lethal dose of HU. These findings reveal the division-of-labor between Mck1 and Dun1 at the S-phase checkpoint pathway to fine-tune dNTP homeostasis.

Phosphorylation Alters the Properties of Pol η: Implications for Translesion Synthesis

There are significant ambiguities regarding how DNA polymerase η is recruited to DNA lesion sites in stressed cells while avoiding normal replication forks in non-stressed cells. Even less is known about the mechanisms responsible for Pol η-induced mutations in cancer genomes. We show that there are two safeguards to prevent Pol η from adventitious participation in normal DNA replication. These include sequestration by a partner protein and low basal activity. Upon cellular UV irradiation, phosphorylation enables Pol η to be released from sequestration by PDIP38 and activates its polymerase function through increased affinity toward monoubiquitinated proliferating cell nuclear antigen (Ub-PCNA). Moreover, the high-affinity binding of phosphorylated Pol η to Ub-PCNA limits its subsequent displacement by Pol δ. Consequently, activated Pol η replicates DNA beyond the lesion site and potentially introduces clusters of mutations due to its low fidelity. This mechanism could account for the prevalence of Pol η signatures in cancer genome.

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Pol η activation requires both ATR and PKC phosphorylation

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Phosphorylation directly enhances the affinity of Pol η toward Ub-PCNA

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PDIP38 sequesters Pol η away from normal replication fork

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Pol δ is not able to displace phosphorylated Pol η from Ub-PCNA complex

P-body proteins regulate transcriptional rewiring to promote DNA replication stress resistance

mRNA-processing (P-) bodies are cytoplasmic granules that form in eukaryotic cells in response to numerous stresses to serve as sites of degradation and storage of mRNAs. Functional P-bodies are critical for the DNA replication stress response in yeast, yet the repertoire of P-body targets and the mechanisms by which P-bodies promote replication stress resistance are unknown. In this study we identify the complete complement of mRNA targets of P-bodies during replication stress induced by hydroxyurea treatment. The key P-body protein Lsm1 controls the abundance of HHT1, ACF4, ARL3, TMA16, RRS1 and YOX1 mRNAs to prevent their toxic accumulation during replication stress. Accumulation of YOX1 mRNA causes aberrant downregulation of a network of genes critical for DNA replication stress resistance and leads to toxic acetaldehyde accumulation. Our data reveal the scope and the targets of regulation by P-body proteins during the DNA replication stress response.

P-bodies form in response to stress and act as sites of mRNA storage and degradation. Here the authors identify the mRNA targets of P-bodies during DNA replication stress, and show that P-body proteins act to prevent toxic accumulation of these target transcripts.

Chromosome Duplication in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

The accurate and complete replication of genomic DNA is essential for all life. In eukaryotic cells, the assembly of the multi-enzyme replisomes that perform replication is divided into stages that occur at distinct phases of the cell cycle. Replicative DNA helicases are loaded around origins of DNA replication exclusively during G₁ phase. The loaded helicases are then activated during S phase and associate with the replicative DNA polymerases and other accessory proteins. The function of the resulting replisomes is monitored by checkpoint proteins that protect arrested replisomes and inhibit new initiation when replication is inhibited. The replisome also coordinates nucleosome disassembly, assembly, and the establishment of sister chromatid cohesion. Finally, when two replisomes converge they are disassembled. Studies in Saccharomyces cerevisiae have led the way in our understanding of these processes. Here, we review our increasingly molecular understanding of these events and their regulation.

'AND' logic gates at work: Crystal structure of Rad53 bound to Dbf4 and Cdc7

Forkhead-associated (FHA) domains are phosphopeptide recognition modules found in many signaling proteins. The Saccharomyces cerevisiae protein kinase Rad53 is a key regulator of the DNA damage checkpoint and uses its two FHA domains to interact with multiple binding partners during the checkpoint response. One of these binding partners is the Dbf4-dependent kinase (DDK), a heterodimer composed of the Cdc7 kinase and its regulatory subunit Dbf4. Binding of Rad53 to DDK, through its N-terminal FHA (FHA1) domain, ultimately inhibits DDK kinase activity, thereby preventing firing of late origins. We have previously found that the FHA1 domain of Rad53 binds simultaneously to Dbf4 and a phosphoepitope, suggesting that this domain functions as an 'AND' logic gate. Here, we present the crystal structures of the FHA1 domain of Rad53 bound to Dbf4, in the presence and absence of a Cdc7 phosphorylated peptide. Our results reveal how the FHA1 uses a canonical binding interface to recognize the Cdc7 phosphopeptide and a non-canonical interface to bind Dbf4. Based on these data we propose a mechanism to explain how Rad53 enhances the specificity of FHA1-mediated transient interactions.

ABCE1 is essential for S phase progression in human cells

ABCE1 is a highly conserved protein universally present in eukaryotes and archaea, which is crucial for the viability of different organisms. First identified as RNase L inhibitor, ABCE1 is currently recognized as an essential translation factor involved in several stages of eukaryotic translation and ribosome biogenesis. The nature of vital functions of ABCE1, however, remains unexplained. Here, we study the role of ABCE1 in human cell proliferation and its possible connection to translation. We show that ABCE1 depletion by siRNA results in a decreased rate of cell growth due to accumulation of cells in S phase, which is accompanied by inefficient DNA synthesis and reduced histone mRNA and protein levels. We infer that in addition to the role in general translation, ABCE1 is involved in histone biosynthesis and DNA replication and therefore is essential for normal S phase progression. In addition, we analyze whether ABCE1 is implicated in transcript-specific translation via its association with the eIF3 complex subunits known to control the synthesis of cell proliferation-related proteins. The expression levels of a few such targets regulated by eIF3A, however, were not consistently affected by ABCE1 depletion.

A balanced pyrimidine pool is required for optimal Chk1 activation to prevent ultrafine anaphase bridge formation

Cytidine deaminase (CDA) deficiency induces an excess of cellular dCTP, which reduces basal PARP-1 activity, thereby compromising complete DNA replication, leading to ultrafine anaphase bridge (UFB) formation. CDA dysfunction has pathological implications, notably in cancer and in Bloom syndrome. It remains unknown how reduced levels of PARP-1 activity and pyrimidine pool imbalance lead to the accumulation of unreplicated DNA during mitosis. We report that a decrease in PARP-1 activity in CDA-deficient cells impairs DNA damage-induced Chk1 activation, and, thus, the downstream checkpoints. Chemical inhibition of the ATR-Chk1 pathway leads to UFB accumulation, and we found that this pathway was compromised in CDA-deficient cells. Our data demonstrate that ATR-Chk1 acts downstream from PARP-1, preventing the accumulation of unreplicated DNA in mitosis, and, thus, UFB formation. Finally, delaying entry into mitosis is sufficient to prevent UFB formation in both CDA-deficient and CDA-proficient cells, suggesting that both physiological and pathological UFBs are derived from unreplicated DNA. Our findings demonstrate an unsuspected requirement for a balanced nucleotide pool for optimal Chk1 activation both in unchallenged cells and in response to genotoxic stress.

Top2 and Sgs1-Top3 Act Redundantly to Ensure rDNA Replication Termination

Faithful DNA replication with correct termination is essential for genome stability and transmission of genetic information. Here we have investigated the potential roles of Topoisomerase II (Top2) and the RecQ helicase Sgs1 during late stages of replication. We find that cells lacking Top2 and Sgs1 (or Top3) display two different characteristics during late S/G2 phase, checkpoint activation and accumulation of asymmetric X-structures, which are both independent of homologous recombination. Our data demonstrate that checkpoint activation is caused by a DNA structure formed at the strongest rDNA replication fork barrier (RFB) during replication termination, and consistently, checkpoint activation is dependent on the RFB binding protein, Fob1. In contrast, asymmetric X-structures are formed independent of Fob1 at less strong rDNA replication fork barriers. However, both checkpoint activation and formation of asymmetric X-structures are sensitive to conditions, which facilitate fork merging and progression of replication forks through replication fork barriers. Our data are consistent with a redundant role of Top2 and Sgs1 together with Top3 (Sgs1-Top3) in replication fork merging at rDNA barriers. At RFB either Top2 or Sgs1-Top3 is essential to prevent formation of a checkpoint activating DNA structure during termination, but at less strong rDNA barriers absence of the enzymes merely delays replication fork merging, causing an accumulation of asymmetric termination structures, which are solved over time.

Replication termination is the final step of the replication process, where the two replication forks converge and finally merge to form fully replicated sister chromatids. During this process topological strain in the form of DNA overwinding is generated between forks, and if not removed this strain will inhibit replication of the remaining DNA and thus faithful termination. In this study, we demonstrate that the cell has two redundant pathways to overcome topological problems during rDNA replication termination, one involving Top2 and the other involving the RecQ helicase Sgs1, in concert with Top3. In the absence of both pathways a checkpoint is activated in late S/G2 phase due to faulty replication termination at the strongest rDNA replication fork barrier (RFB). At less strong barriers termination is merely delayed under these conditions resulting in an accumulation of termination X-structures, which are solved over time.

Assembly of Slx4 signaling complexes behind DNA replication forks

Obstructions to replication fork progression, referred to collectively as DNA replication stress, challenge genome stability. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, cells lacking RTT107 or SLX4 show genome instability and sensitivity to DNA replication stress and are defective in the completion of DNA replication during recovery from replication stress. We demonstrate that Slx4 is recruited to chromatin behind stressed replication forks, in a region that is spatially distinct from that occupied by the replication machinery. Slx4 complex formation is nucleated by Mec1 phosphorylation of histone H2A, which is recognized by the constitutive Slx4 binding partner Rtt107. Slx4 is essential for recruiting the Mec1 activator Dpb11 behind stressed replication forks, and Slx4 complexes are important for full activity of Mec1. We propose that Slx4 complexes promote robust checkpoint signaling by Mec1 by stably recruiting Dpb11 within a discrete domain behind the replication fork, during DNA replication stress.

Checkpoint-dependent RNR induction promotes fork restart after replicative stress

The checkpoint kinase Rad53 is crucial to regulate DNA replication in the presence of replicative stress. Under conditions that interfere with the progression of replication forks, Rad53 prevents Exo1-dependent fork degradation. However, although EXO1 deletion avoids fork degradation in rad53 mutants, it does not suppress their sensitivity to the ribonucleotide reductase (RNR) inhibitor hydroxyurea (HU). In this case, the inability to restart stalled forks is likely to account for the lethality of rad53 mutant cells after replication blocks. Here we show that Rad53 regulates replication restart through the checkpoint-dependent transcriptional response, and more specifically, through RNR induction. Thus, in addition to preventing fork degradation, Rad53 prevents cell death in the presence of HU by regulating RNR-expression and localization. When RNR is induced in the absence of Exo1 and RNR negative regulators, cell viability of rad53 mutants treated with HU is increased and the ability of replication forks to restart after replicative stress is restored.

Disruption of SUMO-targeted ubiquitin ligases Slx5-Slx8/RNF4 alters RecQ-like helicase Sgs1/BLM localization in yeast and human cells

RecQ-like helicases are a highly conserved protein family that functions during DNA repair and, when mutated in humans, is associated with cancer and/or premature aging syndromes. The budding yeast RecQ-like helicase Sgs1 has important functions in double-strand break (DSB) repair of exogenously induced breaks, as well as those that arise endogenously, for example during DNA replication. To further investigate Sgs1's regulation, we analyzed the subcellular localization of a fluorescent fusion of Sgs1 upon DNA damage. Consistent with a role in DSB repair, Sgs1 recruitment into nuclear foci in asynchronous cultures increases after ionizing radiation (IR) and after exposure to the alkylating agent methyl methanesulfonate (MMS). Yet, despite the importance of Sgs1 in replicative damage repair and in contrast to its elevated protein levels during S-phase, we find that the number of Sgs1 foci decreases upon nucleotide pool depletion by hydroxyurea (HU) treatment and that this negative regulation depends on the intra S-phase checkpoint kinase Mec1. Importantly, we identify the SUMO-targeted ubiquitin ligase (STUbL) complex Slx5-Slx8 as a negative regulator of Sgs1 foci, both spontaneously and upon replicative damage. Slx5-Slx8 regulation of Sgs1 foci is likely conserved in eukaryotes, since expression of the mammalian Slx5-Slx8 functional homologue, RNF4, restores Sgs1 focus number in slx8 cells and furthermore, knockdown of RNF4 leads to more BLM foci in U-2 OS cells. Our results point to a model where RecQ-like helicase subcellular localization is regulated by STUbLs in response to DNA damage, presumably to prevent illegitimate recombination events.

Therapeutic targeting the cell division cycle 25 (CDC25) phosphatases in human acute myeloid leukemia--the possibility to target several kinases through inhibition of the various CDC25 isoforms

The cell division cycle 25 (CDC25) phosphatases include CDC25A, CDC25B and CDC25C. These three molecules are important regulators of several steps in the cell cycle, including the activation of various cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs). CDC25s seem to have a role in the development of several human malignancies, including acute myeloid leukemia (AML); and CDC25 inhibition is therefore considered as a possible anticancer strategy. Firstly, upregulation of CDC25A can enhance cell proliferation and the expression seems to be controlled through PI3K-Akt-mTOR signaling, a pathway possibly mediating chemoresistance in human AML. Loss of CDC25A is also important for the cell cycle arrest caused by differentiation induction of malignant hematopoietic cells. Secondly, high CDC25B expression is associated with resistance against the antiproliferative effect of PI3K-Akt-mTOR inhibitors in primary human AML cells, and inhibition of this isoform seems to reduce AML cell line proliferation through effects on NFκB and p300. Finally, CDC25C seems important for the phenotype of AML cells at least for a subset of patients. Many of the identified CDC25 inhibitors show cross-reactivity among the three CDC25 isoforms. Thus, by using such cross-reactive inhibitors it may become possible to inhibit several molecular events in the regulation of cell cycle progression and even cytoplasmic signaling, including activation of several CDKs, through the use of a single drug. Such combined strategies will probably be an advantage in human cancer treatment.

SUMO-targeted ubiquitin ligase RNF4 plays a critical role in preventing chromosome loss

RING finger protein 4 (RNF4) represents a subclass of ubiquitin ligases that target proteins modified by the small ubiquitin-like modifier (SUMO) for ubiquitin-mediated degradation. We disrupted the RNF4 gene in chicken DT40 cells and found that the resulting RNF4(-/-) cells gradually lost proliferation capability. Strikingly, this compromised proliferation was associated with an unprecedented cellular effect: the gradual decrease in the number of intact chromosomes. In the 6 weeks after gene targeting, there was a 25% reduction in the DNA content of the RNF4(-/-) cells. Regarding trisomic chromosome 2, 60% of the RNF4(-/-) cells lost one homologue, suggesting that DNA loss was mediated by whole chromosome loss. To determine the cause of this chromosome loss, we examined cell-cycle checkpoint pathways. RNF4(-/-) cells showed a partial defect in the spindle assembly checkpoint, premature dissociation of sister chromatids, and a marked increase in the number of lagging chromosomes at anaphase. Thus, combined defects in SAC and sister chromatid cohesion may result in increased lagging chromosomes, leading to chromosome loss without accompanying chromosome gain in RNF4(-/-) cells. We therefore propose that RNF4 plays a novel role in preventing the loss of intact chromosomes and ensures the maintenance of chromosome integrity.

The analysis of S. cerevisiae cells deleted for mitotic cyclin Clb2 reveals a novel requirement of Sgs1 DNA helicase and Exonuclease 1 when replication forks break in the presence of alkylation damage

In this study, we report the effects of deleting the principal mitotic cyclin, Clb2, in different repair deficient contexts on sensitivity to the alkylating DNA damaging agent, methyl methanesulphonate (MMS). A yeast clb2 mutant is sensitive to MMS and displays synergistic effect when combined with inactivation of numerous genes involved in DNA recombination and replication. In contrast, clb2 has basically no additional effect with deletion of the RecQ helicase SGS1, the exonuclease EXO1 and the protein kinase RAD53 suggesting that Clb2 functions in these pathways. In addition, clb2 increases the viability of the mec1 kinase deficient mutant, suggesting Mec1 inhibits a deleterious Clb2 activity. Interestingly, we found that the rescue by EXO1 deletion of rad53K227 mutant, deficient in checkpoint activation, requires Sgs1, suggesting a role for Rad53, independent of its checkpoint function, in regulating an ordered recruitment of Sgs1 and Exo1 to fork structure. Overall, our data suggest that Clb2 affects recombinant structure of replication fork blocked by alkylating DNA damage at numerous steps and could regulate Sgs1 and Exo1 activity. In addition, we found novel requirement of Sgs1 DNA helicase and Exonuclease 1 when replication forks breaks in the presence of alkylation damage. Models for the functional interactions of mitotic cyclin Clb2, Sgs1 and Exo1 with replication fork stabilization are proposed.

MYC and the control of DNA replication

The MYC oncogene is a multifunctional protein that is aberrantly expressed in a significant fraction of tumors from diverse tissue origins. Because of its multifunctional nature, it has been difficult to delineate the exact contributions of MYC's diverse roles to tumorigenesis. Here, we review the normal role of MYC in regulating DNA replication as well as its ability to generate DNA replication stress when overexpressed. Finally, we discuss the possible mechanisms by which replication stress induced by aberrant MYC expression could contribute to genomic instability and cancer.

Physiology of the read-write genome

Discoveries in cytogenetics, molecular biology, and genomics have revealed that genome change is an active cell-mediated physiological process. This is distinctly at variance with the pre-DNA assumption that genetic changes arise accidentally and sporadically. The discovery that DNA changes arise as the result of regulated cell biochemistry means that the genome is best modelled as a read-write (RW) data storage system rather than a read-only memory (ROM). The evidence behind this change in thinking and a consideration of some of its implications are the subjects of this article. Specific points include the following: cells protect themselves from accidental genome change with proofreading and DNA damage repair systems; localized point mutations result from the action of specialized trans-lesion mutator DNA polymerases; cells can join broken chromosomes and generate genome rearrangements by non-homologous end-joining (NHEJ) processes in specialized subnuclear repair centres; cells have a broad variety of natural genetic engineering (NGE) functions for transporting, diversifying and reorganizing DNA sequences in ways that generate many classes of genomic novelties; natural genetic engineering functions are regulated and subject to activation by a range of challenging life history events; cells can target the action of natural genetic engineering functions to particular genome locations by a range of well-established molecular interactions, including protein binding with regulatory factors and linkage to transcription; and genome changes in cancer can usefully be considered as consequences of the loss of homeostatic control over natural genetic engineering functions.

The extent of error-prone replication restart by homologous recombination is controlled by Exo1 and checkpoint proteins

Genetic instability, a hallmark of cancer, can occur when the replication machinery encounters a barrier. The intra-S-phase checkpoint maintains stalled replication forks in a replication-competent configuration by phosphorylating replisome components and DNA repair proteins to prevent forks from catastrophically collapsing. Here, we report a novel function of the core Schizosaccharomyces pombe checkpoint sensor kinase, Rad3 (an ATR orthologue), that is independent of Chk1 and Cds1 (a CHK2 orthologue); Rad3^ATR regulates the association of recombination factors with collapsed forks, thus limiting their genetic instability. We further reveal antagonistic roles for Rad3^ATR and the 9-1-1 clamp – Rad3^ATR restrains MRN- and Exo1-dependent resection, whereas the 9-1-1 complex promotes Exo1 activity. Interestingly, the MRN complex, but not its nuclease activity, promotes resection and the subsequent association of recombination factors at collapsed forks. The biological significance of this regulation is revealed by the observation that Rad3^ATR prevents Exo1-dependent genome instability upstream of a collapsed fork without affecting the efficiency of recombination-mediated replication restart. We propose that the interplay between Rad3^ATR and the 9-1-1 clamp functions to fine-tune the balance between the need for the recovery of replication through recombination and the risk of increased genome instability.

Gallotannin imposes S phase arrest in breast cancer cells and suppresses the growth of triple-negative tumors in vivo

Triple-negative breast cancers are associated with poor clinical outcomes and new therapeutic strategies are clearly needed. Gallotannin (Gltn) has been previously demonstrated to have potent anti-tumor properties against cholangiocarcinoma in mice, but little is known regarding its capacity to suppress tumor outgrowth in breast cancer models. We tested Gltn for potential growth inhibitory properties against a variety of breast cancer cell lines in vitro. In particular, triple-negative breast cancer cells display higher levels of sensitivity to Gltn. The loss of proliferative capacity in Gltn exposed cells is associated with slowed cell cycle progression and S phase arrest, dependent on Chk2 phosphorylation and further characterized by changes to proliferation related genes, such as cyclin D1 (CcnD1) as determined by Nanostring technology. Importantly, Gltn administered orally or via intraperitoneal (IP) injections greatly reduced tumor outgrowth of triple-negative breast cells from mammary fat pads without signs of toxicity. In conclusion, these data strongly suggest that Gltn represents a novel approach to treat triple-negative breast carcinomas.

Rad53 downregulates mitotic gene transcription by inhibiting the transcriptional activator Ndd1

The 33 genes in the Saccharomyces cerevisiae mitotic CLB2 transcription cluster have been known to be downregulated by the DNA damage checkpoint for many years. Here, we show that this is mediated by the checkpoint kinase Rad53 and the dedicated transcriptional activator of the cluster, Ndd1. Ndd1 is phosphorylated in response to DNA damage, which blocks recruitment to promoters and leads to the transcriptional downregulation of the CLB2 cluster. Finally, we show that downregulation of Ndd1 is an essential function of Rad53, as a hypomorphic ndd1 allele rescues RAD53 deletion.

Resolving branched DNA intermediates with structure-specific nucleases during replication in eukaryotes

Genome duplication requires that replication forks track the entire length of every chromosome. When complications occur, homologous recombination-mediated repair supports replication fork movement and recovery. This leads to physical connections between the nascent sister chromatids in the form of Holliday junctions and other branched DNA intermediates. A key role in the removal of these recombination intermediates falls to structure-specific nucleases such as the Holliday junction resolvase RuvC in Escherichia coli. RuvC is also known to cut branched DNA intermediates that originate directly from blocked replication forks, targeting them for origin-independent replication restart. In eukaryotes, multiple structure-specific nucleases, including Mus81-Mms4/MUS81-EME1, Yen1/GEN1, and Slx1-Slx4/SLX1-SLX4 (FANCP) have been implicated in the resolution of branched DNA intermediates. It is becoming increasingly clear that, as a group, they reflect the dual function of RuvC in cleaving recombination intermediates and failing replication forks to assist the DNA replication process.

The human oncoprotein MDM2 induces replication stress eliciting early intra-S-phase checkpoint response and inhibition of DNA replication origin firing

Conventional paradigm ascribes the cell proliferative function of the human oncoprotein mouse double minute2 (MDM2) primarily to its ability to degrade p53. Here we report that in the absence of p53, MDM2 induces replication stress eliciting an early S-phase checkpoint response to inhibit further firing of DNA replication origins. Partially synchronized lung cells cultured from p53−/−:MDM2 transgenic mice enter S phase and induce S-phase checkpoint response earlier than lung cells from p53−/− mice and inhibit firing of DNA replication origins. MDM2 activates chk1 phosphorylation, elevates mixed lineage lymphoma histone methyl transferase levels and promotes checkpoint-dependent tri-methylation of histone H3 at lysine 4, known to prevent firing of late replication origins at the early S phase. In the absence of p53, a condition that disables inhibition of cyclin A expression by MDM2, MDM2 increases expression of cyclin D2 and A and hastens S-phase entry of cells. Consistently, inhibition of cyclin-dependent kinases, known to activate DNA replication origins during firing, inhibits MDM2-mediated induction of chk1 phosphorylation indicating the requirement of this activity in MDM2-mediated chk1 phosphorylation. Our data reveal a novel pathway, defended by the intra-S-phase checkpoint, by which MDM2 induces unscheduled origin firing and accelerates S-phase entry of cells in the absence of p53.

Temporal regulation of the Mus81-Mms4 endonuclease ensures cell survival under conditions of DNA damage

The structure-specific Mus81-Eme1/Mms4 endonuclease contributes importantly to DNA repair and genome integrity maintenance. Here, using budding yeast, we have studied its function and regulation during the cellular response to DNA damage and show that this endonuclease is necessary for successful chromosome replication and cell survival in the presence of DNA lesions that interfere with replication fork progression. On the contrary, Mus81-Mms4 is not required for coping with replicative stress originated by acute treatment with hydroxyurea (HU), which causes fork stalling. Despite its requirement for dealing with DNA lesions that hinder DNA replication, Mus81-Mms4 activation is not induced by DNA damage at replication forks. Full Mus81-Mms4 activity is only acquired when cells finish S-phase and the endonuclease executes its function after the bulk of genome replication is completed. This post-replicative mode of action of Mus81-Mms4 limits its nucleolytic activity during S-phase, thus avoiding the potential cleavage of DNA substrates that could cause genomic instability during DNA replication. At the same time, it constitutes an efficient fail-safe mechanism for processing DNA intermediates that cannot be resolved by other proteins and persist after bulk DNA synthesis, which guarantees the completion of DNA repair and faithful chromosome replication when the DNA is damaged.

Dbf4: the whole is greater than the sum of its parts

Together with cyclin-dependent kinases, the Dbf4-dependent kinase (DDK) is essential to activate the Mcm2-7 helicase and, hence, initiate DNA replication in eukaryotes. Beyond its role as the regulatory subunit of the DDK complex, the Dbf4 protein also regulates the activity of other cell cycle kinases to mediate the checkpoint response and prevent premature mitotic exit under stress. Two features that are unusual in DNA replication proteins characterize Dbf4. The first is its evolutionary divergence; the second is how its conserved motifs are combined to form distinct functional units. This structural plasticity appears to be at odds with the conserved functions of Dbf4. In this review, we summarize recent genetic, biochemical and structural work delineating the multiple interactions mediated by Dbf4 and its various functions during the cell cycle. We also discuss how the limited sequence conservation of Dbf4 may be an advantage to regulate the activities of multiple cell cycle kinases.

Exploring the anticancer potential of pyrazolo[1,2-a]benzo[1,2,3,4]tetrazin-3-one derivatives: the effect on apoptosis induction, cell cycle and proliferation

In order to investigate their anticancer potential, four new pyrazolo[1,2-a]benzo[1,2,3,4]tetrazinone derivatives, designed through the chemometric protocol VLAK, and three of the most active compounds of the previous series have been evaluated on some cellular events including proliferation, apoptosis induction, and cell cycle. The NCI one dose (10 μM) screening revealed that the 8,9-di-methyl derivative showed activity against Leukemia (CCRF-CEM) and Colon cancer cell line (COLO 205), reaching 81% and 45% of growth inhibition (GI), respectively. Replacement of the two methyl groups with two chlorine atoms maintained the activity toward Leukemia cell (CCRF-CEM, GI 77%) and selectively enhanced the activity against COLO 205 attaining a LD50 in the μM range and against SW-620 a GI of 77%. Interestingly, an appreciable growth inhibition of 47% against therapeutically "refractory" Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer (NCI-H522) was observed. Moreover, the apoptosis induction, based on mitochondrial membrane depolarization, was found in the range EC50 3-5 μM on HeLa cell, evidencing a well defined relationship with the related in vitro cell growth inhibitory assays (MTT) performed against other selected tumor cell lines not included in the NCI tumor panel (HeLa, cervix; H292, lung; LAN-5, CNS; CaCo-2, colon; 16HBE, normal human cell lung) and against MCF-7 tumor cell line (breast). Only for the most active compounds, further cell cycle tests on HeLa displayed a cell arrest on S phase. Thus, a promising new class of anticancer candidates, acting as valuable apoptotic inductors, is proposed.

DNA replication checkpoint signaling depends on a Rad53-Dbf4 N-terminal interaction in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Dbf4-dependent kinase (DDK) and cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) are essential to initiate DNA replication at individual origins. During replication stress, the S-phase checkpoint inhibits the DDK- and CDK-dependent activation of late replication origins. Rad53 kinase is a central effector of the replication checkpoint and both binds to and phosphorylates Dbf4 to prevent late-origin firing. The molecular basis for the Rad53-Dbf4 physical interaction is not clear but occurs through the Dbf4 N terminus. Here we found that both Rad53 FHA1 and FHA2 domains, which specifically recognize phospho-threonine (pT), interacted with Dbf4 through an N-terminal sequence and an adjacent BRCT domain. Purified Rad53 FHA1 domain (but not FHA2) bound to a pT Dbf4 peptide in vitro, suggesting a possible phospho-threonine-dependent interaction between FHA1 and Dbf4. The Dbf4-Rad53 interaction is governed by multiple contacts that are separable from the Cdc5- and Msa1-binding sites in the Dbf4 N terminus. Importantly, abrogation of the Rad53-Dbf4 physical interaction blocked Dbf4 phosphorylation and allowed late-origin firing during replication checkpoint activation. This indicated that Rad53 must stably bind to Dbf4 to regulate its activity.

The DNA damage checkpoint response to replication stress: A Game of Forks

Conditions challenging replication fork progression, collectively referred to as replication stress, represent a major source of genomic instability and are associated to cancer onset. The replication checkpoint, a specialized branch of the DNA damage checkpoint, monitors fork problems, and triggers a cellular response aimed at preserving genome integrity. Here, we review the mechanisms by which the replication checkpoint monitors and responds to replication stress, focusing on the checkpoint-mediated pathways contributing to protect replication fork integrity. We discuss how cells achieve checkpoint signaling inactivation once replication stress is overcome and how a failure to timely revert checkpoint-mediated changes in cellular physiology might impact on replication dynamics and genome integrity. We also highlight the checkpoint function as an anti-cancer barrier preventing cells malignant transformation following oncogene-induced replication stress.

The N-terminal 45-kDa domain of Dna2 endonuclease/helicase targets the enzyme to secondary structure DNA

The removal of initiating primers from the 5'-ends of each Okazaki fragment, required for the generation of contiguous daughter strands, can be catalyzed by the combined action of DNA polymerase δ and Fen1. When the flaps generated by displacement of DNA synthesis activity of polymerase δ become long enough to bind replication protein A or form hairpin structures, the helicase/endonuclease enzyme, Dna2, becomes critical because of its ability to remove replication protein A-coated or secondary structure flaps. In this study, we show that the N-terminal 45-kDa domain of Dna2 binds hairpin structures, allowing the enzyme to target secondary structure flap DNA. We found that this activity was essential for the efficient removal of hairpin flaps by the endonuclease activity of Dna2 with the aid of its helicase activity. Thus, the efficient removal of hairpin structure flaps requires the coordinated action of all three functional domains of Dna2. We also found that deletion of the N-terminal 45-kDa domain of Dna2 led to a partial loss of the intra-S-phase checkpoint function and an increased rate of homologous recombination in yeast. We discuss the potential roles of the N-terminal domain of Dna2 in the maintenance of genomic stability.

Cytofluorometric assessment of cell cycle progression

One of the most prominent features of cellular senescence, a stress response that prevents the propagation of cells that have accumulated potentially oncogenic alterations, is a permanent loss of proliferative potential. Thus, at odds with quiescent cells, which resume proliferation when stimulated to do so, senescent cells cannot proceed through the cell cycle even in the presence of mitogenic factors. Here, we describe a set of cytofluorometric techniques for studying how chemical and/or physical stimuli alter the cell cycle in vitro, in both qualitative and quantitative terms. Taken together, these methods allow for the identification of bona fide cytostatic effects as well as for a refined characterization of cell cycle distributions, providing information on proliferation, DNA content as well as on the presence of cell cycle phase-specific markers. At the end of the chapter, a set of guidelines is offered to assist researchers that approach the study of the cell cycle with the interpretation of results.

Bioluminescence imaging of DNA synthetic phase of cell cycle in living animals

Bioluminescence reporter proteins have been widely used in the development of tools for monitoring biological events in living cells. Currently, some assays like flow cytometry analysis are available for studying DNA synthetic phase (S-phase) targeted anti-cancer drug activity in vitro; however, techniques for imaging of in vivo models remain limited. Cyclin A2 is known to promote S-phase entry in mammals. Its expression levels are low during G1-phase, but they increase at the onset of S-phase. Cyclin A2 is degraded during prometaphase by ubiquitin-dependent, proteasome-mediated proteolysis. In this study, we have developed a cyclin A2-luciferase (CYCA-Luc) fusion protein targeted for ubiquitin-proteasome dependent degradation, and have evaluated its utility in screening S-phase targeted anti-cancer drugs. Similar to endogenous cyclin A2, CYCA-Luc accumulates during S-phase and is degraded during G2/M-phase. Using Cdc20 siRNA we have demonstrated that Cdc20 can mediate CYCA-Luc degradation. Moreover, using noninvasive bioluminescent imaging, we demonstrated accumulation of CYCA-Luc in response to 10-hydroxycamptothecin (HCPT), an S-phase targeted anti-cancer drug, in human tumor cells in vivo and in vitro. Our results indicate that a CYCA-Luc fusion reporter system can be used to monitor S-phase of cell cycle, and evaluate pharmacological activity of anti-cancer drug HCPT in real time in vitro and in vivo, and is likely to provide an important tool for screening such drugs.

Arabidopsis thaliana MCM2 plays role(s) in mungbean yellow mosaic India virus (MYMIV) DNA replication

Geminiviruses are plant pathogens with single-stranded (ss) DNA genomes of about 2.7 kb in size. They replicate primarily via rolling-circle replication (RCR) with the help of a few virally encoded factors and various host-cell machineries. The virally encoded replication initiator protein (Rep) is essential for geminivirus replication. In this study, by interaction screening of an Arabidopsis thaliana cDNA library, we have identified a host factor, MCM2, that interacts with the Rep protein of the geminivirus mungbean yellow mosaic India virus (MYMIV). Using yeast two-hybrid, β-galactosidase and co-immunoprecipitation assays, we demonstrated an interaction between MYMIV-Rep and the host factor AtMCM2. We investigated the possible role of AtMCM2 in geminiviral replication using a yeast-based geminivirus DNA replication restoration assay and observed that the AtMCM2 protein complemented the mcm2∆ mutation of S. cerevisiae. Our data suggest the involvement of AtMCM2 in the replication of MYMIV ex vivo. The role of MCM2 in replication was confirmed in planta by a transient replication assay in both wild-type and mutant Arabidopsis plants through agroinoculation. Our data provide evidence for the involvement of AtMCM2 in geminiviral DNA replication, presumably in conjunction with other host factors, and suggest its importance in MYMIV DNA replication.

A role for H2B ubiquitylation in DNA replication

The monoubiquitylation of histone H2B plays an important role in gene expression by contributing to the regulation of transcription elongation and mRNA processing and export. We explored additional cellular functions of this histone modification by investigating its localization to intergenic regions. H2B ubiquitylation is present in chromatin around origins of DNA replication in budding yeast, and as DNA is replicated its levels are maintained on daughter strands by the Bre1 ubiquitin ligase. In the absence of H2B ubiquitylation, the prereplication complex is formed and activated, but replication fork progression is slowed down and the replisome becomes unstable in the presence of hydroxyurea. H2B ubiquitylation promotes the assembly or stability of nucleosomes on newly replicated DNA, and this function is postulated to contribute to fork progression and replisome stability.

RAD001 (everolimus) induces dose-dependent changes to cell cycle regulation and modifies the cell cycle response to vincristine

More than 50% of adults and ~20% of children with pre-B acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) relapse following treatment. Dismal outcomes for patients with relapsed or refractory disease mandate novel approaches to therapy. We have previously shown that the combination of the mTOR inhibitor RAD001 (everolimus) and the chemotherapeutic agent vincristine increases the survival of non-obese diabetic/severe combined immuno-deficient (NOD/SCID) mice bearing human ALL xenografts. We have also shown that 16 μM RAD001 synergized with agents that cause DNA damage or microtubule disruption in pre-B ALL cells in vitro. Here, we demonstrate that RAD001 has dose-dependent effects on the cell cycle in ALL cells, with 1.5 μM RAD001 inhibiting pRb, Ki67 and PCNA expression and increasing G0/1 cell cycle arrest, whereas 16 μM RAD001 increases pRb, cyclin D1, Ki67 and PCNA, with no evidence of an accumulation of cells in G0/1. Transition from G2 into mitosis was promoted by 16 μM RAD001 with reduced phosphorylation of cdc2 in cells with 4 N DNA content. However, 16 μM RAD001 preferentially induced cell death in cells undergoing mitosis. When combined with vincristine, 16 μM RAD001 reduced the vincristine-induced accumulation of cells in mitosis, probably as a result of increased death in this population. Although 16 μM RAD001 weakly activated Chk1 and Chk2, it suppressed strong vincristine-induced activation of these cell cycle checkpoint regulators. We conclude that RAD001 enhances chemosensitivity at least in part through suppression of cell cycle checkpoint regulation in response to vincristine and increased progression from G2 into mitosis.

The checkpoint transcriptional response: make sure to turn it off once you are satisfied

The replication checkpoint signaling network monitors the presence of replication-induced lesions to DNA and coordinates an elaborate cellular response that includes ample transcriptional reprogramming. Recent work has established two major groups of replication stress-induced genes in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the DNA damage response (DDR) genes and G 1/S cell cycle (CC) genes. In both cases, transcriptional activation is mediated via checkpoint-dependent inhibition of a transcriptional repressor (Crt1 for DDR and Nrm1 for CC) that participates in negative feedback regulation. This repressor-mediated regulation enables transcription to be rapidly repressed once cells have dealt with the replication stress. The recent finding of a new class of CC genes, named "switch genes," further uncovers a mode of transcription regulation that prevents overexpression of replication stress induced genes during G 1. Collectively, these findings highlight the need for mechanisms that tightly control replication stress-induced transcription, allowing rapid transcriptional activation during replication stress but also avoiding long-term hyperaccumulation of the induced protein product that may be detrimental to cell proliferation.

Cell cycle-dependent regulation of the nuclease activity of Mus81-Eme1/Mms4

The conserved heterodimeric endonuclease Mus81–Eme1/Mms4 plays an important role in the maintenance of genomic integrity in eukaryotic cells. Here, we show that budding yeast Mus81–Mms4 is strictly regulated during the mitotic cell cycle by Cdc28 (CDK)- and Cdc5 (Polo-like kinase)-dependent phosphorylation of the non-catalytic subunit Mms4. The phosphorylation of this protein occurs only after bulk DNA synthesis and before chromosome segregation, and is absolutely necessary for the function of the Mus81–Mms4 complex. Consistently, a phosphorylation-defective mms4 mutant shows highly reduced nuclease activity and increases the sensitivity of cells lacking the RecQ-helicase Sgs1 to various agents that cause DNA damage or replicative stress. The mode of regulation of Mus81–Mms4 restricts its activity to a short period of the cell cycle, thus preventing its function during chromosome replication and the negative consequences for genome stability derived from its nucleolytic action. Yet, the controlled Mus81–Mms4 activity provides a safeguard mechanism to resolve DNA intermediates that may remain after replication and require processing before mitosis.

Mcm2 phosphorylation and the response to replicative stress

Background

The replicative helicase in eukaryotic cells is comprised of minichromosome maintenance (Mcm) proteins 2 through 7 (Mcm2-7) and is a key target for regulation of cell proliferation. In addition, it is regulated in response to replicative stress. One of the protein kinases that targets Mcm2-7 is the Dbf4-dependent kinase Cdc7 (DDK). In a previous study, we showed that alanine mutations of the DDK phosphorylation sites at S164 and S170 in Saccharomyces cerevisiae Mcm2 result in sensitivity to caffeine and methyl methanesulfonate (MMS) leading us to suggest that DDK phosphorylation of Mcm2 is required in response to replicative stress.

Results

We show here that a strain with the mcm2 allele lacking DDK phosphorylation sites (mcm2_AA) is also sensitive to the ribonucleotide reductase inhibitor, hydroxyurea (HU) and to the base analogue 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) but not the radiomimetic drug, phleomycin. We screened the budding yeast non-essential deletion collection for synthetic lethal interactions with mcm2_AA and isolated deletions that include genes involved in the control of genome integrity and oxidative stress. In addition, the spontaneous mutation rate, as measured by mutations in CAN1, was increased in the mcm2_AA strain compared to wild type, whereas with a phosphomimetic allele (mcm2_EE) the mutation rate was decreased. These results led to the idea that the mcm2_AA strain is unable to respond properly to DNA damage. We examined this by screening the deletion collection for suppressors of the caffeine sensitivity of mcm2_AA. Deletions that decrease spontaneous DNA damage, increase homologous recombination or slow replication forks were isolated. Many of the suppressors of caffeine sensitivity suppressed other phenotypes of mcm2_AA including sensitivity to genotoxic drugs, the increased frequency of cells with RPA foci and the increased mutation rate.

Conclusions

Together these observations point to a role for DDK-mediated phosphorylation of Mcm2 in the response to replicative stress, including some forms of DNA damage. We suggest that phosphorylation of Mcm2 modulates Mcm2-7 activity resulting in the stabilization of replication forks in response to replicative stress.