The microbiological quality of washing-up water and the environment in domestic and commercial kitchens

Specific Hygiene Procedures and Practices Assessment: A Cross-Sectional Study in Fresh Fishery Product Retailers of Lisbon's Traditional Food Markets

This study aimed to assess the compliance of specific hand hygiene and food contact surfaces hygiene in fresh fishery product retailers (FFPR) and its relation to socio-demographic characteristics that might influence the observed procedures and practices. A cross-sectional study was conducted in traditional food markets’ FFPRs (N = 74) using interviews and audits for data collection purposes. Results revealed that women were overrepresented among FFPR managers; most were over 50 years of age and had a long working experience in fish retail activities, despite a low educational level. The majority had attended training courses in food hygiene, safety, and Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points-based procedures. Both documental assessment and hand hygiene procedures and practices verification revealed a low level of compliance. Many documents supporting hygiene practices were lacking. Several non-conforming requisites were identified related to the handwashing procedure and equipment and to glove wearing practices. A higher level of compliance was obtained in food contact surfaces hygiene procedures and practices verification, with complete hygiene procedures applied and proper cleaning of utensils and chemical products management in several cases. These findings reflect an ambiguous understanding and misconceptions related to hygiene procedures and practices, suggesting the need to improve and update FFPR food handler training regarding basic food hygiene and safety.

Consumer practices and prevalence of Campylobacter, Salmonella and norovirus in kitchens from six European countries

About 40% of foodborne infections are acquired in the home. The aim of the present study was to track contamination of pathogens during domestic food preparation and link the contamination to preparation practices. Research participants from 87 households in six European countries were observed and interviewed during shopping and preparation of a chicken and vegetable meal. The presence of Salmonella spp., Campylobacter spp. and norovirus on raw chicken, kitchen surfaces, cloths and sponges was determined. The prevalence of Campylobacter on raw chicken varied from 8.3% in Norway (NO) to 80% in France (FR) and Portugal (PT), with a mean prevalence of 57%. Campylobacter was found on half of the products that had been frozen and appeared to be less prevalent on chicken from supermarkets than other sources. Salmonella was found in 8.6% of raw chicken samples, exclusively from Hungary (HU). A relationship between observed practices and spread of pathogens to kitchen surfaces was found only for the use of cutting boards for chicken and/or vegetables. After food preparation, Campylobacter and Salmonella were isolated from 23% (samples derived from HU, RO, UK) and 8.7% (HU), respectively of cutting boards. Research participants in France and Portugal were more likely to buy products that fitted their recipe, with less need for using cutting boards. Using the same board and knife for vegetables after using it for chicken and without washing with detergent was common in Portugal and Romania, but not in the other countries. Contamination with Campylobacter to other kitchen surfaces or washing utensils were found in five households (UK, RO, PT). Rinsing chicken in sinks was common in three countries (PT, HU, RO), and washing vegetables in the same sink was also usual. Prevalence of Norovirus was low, with detection in one out of 451 samples. The participants' awareness of the risk posed by pathogens from raw chicken differed among the six countries, with higher awareness in Norway and the UK than the other countries studied. In conclusion, practices intended to avoid cross-contamination from chicken to kitchen surfaces and washing utensils are not established among consumers in all European countries. Nevertheless, cross-contamination events that disseminate infectious doses of pathogens seems to be rare, probably due to the relatively low levels of pathogens in food combined with food preferences. Food safety interventions must consider the national food culture, preferences, practices and the prevalence and levels of pathogens in food. Emphasis should be on providing and promoting chicken products with lower risk (prevalence of pathogens, ready-to-cook) and safe use of cutting boards.

Cross-contamination events of Campylobacter spp. in domestic kitchens associated with consumer handling practices of raw poultry

Contaminated poultry is the major vehicle for consumer's exposure to Campylobacter. This study aimed to perceive potential cross-contamination events during preparation of raw poultry that can contribute to the spread of Campylobacter spp. in domestic kitchen environments and to understand consumers' meanings and justifications on preparation of a poultry dish at home. A total of 18 households were visited to observe consumers preparing a recipe that included poultry. Poultry samples and swabs from the kitchen surfaces and utensils, such as kitchen cloth, hand towel, sponge, cutting boards and the sink, were collected before and after food preparation and tested for the presence of Campylobacter spp. Genotypic characterization of 72 Campylobacter spp. isolates was carried out through Pulse-Field Gel Electrophoresis (PFGE). Fourteen chicken samples were contaminated with Campylobacter spp. (77.8%). Twelve consumers (66.6%) washed the chicken meat under running tap water and eight (44.4%) used cutting boards. Also, only five consumers washed their hands properly prior to or during meal preparation. Cross-contamination events were detected in four kitchens, between the raw chicken and two cutting boards, two sinks and one kitchen cloth. The poultry samples presented different levels of contamination (< 4.0 × 10¹ CFU/g to 2.2 × 10³ CFU/g), being some poultry with lower Campylobacter loads the origin of three cross-contamination events during food preparation. Both C. jejuni and C. coli were recovered. Molecular typing by PFGE showed a high diversity among the isolates. There were different explanations for the practice of cleaning and rinsing chicken, but, in general, it is an habit linked to what they have learned from their families. These results highlight the potential for the dissemination of Campylobacter strains in the domestic environment through the preparation of chicken meat and the need to raise awareness among consumers for an appropriate handling of raw poultry in order to decrease the risk of campylobacteriosis.

Dishwashing sponges and brushes: Consumer practices and bacterial growth and survival

Sponges are frequently used in kitchens and have been shown to harbor large numbers of bacteria, occasionally also pathogens. Less is known about kitchen brushes regarding usage and presence of bacteria. In the present study, the use of sponges and brushes was studied in a survey among 9966 European consumers in ten countries, and growth and survival of bacteria in sponges and brushes were examined in laboratory experiments. Sponges were the preferred hand-cleaning utensils for washing-up in the majority of countries, while brushes were most frequently used in Denmark and Norway. Consumers mostly change their sponges at regular times, but also sensory cues (looks dirty, smelly, slimy) and usage occurrences such as wiping up meat juices may trigger replacement. Besides cleaning the dishes, over a quarter of the dish brush users also use it to clean a chopping board after soilage from chicken meat juices. The water uptake and drying rate varied considerably, both between different sponges and between brushes and sponges, where brushes dried fastest. Campylobacter survived one day in all sponges and Salmonella more than seven days in two of three types of sponges. In the type of sponge that dried slowest, Salmonella grew on the first day and was always found in higher levels than in the other sponges. Non-pathogenic bacteria grew in the sponges and reached levels around 9 log CFU/sponge. In brushes all types of bacteria died over time. Campylobacter and Salmonella were reduced by more than 2.5 log to below the detection limit after one and three days, respectively. Bacteriota studies revealed a tendency for a dominance by Gram-negative bacteria and a shift to high relative prevalence of Pseudomonas over time in sponges. Both enumeration by agar plating and bacteriota analysis confirmed that the pathogens were in a minority compared to the other bacteria. Treatments of sponges and brushes with chlorine, boiling or in the dishwasher were effective to reduce Salmonella. We conclude that brushes are more hygienic than sponges and that their use should be encouraged. Contaminated sponges or brushes should be replaced or cleaned when they may have been in contact with pathogenic microorganisms, e.g. used on raw food spills. Cleaning of sponges and brushes with chlorine, boiling or dishwasher may be a safe alternative to replacing them with new ones.

Household presentation of acute gastroenteritis in a primary care sentinel network: retrospective database studies

Background

Acute gastroenteritis (AGE) is a highly transmissible condition spreading rapidly between individuals and within households. Rotavirus vaccination was introduced in the UK in 2013. The study objectives were to investigate how acute gastroenteritis incidence changed over 25 years and household incidence of AGE since 2013.

Methods

Repeated cross-sectional study of Royal College of General Practitioners Research and Surveillance Centre network. We used a negative binomial model to report incidence rate ratio (IRR) using the last 5 years data. We also conducted a retrospective cohort analysis, using a shared gamma frailty model (2013–2017). We explored the impact of child under 5- years, household size, socioeconomic status quintile, and rurality.

Results

In the cross-sectional analysis, the IRR of AGE in households with a child of under 5 years was 12.20 (95%CI 11.08–13.45-, p < 0.001) compared with households without; the IRR fell across IMD quintiles, for example there is a 37% decrease in incidence comparing IMD quintile 1 to quintile 5 (95%CI -0.52-0.76, p < 0.001),

The cohort study revealed that the presence of an under 5 in the household was associated with a higher risk of household presentation (HR = 6.29, 95% CI 5.61–7.06, p < 0.001). In addition, we observe a reduction in risk of presentation from the most to the least deprived socioeconomic quintile (second quintile: HR = 0.74 (95%CI 0.59–0.92), to least deprived quintile, HR = 0.55 (95%CI 0.41–0.74). We saw a lower association with male gender, white ethnicity and living outside London, but an increased association with increasing household size.

Conclusions

The incidence of AGE has changed over time: pre-school children, larger households, and living in London were associated with higher rates, and male gender and higher economic status associated with lower rates.

Monitoring of Hygiene in Institutional Kitchens in Belgium

ABSTRACT

Microbiological contamination of food during preparation and storage is a risk factor in institutional kitchens. In this Belgian study, hygiene practices in 40 institutional kitchens from four public sectors (10 hospitals, 10 schools, 10 retirement homes, and 10 child care centers) were evaluated to determine whether differences in these practices exist between these sectors. Contamination levels were also analyzed at several critical contact points. A data collection instrument and microbiological analysis of hand contact surfaces, food contact surfaces, and kitchen utensils were used. Hand washing resulted in only a slight reduction in total aerobic bacteria counts (TACs), and all microorganisms evaluated except E. coli were still present at countable levels. Enterobacteriaceae were found on one-third of the cleaned cutting boards. Cleaned work surfaces had the highest average TAC of all cleaned surfaces. Only slight improvements in TACs and Enterobacteriaceae and B. cereus counts were observed between used and cleaned work surfaces. The results from the data collection instrument revealed that child care centers had the lowest hygiene scores, whereas the other three sectors were fairly similar, with hospitals scoring highest. The low hygiene score for the child care centers was verified by comparing the results for cleaned surfaces among the sectors. The average TAC on surfaces was highest for child care centers and lowest for hospitals. Child care centers also had the second highest total mean counts and the highest number of total surface samples positive for Enterobacteriaceae. The highest number of surface samples positive for Staphylococcus aureus was also found in child care centers. This study highlights some areas of concern for hygiene improvement in institutional kitchens, differences between public sectors, and similarities in conclusions about hygiene based on the scores from the survey instrument and the results of the microbiological analyses.

HIGHLIGHTS

Self-disinfecting surfaces and infection control

According to World Health Organization, every year in the European Union, 4 million patients acquire a healthcare associated infection. Even though some microorganisms represent no threat to healthy people, hospitals harbor different levels of immunocompetent individuals, namely patients receiving immunosuppressors, with previous infections, or those with extremes of age (young children and elderly), requiring the implementation of effective control measures. Public spaces have also been found an important source of infectious disease outbreaks due to poor or none infection control measures applied. In both places, surfaces play a major role on microorganisms' propagation, yet they are very often neglected, with very few guidelines about efficient cleaning measures and microbiological assessment available. To overcome surface contamination problems, new strategies are being designed to limit the microorganisms' ability to survive over surfaces and materials. Surface modification and/or functionalization to prevent contamination is a hot-topic of research and several different approaches have been developed lately. Surfaces with anti-adhesive properties, with incorporated antimicrobial substances or modified with biological active metals are some of the strategies recently proposed. This review intends to summarize the problems associated with contaminated surfaces and their importance on infection spreading, and to present some of the strategies developed to prevent this public health problem, namely some already being commercialized.

Condições higiênico-sanitárias e perfil da comunidade microbiana de utensílios e mesas higienizadas de um serviço de alimentação localizado no Rio de Janeiro

Resumo O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar as condições higiênico-sanitárias e o perfil da comunidade microbiana dos utensílios e das mesas de um serviço de alimentação localizado no município do Rio de Janeiro. A caracterização do processo de higienização dos utensílios (pratos, bandejas e talheres) e das mesas foi realizada por observação sistemática. Verificou-se que os utensílios eram lavados em máquina de lavar e as mesas, manualmente. Após a higienização, os utensílios apresentavam umidade e resíduos de alimentos. Pelo método dependente de cultivo, foram analisadas 126 amostras higienizadas (utensílios: n=90 e mesas: n=36). Pesquisaram-se bactérias mesófilas, coliformes, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus e fungos. Das amostras analisadas, 100% dos utensílios e 80% das mesas apresentaram contagens microbianas superiores ao recomendado na literatura, estando em condições higiênico-sanitárias inadequadas. E. coli foi isolada nos utensílios e S. aureus, nas mesas. Pelos métodos independentes de cultivo (PCR-DGGE e sequenciamento da subunidade 16S do rRNA), foram analisadas 36 amostras (utensílios: n=27 e mesas: n=9). Klebsiella sp. e Acinetobacter sp. Foram detectadas em todas as amostras, Citrobacter sp. sobre as mesas e Aeromonas hydrophila, nos talheres. Houve falha no processo de higienização, que foi confirmada pelas análises realizadas, que evidenciaram a presença de microrganismos indicadores e patogênicos, que podem causar a perda da qualidade das refeições, assim como danos à saúde dos comensais. Desta forma, é necessário adequar o processo de higienização, a fim de minimizar o risco de contaminação e o surto de doenças transmitidas por alimentos (DTA).

Simulation of improper food hygiene practices: A quantitative assessment of Vibrio parahaemolyticus distribution

Kitchen mishandling practices contribute to a large number of foodborne illnesses. In this study, the transfer and cross-contamination potential of Vibrio parahaemolyticus from bloody clams to ready-to-eat food (lettuce) was assessed. Three scenarios were investigated: 1) direct cross-contamination, the transfer of V. parahaemolyticus from bloody clams to non-food contact surfaces (hands and kitchen utensils) to lettuce (via slicing), was evaluated; 2) perfunctory decontamination, the efficacy of two superficial cleaning treatments: a) rinsing in a pail of water, and b) wiping with a kitchen towel, were determined; and 3) secondary cross-contamination, the microbial transfer from cleaning residuals (wash water or stained kitchen towel) to lettuce was assessed. The mean of percent transfer rates through direct contact was 3.6%, and an average of 3.5% of total V. parahaemolyticus was recovered from sliced lettuce. The attempted treatments reduced the transferred population by 99.0% (rinsing) and 94.5% (wiping), and the relative amount of V. parahaemolyticus on sliced lettuce was reduced to 0.008%. V. parahaemolyticus exposure via secondary cross-contamination was marginal. The relative amount of V. parahaemolyticus recovered from washed lettuce was 0.07%, and the transfers from stained kitchen towel to lettuce were insubstantial. Our study highlights that V. parahaemolyticus was readily spread in the kitchen, potentially through sharing of non-food contact surfaces. Results from this study can be used to better understand and potentially raising the awareness of proper handling practices to avert the spread of foodborne pathogens.

Field study of the composition of greywater and comparison of microbiological indicators of water quality in on-site systems

Thirty on-site greywater systems were sampled to determine greywater characteristics and practices in the field. Kitchen greywater was present at eight sites and urine was included at seven sites. These non-traditional sources resulted in significantly higher concentrations of enterococci and 5-day biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5) in greywater. Even with the removal of these sources, the concentrations of microbial indicators indicated high levels of contamination could occur across all greywater sources, including "light" greywater. Using multiple microbial indicators showed that all samples had the potential for faecal contamination. Bacteroidales markers were confirmed in treated greywater and in each greywater source, highlighting the potential for human faecal contamination. Although Escherichia coli was absent in treated greywater recycled to the house, other microbial indicators were present; hence, caution is required in using E. coli concentrations as the sole indicator of microbiological water quality. High BOD5 or total suspended solid concentrations exceeded the levels recommended for effective disinfection. Subsurface irrigation, which is assumed to provide a five-log reduction in exposure, is a suitable reuse option for non-disinfected greywater. Only half the occupants had a good understanding of their greywater systems and 25 % of systems were poorly maintained. Elevated microbial indicator contamination of greywater sludge is a potential hazard during maintenance.

Consumer Poultry Handling Behavior in the Grocery Store and In-Home Storage

Considerable work on consumers' food safety habits has highlighted issues associated with home food preparation. However, consumer handling of foods, such as poultry, during shopping and storage has not been noted. The objective of this study was to determine consumer behaviors during purchasing and initial storage of raw poultry to determine potential cross-contamination issues. A shop-along observational study was conducted to determine actual shopping, transportation, and storage behavior of consumers who purchase raw poultry products. Neither hand sanitizer nor wipes were observed in 71% of grocery store meat sections of stores visited. Plastic bags could be found in the meat section 85% of the time, but only 25% of shoppers used the bag for their raw poultry purchases. During checkout, the poultry was bagged separately from other products 71% of the time. A majority of shoppers stored raw poultry in the original package without an additional container or overwrap. Overall, there needs to be an increase in food safety education on the handling of poultry during purchasing, transportation, and storage.

Diversity, distribution and sources of bacteria in residential kitchens

Bacteria readily colonize kitchen surfaces, and the exchange of microbes between humans and the kitchen environment can impact human health. However, we have a limited understanding of the overall diversity of these communities, how they differ across surfaces and sources of bacteria to kitchen surfaces. Here we used high-throughput sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene to explore biogeographical patterns of bacteria across > 80 surfaces within the kitchens of each of four households. In total, 34 bacterial and two archaeal phyla were identified, with most sequences belonging to the Actinobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes and Proteobacteria. Genera known to contain common food-borne pathogens were low in abundance but broadly distributed throughout the kitchens, with different taxa exhibiting distinct distribution patterns. The most diverse communities were associated with infrequently cleaned surfaces such as fans above stoves, refrigerator/freezer door seals and floors. In contrast, the least diverse communities were observed in and around sinks, which were dominated by biofilm-forming Gram-negative lineages. Community composition was influenced by conditions on individual surfaces, usage patterns and dispersal from source environments. Human skin was the primary source of bacteria across all kitchen surfaces, with contributions from food and faucet water dominating in a few specific locations. This study demonstrates that diverse bacterial communities are widely distributed in residential kitchens and that the composition of these communities is often predictable. These results also illustrate the ease with which human- and food-associated bacteria can be transferred in residential settings to kitchen surfaces.

A waterborne Campylobacter jejuni outbreak on a Greek island

A case-control and a case-crossover study were performed to investigate a Campylobacter jejuni outbreak in Crete in 2009. Most cases originated from rural areas, served by a different water-supply system from that of the adjacent town. Thirty-seven cases and 79 controls were interviewed; cases were interviewed for two different time periods for the case-crossover study. Stool cultures, PFGE and MLST subtyping were run in human samples. Univariately, consumption of tap water was associated with C. jejuni infection. Stratified analysis revealed that water-supply system was an effect modifier of this association. In the multivariable analysis, the rural areas' water supplier and drinking tap water were risk factors. No risk factors were revealed in the case-crossover study. No Campylobacter were isolated in the tested water samples. There is strong epidemiological evidence that tap water was the vehicle of the outbreak.

Infection Control and the Home Care Environment

Introduction: The epidemiology of multidrug-resistant organisms is changing as evidenced by a shift to the community. Hospitalized patients are admitted to home health care with multidrug-resistant organisms. Numerous states have reported an increased incidence of community-acquired infections caused by multidrug-resistant organisms where reportedly no exposure to antibiotics or health care in the 3 months before symptom onset occurred. Method: A cohort research design with four separate home care agencies and a total of 127 nurses’ bags were cultured. Conclusions: The present study hypothesizes that the implementation of infection prevention and control strategies including education and training on proper hand hygiene and appropriate decontamination of high-touch surfaces (nurses’ bags) will interrupt the chain of transmission. Hand hygiene practices and environmental disinfection methods differ for Clostridium difficile than for other multidrug-resistant organisms, underscoring the need for addressing environmental factors. If present, implications for routine care and cleaning of nurses’ bags and specific changes in hand hygiene practices before and after home care visits are necessary.

Contamination of bottles used for feeding reconstituted powdered infant formula and implications for public health

AIMS

Microbial contamination of powdered infant formula (PIF) is known to cause gastrointestinal infections in infants. Of concern is intrinsic contamination of the formula with (for example) Salmonella enterica as well as extrinsic contamination from inappropriate handling or ineffective disinfection. The aim of this study was to evaluate organic and microbial contamination of 'in-use' bottles used for feeding infants powdered formula milk in South Wales, UK.

METHODS

To establish baseline contamination levels of 'in-use' bottles, 75 'uncleaned' and 150 'cleaned and ready to re-use' bottles used for feeding infants PIF were analyzed. The microbiological analysis included aerobic colony counts (ACCs), presence/absence and counts of Enterobacteriaceae and Staphylococcus aureus. The level of residual adenosine tri-phosphate (ATP) was determined as an indicator of organic soiling. All bottles were sampled in four sites; inner screwcap, bottle interior; bottle outer rim and teat interior.

RESULTS

Microbial counts up to 10(5)/area were sampled and ATP levels up to 100,051 relative light units (RLUs) were obtained from 'uncleaned' bottles. Findings varied according to bottle site. Enterobacteriaceae and Staphylococcus aureus were isolated from 12-15% of 'unclean' bottles/components (up to 10(2) cfu/area sampled) and contamination was most frequently detected from the screw cap and teat interiors. Data indicated that after use, prior to cleaning, considerable microbial and organic soil remained in the cumulative bottles. Of the ready-to-use bottles reportedly cleaned and disinfected, some had ACCs up to 5.8 x 10(4) cfu/area sampled. Staphylococcus aureus was detected from 4% bottles/components but no Enterobacteriaceae were detected.

CONCLUSIONS

Cumulatively, findings indicate the presence of organic soiling and the potential for survival of bacteria between infant feeds. There is a need for effective education on effective bottle decontamination procedures. This may be achieved by using an audience-centred approach to re-enforce messages to parents and caregivers to implement good hygiene practices, effectively wash and rinse items before disinfection and follow manufacturers' guidelines for disinfection.

[Risk of infection in the home environment. Plea for a new risk assessment]

Within the last two decades risks posed by infectious diseases outside of hospitals and nursing homes had no high significance in the public perception. The home environment is regarded as a save shelter from infectious risks. In the mean time there have been dramatic socio-demographic, health policy and technological changes which have increased infectious risks outside medical facilities. In Germany up to 1.4 million people with multiple morbidities are nursed at home. Technological changes with the aim to protect the environment, like reduction of water temperature and water volumes in washing processes has lowered the efficacy to control pathogens. Thus it is time to revise the process of risk assessment in which not only aspects of environmental protection but also those of health protection must be taken into account. The article gives an overview of new risks and epidemiological changes and discusses the necessity of a new risk assessment and risk management approach which hopefully will lead to a changing paradigm.

Does microbiological testing of foods and the food environment have a role in the control of foodborne disease in England and Wales?

This review looks at the contribution of microbiological sampling to the safety of retail foods in England and Wales. It compares sampling methods available and assesses the value of testing as part of outbreaks of foodborne disease, as part of routine management by local authorities, as part of work done or commissioned by the food industry, and as part of research. It confirms that microbiological testing has a role during outbreaks as it makes a significant contribution to help identify foods and other areas of greatest risk for future study. The review suggests that routine testing by local authorities is often of limited use and could be improved by more targeted surveillance. Testing could be better used to validate primary control methods, such as Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) system. Any public health benefit from testing in the food industry is often restricted by client confidentiality. Microbial research on foods is important as it can lead to significant improvements in safety. Current microbiological methods are slow and, in future, rapid molecular methods may make an even bigger contribution to the control of foodborne disease.

The effect of an antibacterial washing-up liquid in reducing dishwater aerobic plate counts

AIMS

To assess any significant differences in the aerobic plate count (APC) of catering dishwaters following the use of a traditional, nonantibacterial or an antibacterial washing-up liquid.

METHODS AND RESULTS

A dishwashing trial was undertaken within a commercial restaurant of 6 weeks duration (3 weeks with each washing-up liquid in a randomized, weekly pattern). Five replicate samples were taken from the dishwater at the end of the washing-up operation, on three separate occasions each day corresponding to mid-morning, lunchtime and mid-afternoon meal preparations.

CONCLUSIONS

The antibacterial product was shown to significantly reduce the APC by an average log10 reduction of 1.81 CFU ml(-1) (98.5%) as compared with the traditional product. APC were lower for each of the three weekly time periods for the antibacterial product. Continued use of the antibacterial product did not decrease the APC of the dishwater, though with the traditional product, dishwater counts increased throughout the trial week.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

Antibacterial washing-up liquids, with proven activity in controlling levels of microorganisms in dishwaters, could play a significant role in reducing the risk of cross-contamination between washed articles during washing-up operations.

Improving food safety in the domestic environment: the need for a transdisciplinary approach

Microbial food safety has been the focus of research across various disciplines within the risk analysis community. Natural scientists involved in food microbiology and related disciplines work on the identification of health hazards, and the detection of pathogenic microorganisms. To perform risk assessment, research activities are increasingly focused on the quantification of microbial contamination of food products at various stages in the food chain, and modeling the impact of this contamination on human health. Social scientists conduct research into how consumers perceive food risks, and how best to develop effective risk communication with consumers in order to improve public health through improved food handling practices. The two approaches converge at the end of the food chain, where the activities regarding food preparation and food consumption are considered. Both natural and social sciences may benefit from input and expertise from the perspective of the alternative discipline, although, to date, the integration of social and natural sciences has been somewhat limited. This article therefore explores the potential of a transdisciplinary approach to food risk analysis in terms of delivering additional improvements to public health. Developing knowledge arising from research in both the natural and social sciences, we present a novel framework involving the integration of the two approaches that might provide the most effective way to improve the consumer health associated with food-borne illness.

A preliminary evaluation of the effect of glove use by food handlers in fast food restaurants

A study was conducted to determine whether the levels of selected microorganisms differed on foods handled by gloved and bare hands at fast food restaurants. Three hundred seventy-one plain flour tortillas were purchased from fast food restaurants and analyzed for Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella sp., coliform bacteria, and heterotrophic plate count bacteria. Approximately 46% of the samples were handled by workers wearing gloves compared with 52% of samples with bare hand contact. Coliform bacteria were found in 9.6% of samples handled by gloved workers and 4.4% of samples handled by bare hands, although this difference was not statistically significant. The distribution of heterotrophic plate count bacteria, a general measure of hygiene, was also higher in samples handled by gloved workers in one restaurant chain. The presence of E. coli, Klebsiella sp., and S. aureus was detected in one, two, and eight samples, respectively, and there were no significant differences between samples handled by gloved or bare hands. Neither direct contact of the tortilla with the food preparation surface nor gender of the worker affected the level of any organism tested. The observed tendency of food workers to wear the same pair of gloves for extended periods and complacency might account for the apparent failure of gloves to reduce or prevent bacterial contamination. The results further suggest that glove use might be counterproductive because workers might wash their hands less frequently when gloved.

Food safety in family homes in Melbourne, Australia

Poor food handling practices in the home are a likely cause of gastroenteritis. This study examined how often reported practices in Australian homes met public health food safety recommendations. During 1998 in Melbourne, Australia, food handling and food storage questionnaires were completed by an adult member in 524 and 515 families, respectively. Each family consisted of at least two adults and two children. Respondents were surveyed regarding washing of hands, cutting boards, and fresh produce; use of kitchen cloths; egg storage; where cooked foods were cooled; the duration before refrigeration of cooked foods; where food types were positioned in the refrigerator; and the method of thawing chicken. Nearly every household reported handling food in a way that could cause food to become contaminated. Overall, 99.0% of respondents reported some form of mishandling, which encompassed 70.3% who handled food preparation surfaces poorly, 46.6% who did not wash their hands appropriately or in a timely manner, 41.7% who mishandled raw foods, and 70.1% who mishandled cooked foods. Food was inappropriately located in the refrigerator by 81.2%, and chicken was thawed using unsafe means by 76.3% of respondents. People preparing food in the home need to be reminded of the increased risk of disease that can arise from poor food handling practices.