Terminal differentiation of human keratinocytes and stratum corneum formation is associated with caspase-14 activation

Challenges and progress related to gene editing in rare skin diseases

Genodermatoses represent a large group of inherited skin disorders encompassing clinically-heterogeneous conditions that manifest in the skin and other organs. Depending on disease variant, associated clinical manifestations and secondary complications can severely impact patients' quality of life and currently available treatments are transient and not curative. Multiple emerging approaches using CRISPR-based technologies offer promising prospects for therapy. Here, we explore current advances and challenges related to gene editing in rare skin diseases, including different strategies tailored to mutation type and structural organization of the affected gene, considerations for in vivo and ex vivo applications, the critical issue of delivery into the skin, and immune aspects of therapy. Against the backdrop of a landmark FDA approval for the first re-dosable gene replacement therapy for a rare genetic skin disorder, gene editing approaches are inching closer to the clinics and the possibility of a local permanent cure for patients affected by these disorders.

Comparative Analysis of Olive-Derived Phenolic Compounds' Pro-Melanogenesis Effects on B16F10 Cells and Epidermal Human Melanocytes

Olive leaf contains plenty of phenolic compounds, among which oleuropein (OP) is the main component and belongs to the group of secoiridoids. Additionally, phenolic compounds such as oleocanthal (OL) and oleacein (OC), which share a structural similarity with OP and two aldehyde groups, are also present in olive leaves. These compounds have been studied for several health benefits, such as anti-cancer and antioxidant effects. However, their impact on the skin remains unknown. Therefore, this study aims to compare the effects of these three compounds on melanogenesis using B16F10 cells and human epidermal cells. Thousands of gene expressions were measured by global gene expression profiling with B16F10 cells. We found that glutaraldehyde compounds derived from olive leaves have a potential effect on the activation of the melanogenesis pathway and inducing differentiation in B16F10 cells. Accordingly, the pro-melanogenesis effect was investigated by means of melanin quantification, mRNA, and protein expression using human epidermal melanocytes (HEM). This study suggests that secoiridoid and its derivates have an impact on skin protection by promoting melanin production in both human and mouse cell lines.

Functional properties and skin care effects of sodium trehalose sulfate

BACKGROUND

It is known that heparinoid, a mucopolysaccharide polysulfate, is effective in improving rough skin and promoting blood circulation as medicines for diseased areas. However, heparinoid has a molecular weight of more than 5000 and cannot penetrate healthy stratum corneum.

OBJECTIVE

We tested the efficacy of sulfated oligosaccharides with a molecular weight of less than 2000 on the human skin barrier function and moisturizing function.

METHODS

We measured the transepidermal water loss (TEWL) of a three-dimensional human epidermis model cultured for 3 days after topical application of sulfated oligosaccharides, then observed the effects on TEWL suppression. The mRNA levels of proteins involved in intercellular lipid transport and storage in the stratum corneum, and moisture retention were measured using RT-qPCR.

RESULTS

An increase in the mRNA levels of the ATP-binding cassette subfamily A member 12 (ABCA12), which transports lipids into stratum granulosum, was confirmed. Increases were also observed in the mRNA levels of filaggrin (FLG), which is involved in the generation of natural moisturizing factors, and of caspase-14, calpain-1 and bleomycin hydrolase, which are involved in the degradation of FLG. Antibody staining confirmed that the application of sodium trehalose sulfate to 3D model skin resulted in more ABCA12, ceramide, transglutaminase1, and FLG than those in controls. In a randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind study, participants with low stratum corneum water content applied a lotion and emulsion containing sodium trehalose sulfate to their faces for 4 weeks. Sodium trehalose sulfate decreased the TEWL and increased the stratum corneum water content.

CONCLUSION

These results suggest that cosmetics containing sodium trehalose sulfate act on the epidermis by increasing barrier factors and moisturizing factors, thereby ameliorating dry skin.

Comparative genomics of monotremes provides insights into the early evolution of mammalian epidermal differentiation genes

The function of the skin as a barrier against the environment depends on the differentiation of epidermal keratinocytes into highly resilient corneocytes that form the outermost skin layer. Many genes encoding structural components of corneocytes are clustered in the epidermal differentiation complex (EDC), which has been described in placental and marsupial mammals as well as non-mammalian tetrapods. Here, we analyzed the genomes of the platypus (Ornithorhynchus anatinus) and the echidna (Tachyglossus aculeatus) to determine the gene composition of the EDC in the basal clade of mammals, the monotremes. We report that mammal-specific subfamilies of EDC genes encoding small proline-rich proteins (SPRRs) and late cornified envelope proteins as well as single-copy EDC genes such as involucrin are conserved in monotremes, suggesting that they have originated in stem mammals. Monotremes have at least one gene homologous to the group of filaggrin (FLG), FLG2 and hornerin (HRNR) in placental mammals, but no clear one-to-one pairwise ortholog of either FLG, FLG2 or HRNR. Caspase-14, a keratinocyte differentiation-associated protease implicated in the processing of filaggrin, is encoded by at least 3 gene copies in the echidna. Our results reveal evolutionarily conserved and clade-specific features of the genetic regulation of epidermal differentiation in monotremes.

Cell death classification: A new insight based on molecular mechanisms

Cells tend to disintegrate themselves or are forced to undergo such destructive processes in critical circumstances. This complex cellular function necessitates various mechanisms and molecular pathways in order to be executed. The very nature of cell death is essentially important and vital for maintaining homeostasis, thus any type of disturbing occurrence might lead to different sorts of diseases and dysfunctions. Cell death has various modalities and yet, every now and then, a new type of this elegant procedure gets to be discovered. The diversity of cell death compels the need for a universal organizing system in order to facilitate further studies, therapeutic strategies and the invention of new methods of research. Considering all that, we attempted to review most of the known cell death mechanisms and sort them all into one arranging system that operates under a simple but subtle decision-making (If \ Else) order as a sorting algorithm, in which it decides to place and sort an input data (a type of cell death) into its proper set, then a subset and finally a group of cell death. By proposing this algorithm, the authors hope it may solve the problems regarding newer and/or undiscovered types of cell death and facilitate research and therapeutic applications of cell death.

A Review on Caspases: Key Regulators of Biological Activities and Apoptosis

Caspases are proteolytic enzymes that belong to the cysteine protease family and play a crucial role in homeostasis and programmed cell death. Caspases have been broadly classified by their known roles in apoptosis (caspase-3, caspase-6, caspase-7, caspase-8, and caspase-9 in mammals) and in inflammation (caspase-1, caspase-4, caspase-5, and caspase-12 in humans, and caspase-1, caspase-11, and caspase-12 in mice). Caspases involved in apoptosis have been subclassified by their mechanism of action as either initiator caspases (caspase-8 and caspase-9) or executioner caspases (caspase-3, caspase-6, and caspase-7). Caspases that participate in apoptosis are inhibited by proteins known as inhibitors of apoptosis (IAPs). In addition to apoptosis, caspases play a role in necroptosis, pyroptosis, and autophagy, which are non-apoptotic cell death processes. Dysregulation of caspases features prominently in many human diseases, including cancer, autoimmunity, and neurodegenerative disorders, and increasing evidence shows that altering caspase activity can confer therapeutic benefits. This review covers the different types of caspases, their functions, and their physiological and biological activities and roles in different organisms.

Effect of Hypertrophic Scar Fibroblast-Derived Exosomes on Keratinocytes of Normal Human Skin

Epidermal keratinocytes are highly activated, hyper-proliferated, and abnormally differentiated in the post-burn hypertrophic scar (HTS); however, the effects of scar fibroblasts (SFs) on keratinocytes through cell-cell interaction in HTS remain unknown. Here, we investigated the effects of HTSF-derived exosomes on the proliferation and differentiation of normal human keratinocytes (NHKs) compared with normal fibroblasts (NFs) and their possible mechanism to provide a reference for clinical intervention of HTS. Fibroblasts were isolated and cultured from HTS and normal skin. Both HTSF-exosomes and NF-exosomes were extracted via a column-based method from the cell culture supernatant. NHKs were treated for 24 or 48 h with 100 μg/mL of cell-derived exosomes. The expression of proliferation markers (Ki-67 and keratin 14), activation markers (keratins 6, 16, and 17), differentiation markers (keratins 1 and 10), apoptosis factors (Bax, Bcl2, caspase 14, and ASK1), proliferation/differentiation regulators (p21 and p27), and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) markers (E-cadherin, N-cadherin, and vimentin) was investigated. Compared with NF-exosomes, HTSF-exosomes altered the molecular pattern of proliferation, activation, differentiation, and apoptosis, proliferation/differentiation regulators of NHKs, and EMT markers differently. In conclusion, our findings indicate that HTSF-derived exosomes may play a role in the epidermal pathological development of HTS.

Galactomyces Ferment Filtrate Potentiates an Anti-Inflammaging System in Keratinocytes

Skincare products play a crucial role in preventing the dry skin induced by various causes. Certain ingredients can help to improve the efficacy of skincare products. Galactomyces ferment filtrate (GFF) is such a functional ingredient. Its use originated from the empirical observation that the hands of sake brewers who deal with yeast fermentation retain a beautiful and youthful appearance. Consequently, skincare products based on GFF are widely used throughout the world. Recent studies have demonstrated that GFF activates an aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) and upregulates the expression of filaggrin, a pivotal endogenous source of natural moisturizing factors, in epidermal keratinocytes. It also activates nuclear factor erythroid-2-related factor 2 (NRF2), the antioxidative master transcription factor, and exhibits potent antioxidative activity against oxidative stress induced by ultraviolet irradiation and proinflammatory cytokines, which also accelerate inflammaging. GFF-mediated NRF2 activation downregulates the expression of CDKN2A, which is known to be overexpressed in senescent keratinocytes. Moreover, GFF enhances epidermal terminal differentiation by upregulating the expression of caspase-14, claudin-1, and claudin-4. It also promotes the synthesis of the antiinflammatory cytokine IL-37 and downregulates the expression of proallergic cytokine IL-33 in keratinocytes. In addition, GFF downregulates the expression of the CXCL14 and IL6R genes, which are involved in inflammaging. These beneficial properties might underpin the potent barrier-protecting and anti-inflammaging effects of GFF-containing skin formulae.

The ion balance of Shotokuseki extract promotes filaggrin fragmentation and increases amino acid production and pyrrolidone carboxylic acid content in three-dimensional cultured human epidermis

Natural moisturizing factor (NMF) in the stratum corneum contributes to the retention of moisture there. The purpose of this study was to determine the penetration of ions in Shotokuseki extract (SE) into the three-dimensional cultured epidermis and the effect of NMF on the biosynthesis of amino acids and pyrrolidone carboxylic acid formation. Various ions, amino acids and pyrrolidone carboxylic acid were quantified by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, fully automatic amino acid analyzer or high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) in three-dimensional cultured epidermis after application of SE. Gene expression levels of profilaggrin, calpain1, caspase14, and bleomycin hydrolase, which are involved in NMF production, were determined by reverse-transcription qPCR and bleomycin hydrolase activity was determined by aminopeptidase assay. The application of SE increased Na, K, Mg, Ca, Al, and Fe levels in three-dimensional cultured epidermis. The mRNA levels of the starting material of amino acid synthesis profilaggrin, and calpain1 and bleomycin hydrolase, which are involved in its fragmentation, increased. The activity of bleomycin hydrolase also increased. Furthermore, the levels of amino acids and pyrrolidone carboxylic acid increased in the three-dimensional cultured epidermis. This suggests that the ionic composition of SE may be involved in its moisturizing effect on the stratum corneum.

Microglial pyroptosis: Therapeutic target in secondary brain injury following intracerebral hemorrhage

Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) is a major cerebrovascular illness that causes substantial neurological sequelae and dysfunction caused by secondary brain injury (SBI), and there are no effective therapies to mitigate the disability. Microglia, the brain-resident macrophage, participates in the primary inflammatory response, and activation of microglia to an M1-like phenotype largely takes place in the acute phase following ICH. A growing body of research suggests that the pathophysiology of SBI after ICH is mediated by an inflammatory response mediated by microglial-pyroptotic inflammasomes, while inhibiting the activation of microglial pyroptosis could suppress the inflammatory cascade reaction, thus attenuating the brain injury after ICH. Pyroptosis is characterized by rapid plasma membrane disruption, followed by the release of cellular contents and pro-inflammatory mediators. In this review, we outline the molecular mechanism of microglial pyroptosis and summarize the up-to-date evidence of its involvement in the pathological process of ICH, and highlight microglial pyroptosis-targeted strategies that have the potential to cure intracerebral hemorrhage. This review contributes to a better understanding of the function of microglial pyroptosis in ICH and assesses it as a possible therapeutic target.

The Role of Caspase Family in Acute Brain Injury: The Potential Therapeutic Targets in the Future

The caspase family is commonly involved in the pathophysiology of acute brain injury (ABI) through complex apoptotic, pyroptotic, and inflammatory pathways. Current translational strategies for caspase modulation in ABI primarily focus on caspase inhibitors. Because there are no caspase-inhibiting drugs approved for clinical use on the market, the development of caspase inhibitors remains an attractive challenge for researchers and clinicians. Therefore, we conducted the present review with the aim of providing a comprehensive introduction of caspases in ABI. In this review, we summarized the available evidence and potential mechanisms regarding the biological function of caspases. We also reviewed the therapeutic effects of caspase inhibitors on ABI and its subsequent complications. However, various important issues remain unclear, prompting further verification of the efficacy and safety regarding clinical application of caspase inhibitors. We believe that our work will be helpful to further understand the critical role of the caspase family and will provide novel therapeutic potential for ABI treatment.

The Caspase Homologues in Scallop Chlamys farreri and Their Expression Responses to Toxic Dinoflagellates Exposure

The cysteine aspartic acid-specific protease (caspase) family is distributed across vertebrates and invertebrates, and its members are involved in apoptosis and response to cellular stress. The Zhikong scallop (Chlamys farreri) is a bivalve mollusc that is well adapted to complex marine environments, yet the diversity of caspase homologues and their expression patterns in the Zhikong scallop remain largely unknown. Here, we identified 30 caspase homologues in the genome of the Zhikong scallop and analysed their expression dynamics during all developmental stages and following exposure to paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs). The 30 caspase homologues were classified as initiators (caspases-2/9 and caspases-8/10) or executioners (caspases-3/6/7 and caspases-3/6/7-like) and displayed increased copy numbers compared to those in vertebrates. Almost all of the caspase-2/9 genes were highly expressed throughout all developmental stages from zygote to juvenile, and their expression in the digestive gland and kidney was slightly influenced by PSTs. The caspase-8/10 genes were highly expressed in the digestive gland and kidney, while PSTs inhibited their expression in these two organs. After exposure to different Alexandrium PST-producing algae (AM-1 and ACDH), the number of significantly up-regulated caspase homologues in the digestive gland increased with the toxicity level of PST derivatives, which might be due to the higher toxicity of GTXs produced by AM-1 compared to the N-sulphocarbamoyl analogues produced by ACDH. However, the effect of these two PST-producing algae strains on caspase expression in the kidney seemed to be stronger, possibly because the PST derivatives were transformed into highly toxic compounds in scallop kidney, and suggested an organ-dependent response to PSTs. These results indicate the dedicated control of caspase gene expression and highlight their contribution to PSTs in C. farreri. This work provides a further understanding of the role of caspase homologues in the Zhikong scallop and can guide future studies focussing on the role of caspases and their interactions with PSTs.

New Functions of Low-Molecular-Weight Hyaluronic Acid on Epidermis Filaggrin Production and Degradation

Hyaluronic acid (HA) is a high-molecular-weight polysaccharide with high moisturizing power. It is composed of repeating disaccharides of N-acetyl-D-glucosamine and D-glucuronic acid. Low-molecular-weight hyaluronan (LMHA) is obtained by changing the molecular weight or modifying the functional groups of HA and is commonly used together with HA in cosmetics. The objective of this study was to determine whether LMHA promotes the synthesis of filaggrin (FLG). We also investigated whether LMHA activates FLG-degrading enzymes. Three-dimensional (3D) models of the human epidermis were cultured with LMHA. Real-time PCR was used to quantify the mRNA levels of profilaggrin (proFLG), involucrin (IVL), and FLG-degrading enzymes. FLG protein levels were measured by fluorescent antibody staining and Western blotting. The mRNA was quantified using a 3D epidermis model, and it was observed that the mRNA levels of proFLG, IVL, caspase-14 (CASP14), and bleomycin hydrolase were increased by the application of LMHA. Immunofluorescence results showed an increase in FLG proteins, and results from experiments using 3D epidermis models showed that LMHA increased the activity of CASP14. This suggests that the topical application of LMHA would result in an increase in natural moisturizing factor and promote moisturization of the stratum corneum.

Disclosing the involvement of proteases in an eczema murine animal model: Perspectives for protease inhibitor-based therapies

Eczema is a skin condition characterized by itchy and inflammatory patches. The accumulation of neutrophils and the imbalance between enzymes and their inhibitors appears to be related to this condition. We proposed a neutrophil elastase (NE)-based eczema model in mice in order to verify histopathological features as well as the expression and activity of proteases and inhibitors. Mice skins were topically administered with human NE (0-2 pmol/cm²) for 24-168 h. It was observed thickening of epidermis, parakeratosis, spongiosis and leukocyte infiltration. Also, NE-treated skins presented high activity of epidermal kallikreins 5 and 7, and cathepsin B on synthetic substrates, and expression evaluated by RT-qPCR. The proteolytic activity was inhibited by soybean trypsin inhibitor, CA074 and Caesalpinia echinata kallikrein inhibitor (CeKI). The topic application of CeKI reversed eczema phenotype in NE-treated skins. Elafin expression was shown to be increased in NE-treated skins. These results suggest that the NE may trigger morphological and biochemical changes in skin similar to those observed in eczematous diseases. In addition to the establishment of this in vivo model, this work opens perspectives for the use of protease inhibitor-based drugs for the management of this skin condition.

Effect of extracorporeal shock wave therapy on keratinocytes derived from human hypertrophic scars

Hypertrophic scars represent a common complication in burn patients. In addition to cosmetic defects, they may cause serious sensory abnormalities such as pain and itching, severe dysfunction depending on the site, and emotional disorders such as anxiety and depression. The present study aimed to identify the molecular mechanisms underlying the use of extracorporeal shock wave therapy in keratinocytes. Keratinocytes derived from hypertrophic scar tissue were cultured and expression of proliferation markers (keratin 5 and 14), activation markers (keratin 6 and 17), differentiation markers (keratin 1, 10, and involucrin), apoptosis factors (Bax, Bcl2, and Caspase 14), and proliferation/differentiation regulators (p21 and p27) was investigated to compared with that of those in keratinocytes derived from normal skin tissue. Scar-derived keratinocytes were treated with extracorporeal shock waves under 1000 impulses at 0.1, 0.2, and 0.3 mJ/mm². Shock waves altered the molecular pattern of proliferation, activation, differentiation, and apoptosis, as well as proliferation/ differentiation regulators, including Bax, Bcl2, ASK1, p21, p27, and Notch1. In summary, we show that extracorporeal shock wave therapy regulates the proliferation and differentiation of keratinocytes derived from hypertrophic scar to maintain normal epidermal integrity.

Caspase-3: Structure, function, and biotechnological aspects

Caspase-3, a cysteine-aspartic acid protease, has recently attracted much attention because of its incredible roles in tissue differentiation, regeneration, and neural development. This enzyme is a key zymogen in cell apoptosis and is not activated until it is cleaved by initiator caspases during apoptotic flux. Since caspase-3 has represented valuable capabilities in the field of medical research, biotechnological aspects of this enzyme, including the production of recombinant type, protein engineering, and designing delivery systems, have been considered as emerging therapeutic strategies in treating the apoptosis-related disorders. To date, several advances have been made in the therapeutic use of caspase-3 in the management of some diseases such as cancers, heart failure, and neurodegenerative disorders. In the current review, we intend to discuss the caspase-3's structure, functions, therapeutic applications, as well as its molecular cloning, protein engineering, and relevant delivery systems.

PIWIL-2 and piRNAs are regularly expressed in epithelia of the skin and their expression is related to differentiation

PIWI proteins play multiple roles in germline stem cell maintenance and self-renewal. PIWI-interacting RNAs (piRNAs) associate with PIWI proteins, form effector complexes and maintain genome integrity and function in the regulation of gene expression by epigenetic modifications. Both are involved in cancer development. In this study, we investigated the expression of PIWIL-2 and piRNAs in normal human skin and epithelial tumors and its regulation during keratinocyte (KC) differentiation. Immunohistochemistry showed that PIWIL-2 was regularly expressed in the epidermis and adnexal tissue with strongest expression in sebaceous glands. Cell culture studies revealed an association of PIWIL-2 expression with the state of differentiated KC. In contrast, the PIWIL-2 expression pattern did not correlate with stem cell compartments or malignancy. piRNAs were consistently detected in KC in vitro by next-generation sequencing and the expression levels of numerous piRNAs were regulated during KC differentiation. Epidermal piRNAs were predominantly derived from processed snoRNAs (C/D-box snoRNAs), tRNAs and protein coding genes. Our data indicate that components of the PIWIL-2-piRNA pathway are present in epithelial cells of the skin and are regulated in the context of KC differentiation, suggesting a role of somatic gene regulation. However, putative roles in the maintenance of stem cell compartments or the development of malignancy in the skin were not supported by this study.

Caspases in Cell Death, Inflammation, and Pyroptosis

Caspases are a family of conserved cysteine proteases that play key roles in programmed cell death and inflammation. In multicellular organisms, caspases are activated via macromolecular signaling complexes that bring inactive procaspases together and promote their proximity-induced autoactivation and proteolytic processing. Activation of caspases ultimately results in programmed execution of cell death, and the nature of this cell death is determined by the specific caspases involved. Pioneering new research has unraveled distinct roles and cross talk of caspases in the regulation of programmed cell death, inflammation, and innate immune responses. In-depth understanding of these mechanisms is essential to foster the development of precise therapeutic targets to treat autoinflammatory disorders, infectious diseases, and cancer. This review focuses on mechanisms governing caspase activation and programmed cell death with special emphasis on the recent progress in caspase cross talk and caspase-driven gasdermin D-induced pyroptosis.

Control of cell death-associated danger signals during cornification prevents autoinflammation of the skin

The function of the skin as a barrier to the environment is mainly achieved by the outermost layers of the epidermis. In the granular layer, epidermal keratinocytes undergo the last steps of their terminal differentiation program resulting in cornification. The coordinated conversion of living keratinocytes into corneocytes, the building blocks of the cornified layer, represents a unique form of programmed cell death. Recent studies have identified numerous genes that are specifically expressed in terminally differentiated keratinocytes and, surprisingly, this genetic program does not only include mediators of cornification but also suppressors of pyroptosis, another mode of programmed cell death. Pyroptosis is activated by inflammasomes, leads to the release of interleukin-1 (IL-1) family cytokines, and thereby activates inflammation. In addition, inhibitors of potentially pro-inflammatory proteases and enzymes removing danger-associated cytoplasmic DNA are expressed in differentiated keratinocytes. We propose the concept of cornification as an inherently hazardous process in which damaging side effects are actively suppressed by protective mechanisms. In support of this hypothesis, loss-of-function mutations in epidermal protease inhibitors and IL-1 family antagonists suffice to induce autoinflammation. Similarly, exogenous disturbances of either cornification or its accompanying control mechanisms may be starting points for skin inflammation. Further studies into the relationship between cornification, pyroptosis and other forms of cell death will help to define the initiation phase of inflammatory skin diseases and offer new targets for disease prevention and therapy.

Novel roles of apoptotic caspases in tumor repopulation, epigenetic reprogramming, carcinogenesis, and beyond

Apoptotic caspases have long been studied for their roles in programmed cell death and tumor suppression. With recent discoveries, however, it is becoming apparent these cell death executioners are involved in additional biological pathways beyond killing cells. In some cases, apoptotic cells secrete growth signals to stimulate proliferation of neighboring cells. This pathway functions to regenerate tissues in multiple organisms, but it also poses problems in tumor resistance to chemo- and radiotherapy. Additionally, it was found that activation of caspases does not irreversibly lead to cell death, contrary to the established paradigm. Sub-lethal activation of caspases is evident in cell differentiation and epigenetic reprogramming. Furthermore, evidence indicates spontaneous, unprovoked activation of caspases in many cancer cells, which plays pivotal roles in maintaining their tumorigenicity and metastasis. These unexpected findings challenge current cancer therapy approaches aimed at activation of the apoptotic pathway. At the same time, the newly discovered functions of caspases suggest new treatment approaches for cancer and other pathological conditions in the future.

Apoptotic Caspases: Multiple or Mistaken Identities?

The mitochondrial caspase cascade was originally thought to be required for apoptotic death driven by Bak/Bax-mediated intrinsic apoptosis. It has also been ascribed several 'non-apoptotic' functions, including differentiation, proliferation, and cellular reprogramming. Recent work has demonstrated that, during apoptosis, the caspase cascade suppresses damage-associated molecular pattern (DAMP)-initiated production of cytokines such as type I interferon by the dying cell. The caspase cascade is not required for death to occur; instead, it shapes the immunogenic properties of the apoptotic cell. This raises questions about the role of apoptotic caspases in regulating DAMP signaling more generally, puts a new perspective on their non-apoptotic functions, and suggests that pharmacological caspase inhibitors might find new applications as antiviral or anticancer agents.

Light-activated phenalen-1-one bactericides: efficacy, toxicity and mechanism compared with benzalkonium chloride

Aim: Five photoactive compounds with variable elongated alkyl-substituents in a phenalen-1-one structure were examined in view of structural similarity to the antimicrobial agent benzalkonium chloride (BAC). Methods: All phenalen-1-ones and BAC were evaluated for their antimicrobial properties against Staphylococcus aureus, methicillin-resistant S. aureus, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and for their eukaryotic toxicity against normal human epidermal keratinocyte (NHEK) cells to narrow down the BAC-like effect and the photodynamic effect depending on the chemical structure. All compounds were investigated for effective concentration ranges, where a bacterial reduction of 5 log10 is achieved, while an NHEK survival of 80% is ensured. Results: Effective concentration ranges were found for four out of five photoactive compounds, but not for BAC and the compound with BAC-like alkyl chain length. Conclusion: Chain length size and polar area of the respective head-groups of phenalen-1-one compounds or BAC showed an influence on the incorporation inside lipid membranes and thus, head-groups may have an impact on the toxicity of antimicrobials.

Molecular effects of fractional ablative erbium:YAG laser treatment with multiple stacked pulses on standardized human three-dimensional organotypic skin models

The molecular changes in gene expression following ablative laser treatment of skin lesions, such as atrophic scars and UV-damaged skin, are not completely understood. A standardized in vitro model of human skin, to study the effects of laser treatment on human skin, has been recently developed. Therefore, the aim of the investigation was to examine morphological and molecular changes caused by fractional ablative erbium:YAG laser treatment on an in vitro full-thickness 3D standardized organotypic model of human skin. A fractional ablative erbium:YAG laser was used to irradiate organotypic human 3D models. Laser treatments were performed at four different settings using a variety of stacked pulses with similar cumulative total energy fluence (60 J/cm²). Specimens were harvested at specified time points and real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) and microarray studies were performed. Frozen sections were examined histologically. Three days after erbium:YAG laser treatment, a significantly increased mRNA expression of matrix metalloproteinases and their inhibitors (MMP1, MMP2, MMP3, TIMP1, and TIMP2), chemokines (CXCL1, CXCL2, CXCL5, and CXCL6), and cytokines such as IL6, IL8, and IL24 could be detected. qRT-PCR studies confirmed the enhanced mRNA expression of IL6, IL8, IL24, CXCLs, and MMPs. In contrast, the mRNA expression of epidermal differentiation markers, such as keratin-associated protein 4, filaggrin, filaggrin 2, and loricrin, and antimicrobial peptides (S100A7A, S100A9, and S100A12) as well as CASP14, DSG2, IL18, and IL36β was reduced. Four different settings with similar cumulative doses have been tested (N10%, C10%, E10%, and W25%). These laser treatments resulted in different morphological changes and effects on gene regulations. Longer pulse durations (1000 μs) especially had the strongest impact on gene expression and resulted in an upregulation of genes, such as collagen-1A2, collagen-5A2, and collagen-6A2, as well as FGF2. Histologically, all treatment settings resulted in a complete regeneration of the epidermis 3 days after irradiation. Fractional ablative erbium:YAG laser treatment with a pulse stacking technique resulted in histological alterations and shifts in the expression of various genes related to epidermal differentiation, inflammation, and dermal remodeling depending on the treatment setting applied. A standardized in vitro 3D model of human skin proved to be a useful tool for exploring the effects of various laser settings both on skin morphology and gene expression during wound healing. It provides novel data on the gene expression and microscopic architecture of the exposed skin. This may enhance our understanding of laser treatment at a molecular level.

An overview on forensic analysis devoted to analytical chemists

The present article has as main aim to show analytical chemists interested in forensic analysis the world they will face if decision in favor of being a forensic analytical chemist is adopted. With this purpose, the most outstanding aspects of forensic analysis in dealing with sampling (involving both bodily and no bodily samples), sample preparation, and analytical equipment used in detection, identification and quantitation of key sample components are critically discussed. The role of the great omics in forensic analysis, and the growing role of the youngest of the great omics -metabolomics- are also discussed. The foreseeable role of integrative omics is also outlined.

Effects of dietary forage and calf starter on ruminal pH and transcriptomic adaptation of the rumen epithelium in Holstein calves during the weaning transition

We investigated the relationship between ruminal pH and transcriptomic adaptation of the rumen epithelium (RE) of calves fed calf starter with and without forage during the weaning transition. Holstein calves were assigned to groups fed calf starter either with forage (HAY group, n = 3) or without forage (CON group, n = 4). Ruminal pH was measured continuously, and rumen fluid and epithelium were collected 3 wk after weaning. mRNA expression profiles of the RE were examined by one-color microarray. Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were investigated using the Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA). Mean and maximum ruminal pH were significantly ( P < 0.05) higher, and the duration of pH < 5.8 during 1 day was significantly ( P < 0.05) shorter, in the HAY group. The proportion of ruminal acetate and the acetate-to-propionate ratio were significantly ( P < 0.05) lower in the CON group. DEGs encoding transcription regulators (SREBP1), insulin-like growth factor binding proteins (IGFBP7 and CTGF), ketogenic enzymes (HMGCL, BDH1, and BDH2), and a transporter (SLC16A3) were identified ( P < 0.05) between the two groups. A growth factor (TGFB1) and signaling pathway (EGF and EGFR) were activated as upstream regulators. These results suggest that dietary forage alleviates ruminal acidosis, and the decrease in ruminal pH may damage the RE, leading to changes in gene expression to repair the damage. Furthermore, rumen development may be regulated by growth factor (TGFB1) and signaling pathways (EGF and IGFBP) for adaptation to feeding on calf starter with and without forage during the weaning transition.

How Does Chronic Cigarette Smoke Exposure Affect Human Skin? A Global Proteomics Study in Primary Human Keratinocytes

Cigarette smoking has been associated with multiple negative effects on human skin. Long-term physiological effects of cigarette smoke are through chronic and not acute exposure. Molecular alterations due to chronic exposure to cigarette smoke remain unclear. Primary human skin keratinocytes chronically exposed to cigarette smoke condensate (CSC) showed a decreased wound-healing capacity with an increased expression of NRF2 and MMP9. Using quantitative proteomics, we identified 4728 proteins, of which 105 proteins were overexpressed (≥2-fold) and 41 proteins were downregulated (≤2-fold) in primary skin keratinocytes chronically exposed to CSC. We observed an alteration in the expression of several proteins involved in maintenance of epithelial barrier integrity, including keratin 80 (5.3 fold, p value 2.5 × 10-7), cystatin A (3.6-fold, p value 3.2 × 10-3), and periplakin (2.4-fold, p value 1.2 × 10-8). Increased expression of proteins associated with skin hydration, including caspase 14 (2.2-fold, p value 4.7 × 10-2) and filaggrin (3.6-fold, p value 5.4 × 10-7), was also observed. In addition, we report differential expression of several proteins, including adipogenesis regulatory factor (2.5-fold, p value 1.3 × 10-3) and histone H1.0 (2.5-fold, p value 6.3 × 10-3) that have not been reported earlier. Bioinformatics analyses demonstrated that proteins differentially expressed in response to CSC are largely related to oxidative stress, maintenance of skin integrity, and anti-inflammatory responses. Importantly, treatment with vitamin E, a widely used antioxidant, could partially rescue adverse effects of CSC exposure in primary skin keratinocytes. The utility of antioxidant-based new dermatological formulations in delaying or preventing skin aging and oxidative damages caused by chronic cigarette smoke exposure warrants further clinical investigations and multi-omics research.

Apoptosis in the Trophoblast—Role of Apoptosis in Placental Morphogenesis

Villous trophoblast is the epithelial cover of the placental villous tree and comes in direct contact with maternal blood. The turnover of villous trophoblast includes proliferation and differentiation of cytotrophoblast, syncytial fusion of cytotrophoblast with the overlying syncytiotrophoblast, differentiation in the syncytiotrophoblast, and finally extrusion of apoptotic material into the maternal circulation. In recent years, it has become clear that apoptosis is a normal constituent of trophoblast turnover and the release of apoptotic material does not lead to an inflammatory response of the mother. During preeclampsia there seems to be an altered balance between proliferation and apoptosis of villous trophoblast leading to a dysregulation of the release from the syncytiotrophoblast. The normal apoptotic release may be reduced in favor of a necrotic release. Since apoptosis is still ongoing in the syncytiotrophoblast, a necrotic release of intrasyncytial and partly apoptotic material lead us to call this type of release "aponecrotic shedding." In this situation, cell-free components such as G-actin and DNA freely floating in maternal blood may trigger damage to the maternal endothelium, thereby triggering preeclampsia. This review highlights the importance of the apoptosis cascade in permitting normal physiologic turnover of villous trophoblast. It will demonstrate the participation of initial stages of this cascade within the cytotrophoblast and of the execution stages within the syncytiotrophoblast. Moreover, this review presents hypotheses of how dysregulation of the apoptosis cascade may be linked to endothelial dysfunction of the maternal vasculature in preeclampsia.

TLR3 activation induces S100A7 to regulate keratinocyte differentiation after skin injury

Human S100A7 (psoriasin) is highly expressed in psoriasis and other inflammatory diseases; however, the function of S100A7 in wound repair remains largely unknown. Here we demonstrated that skin injury increased the expression of S100A7. Damaged cells from wounded skin induced the expression of S100A7 via the activation of Toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3) followed by the activation of p38 MAPK. S100A7, in turn, acted on keratinocytes to induce the expression of terminal differentiation marker gene loricrin through the activation of p38 MAPK and caspase-1. The differentiation of keratinocytes induced by S100A7 resulted in skin stratification, thus efficiently promoting wound closure. Taken together, our results demonstrate that the activation of TLR3 accelerates wound closure via the induction of S100A7 to induce keratinocyte differentiation. These findings also provide new insights into the development of different forms of treatment with skin wounds.

Ultrastructural Localization of Caspase-14 in Human Epidermis

Caspase-14 has been implicated in the formation of stratum corneum because of its specific expression and activation in terminally differentiating keratinocytes. However, its precise physiological role and its protein substrate are elusive. We studied the ultrastructural localization of caspase-14 in human epidermis to compare its distribution pattern with that of well-characterized differentiation markers. Immunogold cytochemistry confirmed that caspase-14 is nearly absent in basal and spinous layers. In the granular, layer nuclei and keratohyalin granules were labeled with increasing intensity towards the transitional layer. Particularly strong caspase-14 labeling was associated with areas known to be occupied by involucrin and loricrin, whereas F-granules, occupied by profilaggrin/filaggrin, were much less labeled. A high density of gold particles was also present at the forming cornified cell envelope, including desmosomes. In corneocytes, intense labeling was both cytoplasmic and associated with nuclear remnants and corneodesmosomes. These observations will allow focusing efforts of biochemical substrate screening on a subset of proteins localizing to distinct compartments of terminally differentiated keratinocytes.

Comparative genomics reveals conservation of filaggrin and loss of caspase-14 in dolphins

The expression of filaggrin and its stepwise proteolytic degradation are critical events in the terminal differentiation of epidermal keratinocytes and in the formation of the skin barrier to the environment. Here, we investigated whether the evolutionary transition from a terrestrial to a fully aquatic lifestyle of cetaceans, that is dolphins and whales, has been associated with changes in genes encoding filaggrin and proteins involved in the processing of filaggrin. We used comparative genomics, PCRs and re-sequencing of gene segments to screen for the presence and integrity of genes coding for filaggrin and proteases implicated in the maturation of (pro)filaggrin. Filaggrin has been conserved in dolphins (bottlenose dolphin, orca and baiji) but has been lost in whales (sperm whale and minke whale). All other S100 fused-type genes have been lost in cetaceans. Among filaggrin-processing proteases, aspartic peptidase retroviral-like 1 (ASPRV1), also known as saspase, has been conserved, whereas caspase-14 has been lost in all cetaceans investigated. In conclusion, our results suggest that filaggrin is dispensable for the acquisition of fully aquatic lifestyles of whales, whereas it appears to confer an evolutionary advantage to dolphins. The discordant evolution of filaggrin, saspase and caspase-14 in cetaceans indicates that the biological roles of these proteins are not strictly interdependent.

Late cornified envelope (LCE) proteins: distinct expression patterns of LCE2 and LCE3 members suggest nonredundant roles in human epidermis and other epithelia

BACKGROUND

Deletion of the late cornified envelope (LCE) proteins LCE3B and LCE3C is a strong and widely replicated psoriasis risk factor. It is amenable to biological analysis because it precludes the expression of two epidermis-specific proteins, rather than being a single-nucleotide polymorphism of uncertain significance. The biology of the 18-member LCE family of highly homologous proteins has remained largely unexplored so far.

OBJECTIVES

To analyse LCE3 expression at the protein level in human epithelia, as a starting point for functional analyses of these proteins in health and disease.

METHODS

We generated the first pan-LCE3 monoclonal antibody and provide a detailed analysis of its specificity towards individual LCE members. LCE2 and LCE3 expression in human tissues and in reconstructed human skin models was studied using immunohistochemical analyses and quantitative polymerase chain reaction.

RESULTS

Our study reveals that LCE2 and LCE3 proteins are differentially expressed in human epidermis, and colocalize only in the upper stratum granulosum layer. Using an in vitro reconstructed human skin model that mimics epidermal morphogenesis, we found that LCE3 proteins are expressed at an early time point during epidermal differentiation in the suprabasal layers, while LCE2 proteins are found only in the uppermost granular layer and stratum corneum.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on the localization of LCE2 and LCE3 in human epidermis we conclude that members of the LCE protein family are likely to have distinct functions in epidermal biology. This finding may contribute to understanding why LCE3B/C deletion increases psoriasis risk.

S100A7: A rAMPing up AMP molecule in psoriasis

S100A7 (psoriasin), an EF-hand type calcium binding protein localized in epithelial cells, regulates cell proliferation and differentiation. An S100A7 overexpression may occur in response to inflammatory stimuli, such in psoriasis, a chronic inflammatory autoimmune-mediated skin disease. Increasing evidence suggests that S100A7 plays critical roles in amplifying the inflammatory process in psoriatic skin, perpetuating the disease phenotype. This review will discuss the interactions between S100A7 and cytokines in psoriatic skin. Furthermore, we will focus our discussion on regulation and functions of S100A7 in psoriasis. Finally, we will discuss the possible use of S100A7 as therapeutic target in psoriasis.

Effects of non-ablative fractional erbium glass laser treatment on gene regulation in human three-dimensional skin models

Clinical experiences with non-ablative fractional erbium glass laser therapy have demonstrated promising results for dermal remodelling and for the indications of striae, surgical scars and acne scars. So far, molecular effects on human skin following treatment with these laser systems have not been elucidated. Our aim was to investigate laser-induced effects on skin morphology and to analyse molecular effects on gene regulation. Therefore, human three-dimensional (3D) organotypic skin models were irradiated with non-ablative fractional erbium glass laser systems enabling qRT-PCR, microarray and histological studies at same and different time points. A decreased mRNA expression of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) 3 and 9 was observed 3 days after treatment. MMP3 also remained downregulated on protein level, whereas the expression of other MMPs like MMP9 was recovered or even upregulated 5 days after irradiation. Inflammatory gene regulatory responses measured by the expression of chemokine (C-X-C motif) ligands (CXCL1, 2, 5, 6) and interleukin expression (IL8) were predominantly reduced. Epidermal differentiation markers such as loricrin, filaggrin-1 and filaggrin-2 were upregulated by both tested laser optics, indicating a potential epidermal involvement. These effects were also shown on protein level in the immunofluorescence analysis. This novel standardised laser-treated human 3D skin model proves useful for monitoring time-dependent ex vivo effects of various laser systems on gene expression and human skin morphology. Our study reveals erbium glass laser-induced regulations of MMP and interleukin expression. We speculate that these alterations on gene expression level could play a role for dermal remodelling, anti-inflammatory effects and increased epidermal differentiation. Our finding may have implications for further understanding of the molecular mechanism of erbium glass laser-induced effects on human skin.

Converging roles of caspases in inflammasome activation, cell death and innate immunity

Inflammatory and apoptotic caspases are central players in inflammation and apoptosis, respectively. However, recent studies have revealed that these caspases have functions beyond their established roles. In addition to mediating cleavage of the inflammasome-associated cytokines interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and IL-18, inflammatory caspases modulate distinct forms of programmed cell death and coordinate cell-autonomous immunity and other fundamental cellular processes. Certain apoptotic caspases assemble structurally diverse and dynamic complexes that direct inflammasome and interferon responses to fine-tune inflammation. In this Review, we discuss the expanding and interconnected roles of caspases that highlight new aspects of this family of cysteine proteases in innate immunity.

Non-apoptotic role for caspase-7 in hair follicles and the surrounding tissue

Hair follicles are unique organs undergoing regular cycles of proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis. The final step of apoptosis is, in general, mediated by executioner caspases comprising caspase-3, -6 and -7. Despite their commonly accepted apoptotic function, executioner caspases also participate in non-apoptotic processes. In the present study, we investigated activation (cleavage) of caspase-7 in mouse hair follicles and surrounding tissue during embryonic development into adulthood. Casp7 (-/-) mice were examined to understand the effect of caspase-7 deficiency in the skin. The activated form of caspase-7 was observed during embryonic hair follicle development, as well as in the first hair cycle. In general, activation of caspase-7 did not correlate with apoptosis and activation of caspase-3, except during physiological hair follicle regression. Notably, cleaved caspase-7 was observed in mast cells and its deficiency in the adult skin resulted in increased mast cell number. Our study shows for the first time activated caspase-7 in hair follicles and mast cells and indicates its non-apoptotic roles in the skin.

Expression of apoptosis-related genes in the mouse skin during the first postnatal catagen stage, focused on localization of Bnip3L and caspase-12

Hair follicles undergo repetitive stages of cell proliferation and programmed cell death. The catagen stage of physiological apoptosis is connected with dynamic changes in morphology and alterations in gene expression. However, hair follicle apoptosis must be in balance with events in surrounding tissues, such as keratinocyte cornification, to maintain complex skin homeostasis. Several pro- and anti-apoptotic molecules in the skin have been reported but mainly in pathological states. In this investigation, apoptosis-related gene expression was examined during the first catagen stage of mouse hair follicle development by PCR arrays under physiological conditions. Postnatal stages P15 and P17, representing early and late catagen stages, were evaluated relatively to stage P6, representing the hair follicle growing phase, to demonstrate dynamics of gene activation during the catagen. Several statistically significant alterations were observed at P15 and particularly at P17. Bnip3L and caspase-12 identified by the PCR arrays at both catagen stages were additionally localized using immunofluorescence and were reported in physiological hair development for the first time.

Colonization of epidermal tissue by Staphylococcus aureus produces localized hypoxia and stimulates secretion of antioxidant and caspase-14 proteins

A partial-thickness epidermal explant model was colonized with green fluorescent protein (GFP)-expressing Staphylococcus aureus, and the pattern of S. aureus biofilm growth was characterized using electron and confocal laser scanning microscopy. The oxygen concentration in explants was quantified using microelectrodes. The relative effective diffusivity and porosity of the epidermis were determined using magnetic resonance imaging, while hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) concentration in explant media was measured by using microelectrodes. Secreted proteins were identified and quantified using elevated-energy mass spectrometry (MS(E)). S. aureus biofilm grows predominantly in lipid-rich areas around hair follicles and associated skin folds. Dissolved oxygen was selectively depleted (2- to 3-fold) in these locations, but the relative effective diffusivity and porosity did not change between colonized and control epidermis. Histological analysis revealed keratinocyte damage across all the layers of colonized epidermis after 4 days of culture. The colonized explants released significantly (P < 0.01) more antioxidant proteins of both epidermal and S. aureus origin, consistent with elevated H2O2 concentrations found in the media from the colonized explants (P< 0.001). Caspase-14 was also elevated significantly in the media from the colonized explants. While H2O2 induces primary keratinocyte differentiation, caspase-14 is required for terminal keratinocyte differentiation and desquamation. These results are consistent with a localized biological impact from S. aureus in response to colonization of the skin surface.

Oxidative stress in aging human skin

Oxidative stress in skin plays a major role in the aging process. This is true for intrinsic aging and even more for extrinsic aging. Although the results are quite different in dermis and epidermis, extrinsic aging is driven to a large extent by oxidative stress caused by UV irradiation. In this review the overall effects of oxidative stress are discussed as well as the sources of ROS including the mitochondrial ETC, peroxisomal and ER localized proteins, the Fenton reaction, and such enzymes as cyclooxygenases, lipoxygenases, xanthine oxidases, and NADPH oxidases. Furthermore, the defense mechanisms against oxidative stress ranging from enzymes like superoxide dismutases, catalases, peroxiredoxins, and GSH peroxidases to organic compounds such as L-ascorbate, α-tocopherol, beta-carotene, uric acid, CoQ10, and glutathione are described in more detail. In addition the oxidative stress induced modifications caused to proteins, lipids and DNA are discussed. Finally age-related changes of the skin are also a topic of this review. They include a disruption of the epidermal calcium gradient in old skin with an accompanying change in the composition of the cornified envelope. This modified cornified envelope also leads to an altered anti-oxidative capacity and a reduced barrier function of the epidermis.

Prodifferentiation, anti-inflammatory and antiproliferative effects of delphinidin, a dietary anthocyanidin, in a full-thickness three-dimensional reconstituted human skin model of psoriasis

BACKGROUND

Psoriasis is a chronic inflammatory disorder of skin and joints for which conventional treatments that are effective in clearing the moderate-to-severe disease are limited due to long-term safety issues. This necessitates exploring the usefulness of botanical agents for treating psoriasis. We previously showed that delphinidin, a diet-derived anthocyanidin endowed with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, induces normal epidermal keratinocyte differentiation and suggested its possible usefulness for the treatment of psoriasis [1].

OBJECTIVES

To investigate the effect of delphinidin (0-20 μM; 2-5 days) on psoriatic epidermal keratinocyte differentiation, proliferation and inflammation using a three-dimensional reconstructed human psoriatic skin equivalent (PSE) model.

METHODS

PSEs and normal skin equivalents (NSEs) established on fibroblast-contracted collagen gels with respective psoriatic and normal keratinocytes and treated with/without delphinidin were analyzed for histology, expression of markers of differentiation, proliferation and inflammation using histomorphometry, immunoblotting, immunochemistry, qPCR and cultured supernatants for cytokine with a Multi-Analyte ELISArray Kit.

RESULTS

Our data show that treatment of PSE with delphinidin induced (1) cornification without affecting apoptosis and (2) the mRNA and protein expression of markers of differentiation (caspase-14, filaggrin, loricrin, involucrin). It also decreased the expression of markers of proliferation (Ki67 and proliferating cell nuclear antigen) and inflammation (inducible nitric oxide synthase and antimicrobial peptides S100A7-psoriasin and S100A15-koebnerisin, which are often induced in psoriatic skin). ELISArray showed increased release of psoriasis-associated keratinocyte-derived proinflammatory cytokines in supernatants of the PSE cultures, and this increase was significantly suppressed by delphinidin.

CONCLUSIONS

These observations provide a rationale for developing delphinidin for the management of psoriasis.

Topical application of delphinidin reduces psoriasiform lesions in the flaky skin mouse model by inducing epidermal differentiation and inhibiting inflammation

BACKGROUND

Psoriasis is a chronic inflammatory skin disease characterized by hyperproliferation and aberrant keratinocyte differentiation. We have shown that treatment of reconstituted human skin with delphinidin, an anthocyanidin, present in pigmented fruits and vegetables, increased the expression and processing of caspase-14, which is involved in cornification. Delphinidin also increases the expression of epidermal differentiation marker proteins.

OBJECTIVES

To determine whether topical application of delphinidin can modulate pathological markers of psoriasiform lesions in flaky skin mice and if this is associated with increased epidermal differentiation and a reduction in proliferation and inflammation.

METHODS

Five-week-old female homozygous flaky skin mice (fsn/fsn) were treated topically with delphinidin (0·5 mg cm(-2) and 1 mg cm(-2) skin areas, respectively), five times a week, up to 14 weeks of age.

RESULTS

Treatment of flaky skin mice with delphinidin resulted in a reduction in (i) pathological markers of psoriasiform lesions; (ii) infiltration of inflammatory cells; and (iii) mRNA and protein expression of inflammatory cytokines. Delphinidin treatment also increased the expression and processing of caspase-14, and expression of filaggrin, loricrin, keratin-1 and keratin-10. Furthermore, there was a decrease in the expression of markers for cell proliferation (proliferating cell nuclear antigen and keratin-14) and modulation of tight junction proteins (occludin and claudin-1). In addition, delphinidin treatment increased the expression of activator protein-1 transcription factor proteins (JunB, JunD, Fra1 and Fra2).

CONCLUSIONS

Delphinidin could be a promising agent for treatment of psoriasis and other hyperproliferative skin disorders.

Old, new and emerging functions of caspases

Caspases are proteases with a well-defined role in apoptosis. However, increasing evidence indicates multiple functions of caspases outside apoptosis. Caspase-1 and caspase-11 have roles in inflammation and mediating inflammatory cell death by pyroptosis. Similarly, caspase-8 has dual role in cell death, mediating both receptor-mediated apoptosis and in its absence, necroptosis. Caspase-8 also functions in maintenance and homeostasis of the adult T-cell population. Caspase-3 has important roles in tissue differentiation, regeneration and neural development in ways that are distinct and do not involve any apoptotic activity. Several other caspases have demonstrated anti-tumor roles. Notable among them are caspase-2, -8 and -14. However, increased caspase-2 and -8 expression in certain types of tumor has also been linked to promoting tumorigenesis. Increased levels of caspase-3 in tumor cells causes apoptosis and secretion of paracrine factors that promotes compensatory proliferation in surrounding normal tissues, tumor cell repopulation and presents a barrier for effective therapeutic strategies. Besides this caspase-2 has emerged as a unique caspase with potential roles in maintaining genomic stability, metabolism, autophagy and aging. The present review focuses on some of these less studied and emerging functions of mammalian caspases.

A guide for building biological pathways along with two case studies: hair and breast development

Genomic information is being underlined in the format of biological pathways. Building these biological pathways is an ongoing demand and benefits from methods for extracting information from biomedical literature with the aid of text-mining tools. Here we hopefully guide you in the attempt of building a customized pathway or chart representation of a system. Our manual is based on a group of software designed to look at biointeractions in a set of abstracts retrieved from PubMed. However, they aim to support the work of someone with biological background, who does not need to be an expert on the subject and will play the role of manual curator while designing the representation of the system, the pathway. We therefore illustrate with two challenging case studies: hair and breast development. They were chosen for focusing on recent acquisitions of human evolution. We produced sub-pathways for each study, representing different phases of development. Differently from most charts present in current databases, we present detailed descriptions, which will additionally guide PESCADOR users along the process. The implementation as a web interface makes PESCADOR a unique tool for guiding the user along the biointeractions, which will constitute a novel pathway.

Caspase-14 protocols

Unlike other caspase family members, caspase-14 shows restricted expression, being found mostly in epidermis and its appendages. It has been suggested that caspase-14 is not involved in apoptosis or inflammation, but participates in keratinocyte terminal differentiation. Its activation occurs at the corneocyte formation. In previous work, we have purified active caspase-14 from human corneocyte extracts. In addition, we have clarified activation mechanism of caspase-14, where kallikrein-related peptidase 7 (KLK7) generates an intermediate form from procaspase-14 and this form finally converts procaspase-14 to active, mature caspase-14. Here we describe techniques for measurement of caspase-14 activity using synthetic substrate, purification of caspase-14 from corneocyte extract, preparation of constitutively active caspase-14 and specific antibody, quantification of total and active caspase-14 in corneocyte extracts using ELISA, as well as methods for caspase-14 activation and its visualization by immunohistochemistry.

Skin aging, gene expression and calcium

The human epidermis provides a very effective barrier function against chemical, physical and microbial insults from the environment. This is only possible as the epidermis renews itself constantly. Stem cells located at the basal lamina which forms the dermoepidermal junction provide an almost inexhaustible source of keratinocytes which differentiate and die during their journey to the surface where they are shed off as scales. Despite the continuous renewal of the epidermis it nevertheless succumbs to aging as the turnover rate of the keratinocytes is slowing down dramatically. Aging is associated with such hallmarks as thinning of the epidermis, elastosis, loss of melanocytes associated with an increased paleness and lucency of the skin and a decreased barrier function. As the differentiation of keratinocytes is strictly calcium dependent, calcium also plays an important role in the aging epidermis. Just recently it was shown that the epidermal calcium gradient in the skin that facilitates the proliferation of keratinocytes in the stratum basale and enables differentiation in the stratum granulosum is lost in the process of skin aging. In the course of this review we try to explain how this calcium gradient is built up on the one hand and is lost during aging on the other hand. How this disturbed calcium homeostasis is affecting the gene expression in aged skin and is leading to dramatic changes in the composition of the cornified envelope will also be discussed. This loss of the epidermal calcium gradient is not only specific for skin aging but can also be found in skin diseases such as Darier disease, Hailey-Hailey disease, psoriasis and atopic dermatitis, which might be very helpful to get a deeper insight in skin aging.

Aberrant expression of caspase 14 in salivary gland carcinomas

OBJECTIVES

Caspase 14 is reduced in adenocarcinomas of the stomach and colon. In contrast, breast and lung adenocarcinomas frequently show an overexpression of caspase 14. Salivary gland adenocarcinomas have not been evaluated for potential aberrant caspase 14 expression.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Samples from salivary gland carcinomas (n = 43) were analysed by immunohistochemistry (caspase 14, filaggrin, GATA3 and Ki67) and fluorescence in situ hybridization.

RESULTS

Caspase 14 is not expressed in normal salivary glands, while in a subfraction of carcinomas (32%) an aberrant expression was found. Filaggrin could not be detected. Caspase 14 staining was not associated with tumour dedifferentiation, GATA3 expression or amplification of gene locus 19p13.

CONCLUSION

In summary, aberrant expression of caspase 14 can be found in a subfraction of salivary gland carcinomas but could not be used as a biomarker for a specific carcinoma subtype of the salivary gland.

Comprehensive evaluation of caspase-14 in vulvar neoplasia: an opportunity for treatment with black raspberry extract

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study is to determine the expression of caspase-14, a key protein in maturation of squamous epithelia, in archival malignant and premalignant vulvar squamous lesions and examine in-vitro effects of a black raspberry extract (BRB-E) on a vulvar squamous cell carcinoma (VSCC) cell line.

METHODS

VSCC cell cultures were exposed to different BRB-E concentrations and used to create cell blocks. Immunohistochemistry for caspase-14 was performed on cell block sections, whole tissue sections, and a tissue microarray consisting of normal vulvar skin, lichen sclerosus (LS), classic and differentiated vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia (cVIN and dVIN respectively), and VSCC.

RESULTS

LS demonstrated abnormal full thickness (5/11) or absent (1/11) caspase-14 staining. dVIN often showed markedly reduced expression (4/7), and cVIN occasionally demonstrated either absent or reduced caspase-14 (6/22). VSCC predominantly had absent or markedly reduced caspase-14 (26/28). VSCC cell cultures demonstrated a significant increase in caspase-14 (p=0.013) after BRB-E treatment: 7.3% (±2.0%) of untreated cells showed caspase-14 positivity, while 21.3% (±8.9%), 21.7% (±4.8%), and 22.6% (±5.3%) of cells were positive for caspase-14 after treatment with 200, 400, and 800 μg/mL BRB-E, respectively. Pair-wise comparisons between the treatment groups and the control demonstrated significant differences between no treatment with BRB-E and each of these treatment concentrations (Dunnett's adjusted p-values: 0.024, 0.021, and 0.014, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

Caspase-14 is frequently decreased in premalignant and malignant vulvar squamous lesions, and is upregulated in VSCC cell culture by BRB-E. BRB-E should be further explored and may ultimately be incorporated in topical preparations.