Rga5p is a specific Rho1p GTPase-activating protein that regulates cell integrity in Schizosaccharomyces pombe

Cdc42 prevents precocious Rho1 activation during cytokinesis in a Pak1-dependent manner

During cytokinesis, a series of coordinated events partition a dividing cell. Accurate regulation of cytokinesis is essential for proliferation and genome integrity. In fission yeast, these coordinated events ensure that the actomyosin ring and septum start ingressing only after chromosome segregation. How cytokinetic events are coordinated remains unclear. The GTPase Cdc42 promotes recruitment of certain cell wall-building enzymes whereas the GTPase Rho1 activates these enzymes. We show that Cdc42 prevents early Rho1 activation during fission yeast cytokinesis. Using an active Rho probe, we find that although the Rho1 activators Rgf1 and Rgf3 localize to the division site in early anaphase, Rho1 is not activated until late anaphase, just before the onset of ring constriction. We find that loss of Cdc42 activation enables precocious Rho1 activation in early anaphase. Furthermore, we provide functional and genetic evidence that Cdc42-dependent Rho1 inhibition is mediated by the Cdc42 target Pak1 kinase. Our work proposes a mechanism of Rho1 regulation by active Cdc42 to coordinate timely septum formation and cytokinesis fidelity.

Fission Yeast Rho1p-GEFs: From Polarity and Cell Wall Synthesis to Genome Stability

Rho1p is a membrane-associated protein that belongs to the Rho family of small GTPases. These proteins coordinate processes such as actin remodelling and polarised secretion to maintain the shape and homeostasis of yeast cells. In response to extracellular stimuli, Rho1p undergoes conformational switching between a guanosine triphosphate (GTP)-bound active state and a guanosine diphosphate (GDP)-bound inactive state. Cycling is improved with guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) activity necessary to activate signalling and GTPase activating protein (GAP) activity required for subsequent signal depletion. This review focuses on fission yeast Rho1p GEFs, Rgf1p, Rgf2p, and Rgf3p that belong to the family of DH-PH domain-containing Dbl-related GEFs. They are multi-domain proteins that detect biological signals that induce or inhibit their catalytic activity over Rho1p. Each of them activates Rho1p in different places and times. Rgf1p acts preferentially during polarised growth. Rgf2p is required for sporulation, and Rgf3p plays an essential function in septum synthesis. In addition, we outline the noncanonical roles of Rho1p-GEFs in genomic instability.

The function and biosynthesis of callose in high plants

The two main glucan polymers cellulose and callose in plant cell wall are synthesized at the plasma membrane by cellulose or callose synthase complexes. Cellulose is the prevalent glucan in cell wall and provides strength to the walls to support directed cell expansion. By contrast, callose is mainly produced in special cell wall and exercises important functions during development and stress responses. However, the structure and precise regulatory mechanism of callose synthase complex is not very clear. This review therefore compares and analyzes the regulation of callose and cellulose synthesis, and further emphasize the future research direction of callose synthesis.

The Fission Yeast Cell Integrity Pathway: A Functional Hub for Cell Survival upon Stress and Beyond

The survival of eukaryotic organisms during environmental changes is largely dependent on the adaptive responses elicited by signal transduction cascades, including those regulated by the Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase (MAPK) pathways. The Cell Integrity Pathway (CIP), one of the three MAPK pathways found in the simple eukaryote fission of yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe, shows strong homology with mammalian Extracellular signal-Regulated Kinases (ERKs). Remarkably, studies over the last few decades have gradually positioned the CIP as a multi-faceted pathway that impacts multiple functional aspects of the fission yeast life cycle during unperturbed growth and in response to stress. They include the control of mRNA-stability through RNA binding proteins, regulation of calcium homeostasis, and modulation of cell wall integrity and cytokinesis. Moreover, distinct evidence has disclosed the existence of sophisticated interplay between the CIP and other environmentally regulated pathways, including Stress-Activated MAP Kinase signaling (SAPK) and the Target of Rapamycin (TOR). In this review we present a current overview of the organization and underlying regulatory mechanisms of the CIP in S. pombe, describe its most prominent functions, and discuss possible targets of and roles for this pathway. The evolutionary conservation of CIP signaling in the dimorphic fission yeast S. japonicus will also be addressed.

Phosphoinositides containing stearic acid are required for interaction between Rho GTPases and the exocyst to control the late steps of polarised exocytosis

Cell polarity is achieved by regulators such as small G proteins, exocyst members and phosphoinositides, with the latter playing a key role when bound to the exocyst proteins Sec3p and Exo70p, and Rho GTPases. This ensures asymmetric growth via the routing of proteins and lipids to the cell surface using actin cables. Previously, using a yeast mutant for a lysophosphatidylinositol acyl transferase encoded by the PSI1 gene, we demonstrated the role of stearic acid in the acyl chain of phosphoinositides in cytoskeletal organisation and secretion. Here, we use a genetic approach to characterise the effect on late steps of the secretory pathway. The constitutive overexpression of PSI1 in mutants affecting kinases involved in the phosphoinositide pathway demonstrated the role of molecular species containing stearic acid in bypassing a lack of phosphatidylinositol-4-phosphate PI(4)P at the plasma membrane, which is essential for the function of the Cdc42p module. Decreasing the levels of stearic acid-containing phosphoinositides modifies the environment of the actors involved in the control of late steps in the secretory pathway. This leads to decreased interactions between Exo70p and Sec3p, with Cdc42p, Rho1p and Rho3p, due to disruption of the GTP/GDP ratio of at least Rho1p and Rho3p GTPases, thereby preventing activation of the exocyst.

The Multiple Functions of Rho GTPases in Fission Yeasts

The Rho family of GTPases represents highly conserved molecular switches involved in a plethora of physiological processes. Fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe has become a fundamental model organism to study the functions of Rho GTPases over the past few decades. In recent years, another fission yeast species, Schizosaccharomyces japonicus, has come into focus offering insight into evolutionary changes within the genus. Both fission yeasts contain only six Rho-type GTPases that are spatiotemporally controlled by multiple guanine-nucleotide exchange factors (GEFs) and GTPase-activating proteins (GAPs), and whose intricate regulation in response to external cues is starting to be uncovered. In the present review, we will outline and discuss the current knowledge and recent advances on how the fission yeasts Rho family GTPases regulate essential physiological processes such as morphogenesis and polarity, cellular integrity, cytokinesis and cellular differentiation.

Regulation and Function of Defense-Related Callose Deposition in Plants

Plants are constantly exposed to a wide range of potential pathogens and to protect themselves, have developed a variety of chemical and physical defense mechanisms. Callose is a β-(1,3)-D-glucan that is widely distributed in higher plants. In addition to its role in normal growth and development, callose plays an important role in plant defense. Callose is deposited between the plasma membrane and the cell wall at the site of pathogen attack, at the plasmodesmata, and on other plant tissues to slow pathogen invasion and spread. Since it was first reported more than a century ago, defense-related callose deposition has been extensively studied in a wide-spectrum of plant-pathogen systems. Over the past 20 years or so, a large number of studies have been published that address the dynamic nature of pathogen-induced callose deposition, the complex regulation of synthesis and transport of defense-related callose and associated callose synthases, and its important roles in plant defense responses. In this review, we summarize our current understanding of the regulation and function of defense-related callose deposition in plants and discuss both the progresses and future challenges in addressing this complex defense mechanism as a critical component of a plant immune system.

Rho Family GTPases in Fission Yeast Cytokinesis

During cytokinesis, actomyosin ring constriction drives furrow formation. In animal cells, Rho GTPases drive this process through the positioning and assembly of the actomyosin ring, and through extracellular matrix remodeling within the furrow. In the fission yeast S. pombe, actomyosin ring constriction and septum formation are concurrent processes. While S. pombe is the primary source from which the mechanics of ring assembly and constriction stem, much less is known about the regulation of Rho GTPases that control these processes. Of the six Rho GTPases encoded in S. pombe, only Rho1, the RhoA homologue, has been shown to be essential for cytokinesis. While Rho3, Rho4, and Cdc42 have defined roles in cytokinesis, Rho2 and Rho5 play minor to no roles in this process. Here we review the roles of the Rho GTPases during cytokinesis, with a focus on their regulation, and discuss whether crosstalk between GTPases, as has been reported in other organisms, exists during cytokinesis in S. pombe.

Fission yeast cell wall biosynthesis and cell integrity signalling

The cell wall is a structure external to the plasma membrane that is essential for the survival of the fungi. This polysaccharidic structure confers resistance to the cell internal turgor pressure and protection against mechanical injury. The fungal wall is also responsible for the shape of these organisms due to different structural polysaccharides, such as β-(1,3)-glucan, which form fibers and confer rigidity to the cell wall. These polysaccharides are not present in animal cells and therefore they constitute excellent targets for antifungal chemotherapies. Cell wall damage leads to the activation of MAPK signaling pathways, which respond to the damage by activating the repair of the wall and the maintenance of the cell integrity. Fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe is a model organism for the study morphogenesis, cell wall, and how different inputs might regulate this structure. We present here a short overview of the fission yeast wall composition and provide information about the main biosynthetic activities that assemble this cell wall. Additionally, we comment the recent advances in the knowledge of the cell wall functions and discuss the role of the cell integrity MAPK signaling pathway in the regulation of fission yeast wall.

Cellulose and callose synthesis and organization in focus, what's new?

Plant growth and development are supported by plastic but strong cell walls. These walls consist largely of polysaccharides that vary in content and structure. Most of the polysaccharides are produced in the Golgi apparatus and are then secreted to the apoplast and built into the growing walls. However, the two glucan polymers cellulose and callose are synthesized at the plasma membrane by cellulose or callose synthase complexes, respectively. Cellulose is the most common cell wall polymer in land plants and provides strength to the walls to support directed cell expansion. In contrast, callose is integral to specialized cell walls, such as the cell plate that separates dividing cells and growing pollen tube walls, and maintains important functions during abiotic and biotic stress responses. The last years have seen a dramatic increase in our understanding of how cellulose and callose are manufactured, and new factors that regulate the synthases have been identified. Much of this knowledge has been amassed via various microscopy-based techniques, including various confocal techniques and super-resolution imaging. Here, we summarize and synthesize recent findings in the fields of cellulose and callose synthesis in plant biology.

Roles of the novel coiled-coil protein Rng10 in septum formation during fission yeast cytokinesis

The regulation of Rho-GAP localization is not well understood. A novel coiled-coil protein Rng10 is characterized that localizes the Rho-GAP Rga7 in fission yeast. Rng10 and Rga7 physically interact and work together to regulate the accumulation and dynamics of glucan synthases for successful septum formation during cytokinesis.

Rho GAPs are important regulators of Rho GTPases, which are involved in various steps of cytokinesis and other processes. However, regulation of Rho-GAP cellular localization and function is not fully understood. Here we report the characterization of a novel coiled-coil protein Rng10 and its relationship with the Rho-GAP Rga7 in fission yeast. Both rng10Δ and rga7Δ result in defective septum and cell lysis during cytokinesis. Rng10 and Rga7 colocalize on the plasma membrane at the cell tips during interphase and at the division site during cell division. Rng10 physically interacts with Rga7 in affinity purification and coimmunoprecipitation. Of interest, Rga7 localization is nearly abolished without Rng10. Moreover, Rng10 and Rga7 work together to regulate the accumulation and dynamics of glucan synthases for successful septum formation in cytokinesis. Our results show that cellular localization and function of the Rho-GAP Rga7 are regulated by a novel protein, Rng10, during cytokinesis in fission yeast.

Rga6 is a Fission Yeast Rho GAP Involved in Cdc42 Regulation of Polarized Growth

Active Cdc42 is essential for the establishment of polarized growth. This GTPase is negatively regulated by the GTPase-activating proteins (GAPs), which are important for the spatial specificity of Cdc42 function. Rga4 is the only GAP described as negative regulator of fission yeast Cdc42. We report here that Rga6 is another fission yeast Cdc42 GAP which shares some functions with Rga4. Cells lacking Rga6 are viable but slightly shorter and broader than wild type, and cells lacking Rga6 and Rga4 simultaneously are rounded. In these cells, active Cdc42 is observed all around the membrane. These additive effects indicate that both GAPs collaborate in the spatial regulation of active Cdc42. Rga6 localizes to the plasma membrane forming clusters different from those formed by Rga4. A polybasic region at the Rga6 C-terminus is responsible for its membrane localization. Rga6-GFP fluorescence decreases considerably at the growing tips, and this decrease is dependent on the actin cables. Notably, in the absence of Rga6 the amplitude of active Cdc42 oscillations at the tips decreases, and less GTP-Cdc42 accumulates at the new end of the cells. We propose here that Rga6 collaborates with Rga4 to spatially restrict active Cdc42 at the cell tips and maintain cell dimensions.

Cooperation between Paxillin-like Protein Pxl1 and Glucan Synthase Bgs1 Is Essential for Actomyosin Ring Stability and Septum Formation in Fission Yeast

In fungal cells cytokinesis requires coordinated closure of a contractile actomyosin ring (CAR) and synthesis of a special cell wall structure known as the division septum. Many CAR proteins have been identified and characterized, but how these molecules interact with the septum synthesis enzymes to form the septum remains unclear. Our genetic study using fission yeast shows that cooperation between the paxillin homolog Pxl1, required for ring integrity, and Bgs1, the enzyme responsible for linear β(1,3)glucan synthesis and primary septum formation, is required for stable anchorage of the CAR to the plasma membrane before septation onset, and for cleavage furrow formation. Thus, lack of Pxl1 in combination with Bgs1 depletion, causes failure of ring contraction and lateral cell wall overgrowth towards the cell lumen without septum formation. We also describe here that Pxl1 concentration at the CAR increases during cytokinesis and that this increase depends on the SH3 domain of the F-BAR protein Cdc15. In consequence, Bgs1 depletion in cells carrying a cdc15_ΔSH3 allele causes ring disassembly and septation blockage, as it does in cells lacking Pxl1. On the other hand, the absence of Pxl1 is lethal when Cdc15 function is affected, generating a large sliding of the CAR with deposition of septum wall material along the cell cortex, and suggesting additional functions for both Pxl1 and Cdc15 proteins. In conclusion, our findings indicate that CAR anchorage to the plasma membrane through Cdc15 and Pxl1, and concomitant Bgs1 activity, are necessary for CAR maintenance and septum formation in fission yeast.

Cytokinesis requires assembly of an actomyosin ring adjacent to the plasma membrane, which upon contraction pulls the membrane to form a cleavage furrow. In fungi ring closure is coordinated with the synthesis of a cell wall septum. Knowledge about the molecules anchoring the ring to the membrane is very limited. We have found that fission yeast paxillin, located at the ring, and Bgs1, the enzyme responsible for primary septum formation, located at the membrane, cooperate during cytokinesis. Both are required to anchor the ring to the membrane and to maintain it during cytokinesis. Moreover, both proteins cooperate to form the septum. Accordingly, paxillin is essential when Bgs1 is depleted. When both proteins are missing, the contractile ring forms but the lateral cell wall overgrows inwards without a defined cleavage furrow and septum formation. During cytokinesis there is an increase of paxillin which depends on the SH3 domain of the F-BAR protein Cdc15. Consequently the absence of this domain mimics the phenotype of paxillin absence in Bgs1-depleted cells. Interestingly, a decreased function of both Cdc15 and paxillin uncouples the septum synthesis from the ring contraction, indicating an essential cooperation between these proteins and Bgs1 for proper cytokinesis.

Rho2 palmitoylation is required for plasma membrane localization and proper signaling to the fission yeast cell integrity mitogen- activated protein kinase pathway

The fission yeast small GTPase Rho2 regulates morphogenesis and is an upstream activator of the cell integrity pathway, whose key element, mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) Pmk1, becomes activated by multiple environmental stimuli and controls several cellular functions. Here we demonstrate that farnesylated Rho2 becomes palmitoylated in vivo at cysteine-196 within its carboxyl end and that this modification allows its specific targeting to the plasma membrane. Unlike that of other palmitoylated and prenylated GTPases, the Rho2 control of morphogenesis and Pmk1 activity is strictly dependent upon plasma membrane localization and is not found in other cellular membranes. Indeed, artificial plasma membrane targeting bypassed the Rho2 need for palmitoylation in order to signal. Detailed functional analysis of Rho2 chimeras fused to the carboxyl end from the essential GTPase Rho1 showed that GTPase palmitoylation is partially dependent on the prenylation context and confirmed that Rho2 signaling is independent of Rho GTP dissociation inhibitor (GDI) function. We further demonstrate that Rho2 is an in vivo substrate for DHHC family acyltransferase Erf2 palmitoyltransferase. Remarkably, Rho3, another Erf2 target, negatively regulates Pmk1 activity in a Rho2-independent fashion, thus revealing the existence of cross talk whereby both GTPases antagonistically modulate the activity of this MAPK cascade.

Callose biosynthesis in Arabidopsis with a focus on pathogen response: what we have learned within the last decade

BACKGROUND

(1,3)-β-Glucan callose is a cell wall polymer that is involved in several fundamental biological processes, ranging from plant development to the response to abiotic and biotic stresses. Despite its importance in maintaining plant integrity and plant defence, knowledge about the regulation of callose biosynthesis at its diverse sites of action within the plant is still limited. The moderately sized family of GSL (GLUCAN SYNTHASE-LIKE) genes is predicted to encode callose synthases with a specific biological function and subcellular localization. Phosphorylation and directed translocation of callose synthases seem to be key post-translational mechanisms of enzymatic regulation, whereas transcriptional control of GSL genes might only have a minor function in response to biotic or abiotic stresses.

SCOPE AND CONCLUSIONS

Among the different sites of callose biosynthesis within the plant, particular attention has been focused on the formation of callose in response to pathogen attack. Here, callose is deposited between the plasma membrane and the cell wall to act as a physical barrier to stop or slow invading pathogens. Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) is one of the best-studied models not only for general plant defence responses but also for the regulation of pathogen-induced callose biosynthesis. Callose synthase GSL5 (GLUCAN SYNTHASE-LIKE5) has been shown to be responsible for stress-induced callose deposition. Within the last decade of research into stress-induced callose, growing evidence has been found that the timing of callose deposition in the multilayered system of plant defence responses could be the key parameter for optimal effectiveness. This timing seems to be achieved through co-ordinated transport and formation of the callose synthase complex.

Interaction of the Arabidopsis GTPase RabA4c with its effector PMR4 results in complete penetration resistance to powdery mildew

The (1,3)-β-glucan callose is a major component of cell wall thickenings in response to pathogen attack in plants. GTPases have been suggested to regulate pathogen-induced callose biosynthesis. To elucidate the regulation of callose biosynthesis in Arabidopsis thaliana, we screened microarray data and identified transcriptional upregulation of the GTPase RabA4c after biotic stress. We studied the function of RabA4c in its native and dominant negative (dn) isoform in RabA4c overexpression lines. RabA4c overexpression caused complete penetration resistance to the virulent powdery mildew Golovinomyces cichoracearum due to enhanced callose deposition at early time points of infection, which prevented fungal ingress into epidermal cells. By contrast, RabA4c(dn) overexpression did not increase callose deposition or penetration resistance. A cross of the resistant line with the pmr4 disruption mutant lacking the stress-induced callose synthase PMR4 revealed that enhanced callose deposition and penetration resistance were PMR4-dependent. In live-cell imaging, tagged RabA4c was shown to localize at the plasma membrane prior to infection, which was broken in the pmr4 disruption mutant background, with callose deposits at the site of attempted fungal penetration. Together with our interactions studies including yeast two-hybrid, pull-down, and in planta fluorescence resonance energy transfer assays, we concluded that RabA4c directly interacts with PMR4, which can be seen as an effector of this GTPase.

Putative RhoGAP proteins orchestrate vegetative growth, conidiogenesis and pathogenicity of the rice blast fungus Magnaporthe oryzae

Rho GTPases, acting as molecular switches, are involved in the regulation of diverse cellular functions. Rho GTPase activating proteins (Rho GAPs) function as negative regulators of Rho GTPases and are required for a variety of signaling processes in cell development. But the mechanisms underlying Rho GAPs in Rho-mediated signaling pathways in fungi are still elusive. There are eight RhoGAP domain-containing genes annotated in the Magnaporthe oryzae genome. To understand the function of these RhoGAP genes, we generated knockout mutants of each of the RhoGAP genes through a homologous recombination-based method. Phenotypic analysis showed that growth rate of aerial hyphae of the Molrg1 deletion mutant decreased dramatically. The ΔMolrg1 mutant showed significantly reduced conidiation and appressorium formation by germ tubes. Moreover, it lost pathogenicity completely. Deletion of another Rho GAP (MoRga1) resulted in high percentage of larger or gherkin-shaped conidia and slight decrease in conidiation. Appressorial formation of the ΔMoRga1 mutant was delayed significantly on hydrophobic surface, while the development of mycelial growth and pathogenicity in plants was not affected. Confocal fluorescence microscopy imaging showed that MoRga1-GFP localizes to septal pore of the conidium, and this localization pattern requires both LIM and RhoGAP domains. Furthermore, either deleting the LIM or RhoGAP domain or introducing an inactivating R1032A mutation in the RhoGAP domain of MoRga1 caused similar defects as the Morga1 deletion mutant in terms of conidial morphology and appressorial formation, suggesting that MoRga1 is a stage-specific regulator of conidial differentiation by regulating some specific Rho GTPases. In this regard, MoRga1 and MoLrg1 physically interacted with both MoRac1-CA and MoCdc42-CA in the yeast two-hybrid and pull-down assays, suggesting that the actions of these two GAPs are involved in MoRac1 and MoCdc42 pathways. On the other hand, six other putative Rho GAPs (MoRga2 to MoRga7) were dispensable for conidiation, vegetative growth, appressorial formation and pathogenicity, suggesting that these Rho GAPs function redundantly during fungal development. Taking together, Rho GAP genes play important roles in M. oryzae development and infectious processes through coordination and modulation of Rho GTPases.

The use of nanoscale fluorescence microscopic to decipher cell wall modifications during fungal penetration

Plant diseases are one of the most studied subjects in the field of plant science due to their impact on crop yield and food security. Our increased understanding of plant-pathogen interactions was mainly driven by the development of new techniques that facilitated analyses on a subcellular and molecular level. The development of labeling technologies, which allowed the visualization and localization of cellular structures and proteins in live cell imaging, promoted the use of fluorescence and laser-scanning microscopy in the field of plant-pathogen interactions. Recent advances in new microscopic technologies opened their application in plant science and in the investigation of plant diseases. In this regard, in planta Förster/Fluorescence resonance energy transfer has demonstrated to facilitate the measurement of protein-protein interactions within the living tissue, supporting the analysis of regulatory pathways involved in plant immunity and putative host-pathogen interactions on a nanoscale level. Localization microscopy, an emerging, non-invasive microscopic technology, will allow investigations with a nanoscale resolution leading to new possibilities in the understanding of molecular processes.

Feedback regulation of SIN by Etd1 and Rho1 in fission yeast

In fission yeast, the septation initiation network (SIN) is thought to promote cytokinesis by downstream activation of Rho1, a conserved GTPase that controls cell growth and division. Here we show that Etd1 and PP2A-Pab1, antagonistic regulators of SIN, are Rho1 regulators. Our genetic and biochemical studies indicate that a C-terminal region of Etd1 may activate Rho1 by directly binding it, whereas an N-terminal domain confers its ability to localize at the growing tips and the division site where Rho1 functions. In opposition to Etd1, our results indicate that PP2A-Pab1 inhibits Rho1. The SIN cascade is upstream-regulated by the Spg1 GTPase. In the absence of Etd1, activity of Spg1 drops down prematurely, thereby inactivating SIN. Interestingly, we find that ectopic activation of Rho1 restores Spg1 activity in Etd1-depleted cells. By using a cytokinesis block strategy, we show that Rho1 is essential to feedback-activate Spg1 during actomyosin ring constriction. Therefore, activation of Spg1 by Rho1, which in turn is regulated by Etd1, uncovers a novel feedback loop mechanism that ensures SIN activity while cytokinesis is progressing.

Negative functional interaction between cell integrity MAPK pathway and Rho1 GTPase in fission yeast

Rho1 GTPase is the main activator of cell wall glucan biosynthesis and regulates actin cytoskeleton in fungi, including Schizosaccharomyces pombe. We have obtained a fission yeast thermosensitive mutant strain carrying the rho1-596 allele, which displays reduced Rho1 GTPase activity. This strain has severe cell wall defects and a thermosensitive growth, which is partially suppressed by osmotic stabilization. In a global screening for rho1-596 multicopy suppresors the pmp1+ gene was identified. Pmp1 is a dual specificity phosphatase that negatively regulates the Pmk1 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cell integrity pathway. Accordingly, elimination of Pmk1 MAPK partially rescued rho1-596 thermosensitivity, corroborating the unexpected antagonistic functional relationship of these genes. We found that rho1-596 cells displayed increased basal activation of the cell integrity MAPK pathway and therefore were hypersensitive to MgCl2 and FK506. Moreover, the absence of calcineurin was lethal for rho1-596. We found a higher level of calcineurin activity in rho1-596 than in wild-type cells, and overexpression of constitutively active calcineurin partially rescued rho1-596 thermosensitivity. All together our results suggest that loss of Rho1 function causes an increase in the cell integrity MAPK activity, which is detrimental to the cells and turns calcineurin activity essential.

The fission yeast cell wall stress sensor-like proteins Mtl2 and Wsc1 act by turning on the GTPase Rho1p but act independently of the cell wall integrity pathway

Sensing stressful conditions that affect the cell wall reorganization is important for yeast survival. Here, we studied two proteins SpWsc1p and SpMtl2p with structural features indicative of plasma membrane-associated cell wall sensors. We found that Mtl2p and Wsc1p act by turning on the Rho1p GTPase. Each gene could be deleted individually without affecting viability, but the deletion of both was lethal and this phenotype was rescued by overexpression of the genes encoding either Rho1p or its GDP/GTP exchange factors (GEFs). In addition, wsc1Δ and mtl2Δ cells showed a low level of Rho1p-GTP under cell wall stress. Mtl2p-GFP (green fluorescent protein) localized to the cell periphery and was necessary for survival under different types of cell wall stress. Wsc1p-GFP was concentrated in patches at the cell tips, it interacted with the Rho-GEF Rgf2p, and its overexpression activated cell wall biosynthesis. Our results are consistent with the notion that cell wall assembly is regulated by two different networks involving Rho1p. One includes signaling from Mtl2p through Rho1p to Pck1p, while the second one implicates signaling from Wsc1p and Rgf2p through Rho1p to activate glucan synthase (GS). Finally, signaling through the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) Pmk1p remained active in mtl2Δ and wsc1Δ disruptants exposed to cell wall stress, suggesting that the cell wall stress-sensing spectrum of Schizosaccharomyces pombe sensor-like proteins differs from that of Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

Regulation of cell cycle and stress responses under nitrosative stress in Schizosaccharomyces pombe

Nitric oxide (NO) acts as a signaling molecule in numerous physiological processes but excess production generates nitrosative stress in cells. The exact protective mechanism used by cells to combat nitrosative stress is unclear. In this study, the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe has been used as a model system to explore cell cycle regulation and stress responses under nitrosative stress. Exposure to an NO donor results in mitotic delay in cells through G2/M checkpoint activation and initiates rereplication. Western blot analysis of phosphorylated Cdc2 revealed that the G2/M block in the cell cycle was due to retention of its inactive phosphorylated form. Interestingly, nitrosative stress results in inactivation of Cdc25 through S-nitrosylation that actually leads to cell cycle delay. From differential display analysis, we identified plo1, spn4, and rga5, three cell cycle-related genes found to be differentially expressed under nitrosative stress. Exposure to nitrosative stress also results in abnormal septation and cytokinesis in S. pombe. In summary we propose a novel molecular mechanism of cell cycle control under nitrosative stress based on our experimental results and bioinformatics analysis.

Evidence for functional links between the Rgd1-Rho3 RhoGAP-GTPase module and Tos2, a protein involved in polarized growth in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

The Rho GTPase-activating protein Rgd1p positively regulates the GTPase activity of Rho3p and Rho4p, which are involved in bud growth and cytokinesis, respectively, in the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Two-hybrid screening identified Tos2p as a candidate Rgd1p-binding protein. Further analyses confirmed that Tos2p binds to the RhoGAP Rgd1p through its C-terminal region. Both Tos2p and Rgd1p are localized to polarized growth sites during the cell cycle and associated with detergent-resistant membranes. We observed that TOS2 overexpression suppressed rgd1Δ sensitivity to a low pH. In the tos2Δ strain, the amount of GTP-bound Rho3p was increased, suggesting an influence of Tos2p on Rgd1p activity in vivo. We also showed a functional interaction between the TOS2 and the RHO3 genes: TOS2 overexpression partially suppressed the growth defect of rho3-V51 cells at a restrictive temperature. We propose that Tos2p, a protein involved in polarized growth and most probably associated with the plasma membrane, modulates the action of Rgd1p and Rho3p in S. cerevisiae.

Cooperation between the septins and the actomyosin ring and role of a cell-integrity pathway during cell division in fission yeast

A major question about cytokinesis concerns the role of the septin proteins, which localize to the division site in all animal and fungal cells but are essential for cytokinesis only in some cell types. For example, in Schizosaccharomyces pombe, four septins localize to the division site, but deletion of the four genes produces only a modest delay in cell separation. To ask if the S. pombe septins function redundantly in cytokinesis, we conducted a synthetic-lethal screen in a septin-deficient strain and identified seven mutations. One mutation affects Cdc4, a myosin light chain that is an essential component of the cytokinetic actomyosin ring. Five others cause frequent cell lysis during cell separation and map to two loci. These mutations and their dosage suppressors define a signaling pathway (including Rho1 and a novel arrestin) for repairing cell-wall damage. The seventh mutation affects the poorly understood RNA-binding protein Scw1 and severely delays cell separation when combined either with a septin mutation or with a mutation affecting the septin-interacting, anillin-like protein Mid2, suggesting that Scw1 functions in a pathway parallel to that of the septins. Taken together, our results suggest that the S. pombe septins participate redundantly in one or more pathways that cooperate with the actomyosin ring during cytokinesis and that a septin defect causes septum defects that can be repaired effectively only when the cell-integrity pathway is intact.

Rho GTPases: regulation of cell polarity and growth in yeasts

Eukaryotic cells display a wide range of morphologies important for cellular function and development. A particular cell shape is made via the generation of asymmetry in the organization of cytoskeletal elements, usually leading to actin localization at sites of growth. The Rho family of GTPases is present in all eukaryotic cells, from yeast to mammals, and their role as key regulators in the signalling pathways that control actin organization and morphogenetic processes is well known. In the present review we will discuss the role of Rho GTPases as regulators of yeasts' polarized growth, their mechanism of activation and signalling pathways in Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Schizosaccharomyces pombe. These two model yeasts have been very useful in the study of the molecular mechanisms responsible for cell polarity. As in other organisms with cell walls, yeast's polarized growth is closely related to cell-wall biosynthesis, and Rho GTPases are critical modulators of this process. They provide the co-ordinated regulation of cell-wall biosynthetic enzymes and actin organization required to maintain cell integrity during vegetative growth.

Rga4 modulates the activity of the fission yeast cell integrity MAPK pathway by acting as a Rho2 GTPase-activating protein

Rho GTPase-activating proteins (GAPs) are responsible for the inactivation of Rho GTPases, which are involved in the regulation of critical biological responses in eukaryotic cells, ranging from cell cycle control to cellular morphogenesis. The genome of fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe contains six genes coding for putative Rho GTPases, whereas nine genes code for predicted Rho GAPs (Rga1 to Rga9). One of them, Rga4, has been recently described as a Cdc42 GAP, involved in the control of cell diameter and symmetry in fission yeast. In this work we show that Rga4 is also a Rho2 GAP that negatively modulates the activity of the cell integrity pathway and its main effector, MAPK Pmk1. The DYRK-type protein kinase Pom1, which regulates both the localization and phosphorylation state of Rga4, is also a negative regulator of the Pmk1 pathway, but this control is not dependent upon the Rga4 role as a Rho2-GAP. Hence, two subsets of Rga4 negatively regulate Cdc42 and Rho2 functions in a specific and unrelated way. Finally, we show that Rga7, another Rho2 GAP, down-regulates the Pmk1 pathway in addition to Rga4. These results reinforce the notion of the existence of complex mechanisms determining the selectivity of Rho GAPs toward Rho GTPases and their functions.

Pob1 participates in the Cdc42 regulation of fission yeast actin cytoskeleton

Rho GTPases regulate the actin cytoskeleton in all eukaryotes. Fission yeast Cdc42 is involved in actin cable assembly and formin For3 regulation. We isolated cdc42-879 as a thermosensitive strain with actin cable and For3 localization defects. In a multicopy suppressor screening, we identified pob1(+) as suppressor of cdc42-879 thermosensitivity. Pob1 overexpression also partially restores actin cables and localization of For3 in the mutant strain. Pob1 interacts with Cdc42 and this GTPase regulates Pob1 localization and/or stability. The C-terminal pleckstrin homology (PH) domain of Pob1 is required for Cdc42 binding. Pob1 also binds to For3 through its N-terminal sterile alpha motif (SAM) domain and contributes to the formin localization at the cell tips. The previously described pob1-664 mutant strain (Mol. Biol. Cell. 10, 2745-2757, 1999), which carries a mutation in the PH domain, as well as pob1 mutant strains in which Pob1 lacks the N-terminal region (pob1DeltaN) or the SAM domain (pob1DeltaSAM), have cytoskeletal defects similar to that of cdc42-879 cells. Expression of constitutively active For3DAD* partially restores actin organization in cdc42-879, pob1-664, pob1DeltaN, and pob1DeltaSAM. Therefore, we propose that Pob1 is required for For3 localization to the tips and facilitates Cdc42-mediated relief of For3 autoinhibition to stimulate actin cable formation.

Fission yeast rgf2p is a rho1p guanine nucleotide exchange factor required for spore wall maturation and for the maintenance of cell integrity in the absence of rgf1p

Schizosaccharomyces pombe Rho1p is essential, directly activates beta-1,3-glucan synthase, and participates in the regulation of morphogenesis. In S. pombe, Rho1p is activated by at least three guanine nucleotide exchange factors (GEFs): Rgf1p, Rgf2p, and Rgf3p. In this study we show that Rgf2p is a Rho1p GEF required for sporulation. The rgf2+ deletion did not affect forespore membrane formation and the nuclei were encapsulated properly. However, the mutant ascospores appeared dark and immature. The rgf2Delta zygotes were not able to release the ascospores spontaneously, and the germination efficiency was greatly reduced compared to wild-type (wt) spores. This phenotype resembles that of the mutants in bgs2+, which encodes a sporulation-specific glucan synthase subunit. In fact, glucan synthase activity was diminished in sporulating rgf2Delta diploids. Rgf2p also plays a role in beta-glucan biosynthesis during vegetative growth. Overexpression of rgf2+ specifically increased GTP-bound Rho1p, caused changes in cell morphology, and elicited an increase in beta-1,3-glucan synthase activity. Moreover, the simultaneous disruption of rgf1+ and rgf2+ was lethal and both Rgf1p and Rgf2p were able to partially substitute for each other. Our results suggest that Rgf1p and Rgf2p are alternative GEFs with an essential overlapping function in Rho1p activation during vegetative growth.

The Rho1p exchange factor Rgf1p signals upstream from the Pmk1 mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway in fission yeast

The Schizosaccharomyces pombe exchange factor Rgf1p specifically regulates Rho1p during polarized growth. Rgf1p activates the beta-glucan synthase (GS) complex containing the catalytic subunit Bgs4p and is involved in the activation of growth at the second end, a transition that requires actin reorganization. In this work, we investigated Rgf1p signaling and observed that Rgf1p acted upstream from the Pck2p-Pmk1p MAPK signaling pathway. We noted that Rgf1p and calcineurin play antagonistic roles in Cl(-) homeostasis; rgf1Delta cells showed the vic phenotype (viable in the presence of immunosuppressant and chlorine ion) and were unable to grow in the presence of high salt concentrations, both phenotypes being characteristic of knockouts of the MAPK components. In addition, mutations that perturb signaling through the MAPK pathway resulted in defective cell integrity (hypersensitivity to caspofungin and beta-glucanase). Rgf1p acts by positively regulating a subset of stimuli toward the Pmk1p-cell integrity pathway. After osmotic shock and cell wall damage HA-tagged Pmk1p was phosphorylated in wild-type cells but not in rgf1Delta cells. Finally, we provide evidence to show that Rgf1p regulates Pmk1p activation in a process that involves the activation of Rho1p and Pck2p, and we demonstrate that Rgf1p is unique in this signaling process, because Pmk1p activation was largely independent of the other two Rho1p-specific GEFs, Rgf2p and Rgf3p.

Rga2 is a Rho2 GAP that regulates morphogenesis and cell integrity in S. pombe

Schizosaccharomyces pombe Rho2 GTPase regulates alpha-D-glucan synthesis and acts upstream of Pck2 to activate the MAP kinase pathway for cell integrity. However, little is known about its regulation. Here we describe Rga2 as a Rho2 GTPase-activating protein (GAP) that regulates cell morphology. rga2+ gene is not essential for growth but its deletion causes longer and thinner cells whereas rga2+ overexpression causes shorter and broader cells. rga2+ overexpression also causes abnormal accumulation of Calcofluor-stained material and cell lysis, suggesting that it also participates in cell wall integrity. Rga2 localizes to growth tips and septum region. The N-terminal region of the protein is required for its correct localization whereas the PH domain is necessary exclusively for Rga2 localization to the division area. Also, Rga2 localization depends on polarity markers and on actin polymerization. Rga2 interacts with Rho2 and possesses in vitro and in vivo GAP activity for this GTPase. Accordingly, rga2Delta cells contain more alpha-D-glucan and therefore partially suppress the thermosensitivity of mok1-664 cells, which have a defective alpha-D-glucan synthase. Additionally, genetic interactions and biochemical analysis suggest that Rga2 regulates Rho2-Pck2 interaction and might participate in the regulation of the MAPK cell integrity pathway.

Programmed cell death in fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe

Yeasts have proven to be invaluable, genetically tractable systems to study various fundamental biological processes including programmed cell death. Recent advances in the elucidation of the molecular pathways underlying apoptotic cell death in yeasts have revealed remarkable similarities to mammalian apoptosis at cellular, organelle and macromolecular levels, thus making a strong case for the relevance of yeast models of regulated cell death. Programmed cell death has been reported in fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe, primarily in the contexts of perturbed intracellular lipid metabolism, defective DNA replication, improper mitotic entry, chronological and replicative aging. Here we review the current understanding of the programmed cell death in fission yeast, paying particular attention to lipid-induced cell death. We discuss our recent findings that fission yeast exhibits plasticity of apoptotic and non-apoptotic modes of cell death in response to different lipid stimuli and growth conditions, and that mitochondria, reactive oxygen species and novel cell death mediators including metacaspase Pca1, SpRad9 and Pck1 are involved in the lipotoxic cell death. We also present perspectives on how various aspects of the cell and molecular biology of this organism can be explored to shed light on the governing principles underlying lipid-mediated signaling and cell demise.

Schizosaccharomyces pombe Pxl1 is a paxillin homologue that modulates Rho1 activity and participates in cytokinesis

Schizosaccharomyces pombe Rho GTPases regulate actin cytoskeleton organization and cell integrity. We studied the fission yeast gene SPBC4F6.12 based on its ability to suppress the thermosensitivity of cdc42-1625 mutant strain. This gene, named pxl1(+), encodes a protein with three LIM domains that is similar to paxillin. Pxl1 does not interact with Cdc42 but it interacts with Rho1, and it negatively regulates this GTPase. Fission yeast Pxl1 forms a contractile ring in the cell division region and deletion of pxl1(+) causes a delay in cell-cell separation, suggesting that it has a function in cytokinesis. Pxl1 N-terminal region is required and sufficient for its localization to the medial ring, whereas the LIM domains are necessary for its function. Pxl1 localization requires actin polymerization and the actomyosin ring, but it is independent of the septation initiation network (SIN) function. Moreover, Pxl1 colocalizes and interacts with Myo2, and Cdc15, suggesting that it is part of the actomyosin ring. Here, we show that in cells lacking Pxl1, the myosin ring is not correctly assembled and that actomyosin ring contraction is delayed. Together, these data suggest that Pxl1 modulates Rho1 GTPase signaling and plays a role in the formation and contraction of the actomyosin ring during cytokinesis.

Splitting of the fission yeast septum

In cell-walled organisms, a cross wall (septum) is produced during cytokinesis, which then splits in certain organisms to allow the daughter cells to separate. The formation and the subsequent cleavage of the septum require wall synthesis and wall degradation, which need to be strictly coordinated in order to prevent cell lysis. The dividing fission yeast (Schizosaccharomyces) cell produces a three-layered septum in which the middle layer and a narrow band of the adjacent cell wall can be degraded without threatening the integrity of the separating daughter cells. This spatially very precise process requires the activity of the Agn1p 1,3-alpha-glucanase and the Eng1p 1,3-beta-glucanase, which are localized to the septum by a complex mechanism involving the formation of a septin ring and the directed activity of the exocyst system. The Sep1p-Ace2p transcription-factor cascade regulates the expression of many genes producing proteins for this complex process. Recent advances in research into the molecular mechanisms of separation and its regulation are discussed in this review.

The temperature-sensitive role of Cryptococcus neoformans ROM2 in cell morphogenesis

ROM2 is associated with Cryptococcus neoformans virulence. We examined additional roles of ROM2 in C. neoformans and found that ROM2 plays a role in several cell functions specifically at high temperature conditions. Morphologically rom2 mutant cells demonstrated a “tear”-like shape and clustered together. A sub-population of cells had a hyperelongated phenotype at restrictive growth conditions. Altered morphology was associated with defects in actin that was concentrated at the cell periphery and with abnormalities in microtubule organization. Interestingly, the ROM2 associated defects in cell morphology, location of nuclei, and actin and microtubule organization were not observed in cells grown at temperatures below 37°C. These results indicate that in C. neoformans, ROM2 is important at restrictive temperature conditions and is involved in several cell maintenance functions.

Regulation of cell diameter, For3p localization, and cell symmetry by fission yeast Rho-GAP Rga4p

Control of cellular dimensions and cell symmetry are critical for development and differentiation. Here we provide evidence that the putative Rho-GAP Rga4p of Schizosaccharomyces pombe controls cellular dimensions. rga4 Delta cells are wider in diameter and shorter in length, whereas Rga4p overexpression leads to reduced diameter of the growing cell tip. Consistent with a negative role in cell growth control, Rga4p protein localizes to the cell sides in a "corset" pattern, and to the nongrowing cell tips. Additionally, rga4 Delta cells show an altered growth pattern similar to that observed in mutants of the formin homology protein For3p. Consistent with these observations, Rga4p is required for normal localization of For3p and for normal distribution of the actin cytoskeleton. We show that different domains of the Rga4p protein mediate diverse morphological functions. The C-terminal GAP domain mediates For3p localization to the cell tips and maintains cell diameter. Conversely, overexpression of the N-terminal LIM homology domain of Rga4p promotes actin cable formation in a For3p-dependent manner. Our studies indicate that Rga4p functionally interacts with For3p and has a novel function in the control of cell diameter and cell growth.

Rgf1p is a specific Rho1-GEF that coordinates cell polarization with cell wall biogenesis in fission yeast

Rho1p regulates cell integrity by controlling the actin cytoskeleton and cell wall synthesis. We have identified a new GEF, designated Rgf1p, which specifically regulates Rho1p during polarized growth. The phenotype of rgf1 null cells was very similar to that seen after depletion of Rho1p, 30% of cells being lysed. In addition, rgf1(+) deletion caused hypersensitivity to the antifungal drug Caspofungin and defects in the establishment of bipolar growth. rho1(+), but none of the other GTPases of the Rho-family, suppressed the rgf1Delta phenotypes. Moreover, deletion of rgf1(+) suppressed the severe growth defect in rga1(+) null mutants (a Rho1-GAP, negative regulator). Rgf1p and Rho1p coimmunoprecipitated and overexpression of rgf1(+) specifically increased the GTP-bound Rho1p; it caused changes in cell morphology, and a large increase in beta(1,3)-glucan synthase activity. These effects were similar to those elicited when the hyperactive rho1-G15V allele was expressed. A genetic relationship was observed between Rgf1p, Bgs4p (beta[1,3]-glucan synthase), and Pck1p (protein kinase C [PKC] homologue); Bgs4p and Pck1p suppressed the hypersensitivity to Caspofungin in rgf1Delta mutants. Rgf1p localized to the growing ends and the septum, where Rho1, Pck1p, and Bgs4p are known to function. Our results suggest that Rgf1p probably activates the Rho functions necessary for coordinating actin deposition with cell wall biosynthesis during bipolar growth, allowing the cells to remodel their wall without risk of rupture.

Rho4 GTPase is involved in secretion of glucanases during fission yeast cytokinesis

Rho GTPases are regulators of signaling pathways that control actin organization and cell polarity processes in all eukaryotic cells. In Schizosaccharomyces pombe, Rho4p is involved in the regulation of septum degradation during cytokinesis. Here we show that Rho4p participates in the secretion of the glucanases Eng1p and Agn1p, which are responsible for the septum degradation. First, eng1+ or agn1+ overexpression suppressed the rho4delta multiseptation phenotype, and simultaneous overproduction of Rho4p and Eng1p or of Rho4p and Agn1p caused a dramatic lysis. Second, Rho4p was not necessary for Eng1p-mediated glucanase activity as measured in cell extracts; however, rho4delta cells have a lower level of (1,3)-beta-D-glucanase activity in the culture medium. Additionally, Eng1- or Agn1-green fluorescent protein did not properly localize to the septum in rho4delta cells grown at 37 degrees C. There was a decreased amount of these enzymes in the cell wall and in the culture medium of rho4delta cells at 37 degrees C. These results provide evidence that Rho4p is involved in the regulation of Eng1p and Agn1p secretion during cytokinesis.

A microbial TRP-like polycystic-kidney-disease-related ion channel gene

Ion channel genes have been discovered in many microbial organisms. We have investigated a microbial TRP (transient receptor potential) ion channel gene which has most similarity to polycystic-kidney-disease-related ion channel genes. We have shown that this gene (pkd2) is essential for cellular viability, and is involved in cell growth and cell wall synthesis. Expression of this gene increases following damage to the cell wall. This fission yeast pkd2 gene, orthologues of which are found in all eukaryotic cells, appears to be a key signalling component in the regulation of cell shape and cell wall synthesis in yeast through an interaction with a Rho1-GTPase. A model for the mode of action of this Schizosaccharomyces pombe protein in a Ca2+ signalling pathway is hypothesized.

Schizosaccharomyces pombe Rgf3p is a specific Rho1 GEF that regulates cell wall beta-glucan biosynthesis through the GTPase Rho1p

Rho1p regulates cell integrity by controlling the actin cytoskeleton and cell-wall synthesis. Here, we describe the cloning and characterization of rgf3+, a member of the Rho family of guanine nucleotide exchange factors (Rho GEFs). The rgf3+ gene was cloned by complementation of a mutant (ehs2-1) hypersensitive to drugs that interfere with cell-wall biosynthesis. The rgf3+ gene was found to be essential for cell viability and depletion of Rgf3p afforded phenotypes similar to those obtained following depletion of Rho1p. However, the cell death caused by Rgf3p depletion could be rescued by the presence of 1.2 M sorbitol, whereas depletion of Rho1 was lethal under the same conditions. We show that Rgf3p is a specific Rho1-GEF. The hypersensitivity to drugs affecting the cell wall of the ehs2-1 mutant was suppressed by overexpression of rho1+ but not by any of the other GTPases of the Rho family. Rgf3p interacted with the GDP-bound form of Rho1p and promoted the GDP-GTP exchange. In addition, we show that overexpression of Rgf3p produces multiseptated cells and increases beta-1,3-glucan synthase activity and the amount of cell wall beta-1,3-glucan. Rgf3p localized to the septum and the mRNA level was regulated in a cell-cycle-dependent manner peaking during septation. Our results suggest that Rgf3p acts as a positive activator of Rho1p, probably activating the Rho functions that coordinate cell-wall biosynthesis to maintain cell integrity during septation.

The novel Rho GTPase-activating protein family protein, Rga8, provides a potential link between Cdc42/p21-activated kinase and Rho signaling pathways in the fission yeast, Schizosaccharomyces pombe

The PAK family kinase, Shk1, is an essential regulator of polarized growth in the fission yeast, Schizosaccharomyces pombe. Here we describe the characterization of a novel member of the RhoGAP family, Rga8, identified from a two-hybrid screen for proteins that interact with the Shk1 kinase domain. Although deletion of the rga8 gene in wild type S. pombe cells results in no obvious phenotypic defects under normal growth conditions, it partially suppresses the cold-sensitive growth and morphological defects of S. pombe cells carrying a hypomorphic allele of the shk1 gene. By contrast, overexpression of rga8 is lethal to shk1-defective cells and causes morphological and cytokinesis defects in wild type S. pombe cells. Consistent with a role for Rga8 as a downstream target of Shk1, we show that the Rga8 protein is directly phosphorylated by Shk1 in vitro and phosphorylated in a Shk1-dependent fashion in S. pombe cells. Fluorescence photomicroscopy of the GFP-Rga8 fusion protein indicates that Rga8 is localized to the cell ends during interphase and to the septum-forming region during cytokinesis. In S. pombe cells carrying the orb2-34 allele of shk1, Rga8 exhibits a monopolar pattern of localization, providing evidence that Shk1 contributes to the regulation of Rga8 localization. Although molecular analyses suggest that Rga8 functions as a GAP for the S. pombe Rho1 GTPase, genetic experiments suggest that Rga8 and Rho1 have a positive functional interaction and that gain of Rho1 function, like gain of Rga8 function, is lethal to Shk1-defective cells. Our results suggest that Rga8 is a Shk1 substrate that negatively regulates Shk1-dependent growth control pathway(s) in S. pombe, potentially through interaction with the Rho1 GTPase.

Novel Rho GTPase involved in cytokinesis and cell wall integrity in the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe

The Rho family of GTPases is present in all eukaryotic cells from yeast to mammals; they are regulators in signaling pathways that control actin organization and morphogenetic processes. In yeast, Rho GTPases are implicated in cell polarity processes and cell wall biosynthesis. It is known that Rho1 and Rho2 are key proteins in the construction of the cell wall, an essential structure that in Schizosaccharomyces pombe is composed of beta-glucan, alpha-glucan, and mannoproteins. Rho1 regulates the synthesis of 1,3-beta-D-glucan by activation of the 1,3-beta-D-glucan synthase, and Rho2 regulates the synthesis of alpha-glucan by the 1,3-alpha-D-glucan synthase Mok1. Here we describe the characterization of another Rho GTPase in fission yeast, Rho4. rho4Delta cells are viable but display cell separation defects at high temperature. In agreement with this observation, Rho4 localizes to the septum. Overexpression of rho4(+) causes lysis and morphological defects. Several lines of evidence indicate that both rho4(+) deletion or rho4(+) overexpression result in a defective cell wall, suggesting an additional role for Rho4 in cell wall integrity. Rho4Delta cells also accumulate secretory vesicles around the septum and are defective in actin polarization. We propose that Rho4 could be involved in the regulation of the septum degradation during cytokinesis.