Hormones, IgG and lactose changes around parturition in plasma, and colostrum or saliva of multiparous sows

Concentrations of selected immunological parameters in the serum and processing fluid of suckling piglets and the serum and colostrum of their mothers

BACKGROUND

Blood sampling from neonatal piglets is related to multiple disadvantages. Therefore, a new, alternative matrix is required to assess piglets' early immune status efficiently. The present study aimed to assess the usefulness of processing fluid for determining selected piglets' immune parameters. 264 pigs - 31 sows, 146 male piglets, and 87 female piglets from commercial indoor farrow-to-finish pig herd were included in this study. 264 serum, 31 colostrum, and 146 processing fluid samples were collected. Serum was collected from all animals, colostrum was collected from sows, and processing fluid was collected from male piglets only. Using commercial ELISA tests, the concentration of various immunoglobulins, cytokines, and acute phase proteins was assessed in each matrix. Statistical analyses were employed to determine differences in the concentration of measured indices between piglets' serum and processing fluid and correlations in the concentration of tested indices between particular sets of matrices.

RESULTS

Statistical analyses did not reveal significant differences in the IgG, IgA, IL-1β, IL-4, IL-6, and IFN-γ concentration between piglets' serum and processing fluid (p > 0.05). A positive correlation (p < 0.05) regarding the concentration of some indices between processing fluid and samples collected from sows was also observed.

CONCLUSIONS

Processing fluid can be considered a promising alternative to blood for assessing some immunological indices in piglets, such as IgG, IgA, IL-1β, IL-4, IL-6, and IFN-γ, and, possibly, in the indirect assessment of some indices in lactating sows, including IgA, IL-1β, IL-4, IL-6, IL-8, IFN-γ, or Pig-MAP.

Influence of prepartum feed levels on colostrum production and farrowing performance in highly prolific sows in a tropical environment

Currently, there is a lack of data on the effects of altering feed levels on sow performance and piglet characteristics during the transition period in tropical environments. The present study determined the effect of sow feed levels during the transition period on colostrum yield, colostrum immunoglobulin (Ig) G, colostrum intake of piglets, farrowing duration, proportion of stillborn piglets per litter (SB) and the incidence of farrowing assistance in highly prolific sows. A total of 114 Landrace × Yorkshire crossbred sows and their offspring (n = 2 072) were included in the experiment. Sows were assigned to different feed supply levels from entry to farrowing at 110 days of gestation until farrowing based on their parity number. Three feed-level groups were the control group who received 3.0 kg/day of lactation feed (n = 40), treatment 1 group who received 3.6 kg/day of gestation feed (n = 39) and treatment 2 group who received 4.0 kg/day of lactation feed (n = 35). Colostrum samples (5 ml) were obtained from the sows within 3 h after the onset of farrowing for IgG assay. Piglets were weighed immediately after birth and then again 17-24 h later to estimate their colostrum intake. Colostrum yield was determined by aggregating the colostrum intake of piglets within the litter. The total number of piglets born, SB and farrowing duration were 18.2 ± 3.8, 7.5% and 259.1 ± 138.1 min, respectively. Among these sows, 28.9% experienced a farrowing duration exceeding 300 min and 50.9% required assistance during farrowing. Interestingly, piglets in the treatment 2 group demonstrated a greater colostrum intake (403.1 ± 14.9 g) compared to the control group (360.6 ± 15.1 g, P = 0.046) and the treatment 1 group (361.0 ± 12.9 g, P = 0.033). On average, colostrum yield of sows in the treatment 2 group tended to be higher than in the control group (+0.5 kg, P = 0.081), but did not differ from the treatment 1 group (+0.3 kg, P = 0.191). No significant differences in farrowing duration, SB, farrowing assistance, or colostrum IgG concentration were found across various feed-level groups (P > 0.05). In conclusion, the study showed that raising lactation feed by 1.0 kg/day prefarrowing increased piglet colostrum intake and tended to boost sow colostrum production, without significantly affecting farrowing duration, stillbirth rates, or need for assistance.

Clostridioides difficile-mesocolonic oedema in neonatal suckling piglets develops regardless of the fibre composition in sow's diets

Maternal dietary factors have been reported to influence Clostridioides difficile colonisation in the offspring. Twenty suckling piglets from sows fed diets supplemented with high-fermentable sugar beet pulp (SBP) or low-fermentable lignocellulose (LNC) fibres during gestation and lactation were dissected in the first week after birth. Postmortem analysis included clinical mesocolon and faecal scoring, concentration of C. difficile and respective toxins in colon digesta and faeces, immunoglobulins in serum and inflammatory markers in serum and colon tissues. Sow colostrum was assessed for nutrients, immunoglobulins and biogenic amines. Toxin-neutralising IgG antibodies were measured in colostrum and serum of the sows, and in colon digesta and serum of the piglets. Mesocolonic oedema of different severity was present in most of the piglets from both sows' feeding groups. Concentrations of C. difficile, toxins and calprotectin in colon digesta and faecal contents did not differ between the study piglets. Calprotectin correlated positively with mesocolon score (rho = 413, P = 0.07). Piglets from sows fed LNC vs SBP tended to have higher IgA (P = 0.089), IgG (P = 0.053), total Ig (P = 0.053), albumin (P = 0.075) and total protein content (P = 0.007) in serum. Colon tissues of piglets from the SFB vs LNC had upregulated expression of ZO-1 (P = 0.021), PCNA (P = 0.015) and TGF-β (P = 0.014). Titers of anti-toxin-IgG-antibodies in serum and colostrum and in piglet colon digesta and serum did not differ between sows from both dietary groups, but they all showed strong positive correlations. In conclusion, dietary sugar beet pulp or lignocellulose fed to sows did not influence the concentrations of C. difficile and toxins titers in colon digesta and faeces of neonatal piglets.

Endocrine changes during the peripartal period related to colostrogenesis in mammalian species

This review discusses endocrine and functional changes during the transition from late gestation to lactation that are related to the production of colostrum in different mammalian species. Species covered in this article include ungulate species (cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, horses), rodents (rat, mouse), rabbits, and carnivores (cats, dogs), as well as humans. An immediate availability of high quality colostrum for the newborn after birth is crucial in species where a transfer of immunoglobulins (Ig) does not or only partially occur via the placenta during pregnancy. Declining activity of gestagens, in most species progesterone (P4), is crucial at the end of pregnancy to allow for the characteristic endocrine changes to initiate parturition and lactation, but the endocrine regulation of colostrogenesis is negligible. Both, the functional pathways and the timing of gestagen withdrawal differ considerably among mammalian species. In species with a sustaining corpus luteum throughout the entire pregnancy (cattle, goat, pig, cat, dog, rabbit, mouse, and rat), a prostaglandin F2α (PGF2α)-induced luteolysis shortly before parturition is assumed to be the key event to initiate parturition as well as lactogenesis. In species where the gestagen production is taken over by the placenta during the course of gestation (e.g., sheep, horse, and human), the reduction of gestagen activity is more complex, as PGF2α does not affect placental gestagen production. In sheep the steroid hormone synthesis is directed away from P4 towards estradiol-17β (E2) to achieve a low gestagen activity at high E2 concentrations. In humans the uterus becomes insensitive to P4, as parturition occurs despite still high P4 concentrations. However, lactogenesis is not completed as long as P4 concentration is high. Early colostrum and thus Ig intake for immune protection is not needed for the human newborn which allows a delayed onset of copious milk secretion for days until the placenta expulsion causes the P4 drop. Like humans, horses do not need low gestagen concentrations for successful parturition. However, newborn foals need immediate immune protection through Ig intake with colostrum. This requires the start of lactogenesis before parturition which is not fully clarified. The knowledge of the endocrine changes and related pathways to control the key events integrating the processes of colostrogenesis, parturition, and start of lactation are incomplete in many species.

Increased Circulating Cortisol After Vaginal Birth Is Associated With Increased FGF19 Secretion in Neonatal Pigs

The influence of birth modality (scheduled cesarean or spontaneous vaginal) on the development of the newborn has been a source of controversy in neonatology. The impact of cesarean vs vaginal birth on the development of bile acid and fibroblast growth factor 19 (FGF19) signaling is unknown. Our aim was to determine the effect of birth modality and gestational age (preterm vs term) on plasma hormone levels, bile acid pool distribution, expression of genes in the bile acid-FXR-FGF19 pathway, and plasma levels of FGF19 at birth and on day 3 of life in neonatal pigs. Four sows underwent cesarean delivery on gestation day 105 (n = 2) and 114 (n = 2; term = 115 days), and 2 additional sows were allowed to farrow at term (gestation days 112 and 118). Piglets were euthanized at birth (Term-Vaginal n = 6; Term-Cesarean n = 8; Preterm n = 10) for tissue and blood collection, and the remaining pigs received total parenteral nutrition then were fed enterally on day 3 (Term-Vaginal n = 8; Term-Cesarean n = 10; Preterm n = 8), before blood and tissue were collected. Piglets born vaginally had a markedly (30-fold) higher plasma FGF19 at birth than term pigs born via cesarean delivery, and 70-fold higher than preterm pigs (P < 0.001). However, distal ileum FGF19 gene expression was similar in all groups (P > 0.05). Plasma FGF19 positively correlated with plasma cortisol (r = 0.58; P < 0.05) and dexamethasone treatment increased ileal FGF19 expression in cultured pig tissue explants and human enteroids. Our findings suggest that exposure to maternal or endogenous glucocorticoids in the perinatal period may upregulate the development of the bile acid-FGF19 pathway.

The protective role of wallowing against heat stress in gestating and lactating sows housed outdoors

The objective of this study was to describe the physiological response of gestating and lactating sows to naturally-occurring environmental conditions, and to identify factors that may contribute to or prevent heat stress, while being kept outdoors in Québec, Canada during the summer. Six groups of 4 Yorkshire-Landrace sows lived in outdoor pens equipped with a wallow, shade structure, farrowing huts and access to a pasture from July to September, 2018. Between week 15 of gestation and week 3 of lactation (inclusive), we recorded the location of each sow 5 days/week during 5 daily 15-min observation periods, and additionally measured the sow's respiratory rate and mud cover at the end of each observation period. Simultaneously, we collected sow body temperature data with vaginal temperature loggers 24h/d on week 15 of gestation and week 2 of lactation, and monitored environmental conditions with temperature and humidity loggers to calculate the temperature humidity index (THI). Sows had significantly higher and more variable body temperatures during lactation compared to gestation (P≤0.0001), and when THI was analyzed as a continuous variable, it was positively associated with sow body temperature during the night in lactation. During gestation, neither respiratory rate nor body temperature were associated with high or low levels of THI (P=0.15 and 0.79, respectively) or mud cover (P=0.29 and 0.94, respectively). However, in lactation, respiratory rate was higher when, simultaneously, THI exceeded 74 and mud cover was low (P=0.006), while a THI higher than 74 and a low mud cover had independent effects on body temperature (P=0.012 and 0.004, respectively). In lactation, sows that spent an entire observation period in the farrowing hut also had a higher respiratory rate than sows that left the hut at least once (P=0.009). In summary, lactating sows were more likely to show increases in respiratory rate and body temperature in warmer conditions than gestating sows, and our findings also suggest that time in the farrowing hut may be a risk factor for heat stress. However, mud cover may limit these physiological consequences when sows have access to a wallow.

Serum Concentrations of Immunoglobulins and Cortisol Around Parturition in Clinically Healthy Sows and Sows with Postpartum Dysgalactia Syndrome (PDS)

Introduction

This study aimed to determine the profile of immunoglobulins and cortisol concentrations in serum around the periparturient period in sows suffering from postpartum dysgalactia syndrome (PDS) and in healthy sows.

Material and Methods

A total of 45 sows with lactation impairment (Group PDS) and 58 clinically healthy sows with a physiological peripartum period (Group H) were subjected to a serological test (ELISA) for measurement of serum immunoglobulins (IgG, IgM, and IgA) and cortisol concentration.

Results

The serum contents of IgG, IgM and IgA had highly similar profiles in PDS-affected sows and healthy ones. A significantly higher concentration of IgG at 28 and 14 days ante partum compared to days 3 and 7 post partum was only observed in Group H. The mean cortisol content remained at a highly similar level throughout the entire experiment in both groups.

Conclusion

The results of the study indicate that lactation impairment such as PDS did not influence the immunoglobulin or cortisol concentration in sow serum.

Synthetic Olfactory Agonist Use in the Farrowing House to Reduce Sow Distress and Improve Piglet Survival

The aim of the study was to investigate if the application of a synthetic olfactory agonist (SOA) would reduce indicators of stress in sows, in response to a stressor prior to parturition, and if it would improve farrowing house performance of sows and their piglets. Two studies were conducted: an intensive study with 47 sows, either having their first or second litter (Control n = 24; SOA n = 23); and a commercial validation study with 418 sows, either having their first litter or have had multiple litters (Control n = 210; SOA n = 208). Within the intensive study, sows were housed with or without a synthetic olfactory agonist suspended in the creep area of the farrowing crate, whereas within the commercial validation study, sows were housed with or without a synthetic olfactory agonist suspended over the adjoining creep area of two farrowing crates. Within the intensive study, despite a discernible increase in cortisol concentration in response to a stressor (snout rope test), cortisol response was not different between treatments (p > 0.05). Farrowing duration in first-litter sows exposed to the SOA was decreased (p < 0.001) whilst there was no impact on farrowing duration in second litter sows. Piglets were not attracted by the SOA to increase their utilisation of the creep area and spent more time in proximity to the sow (p < 0.05). Within the commercial validation study, no impacts were seen on piglet production measures (p > 0.05). Largely the use of an SOA within the farrowing house did not impact the sow or her piglets in either the intensive study or commercial validation study. Based on these current results, the use of SOA within the farrowing house is not supported.

Effect of litter birth weight standardization before first suckling on colostrum intake, passive immunization, pre-weaning survival, and growth of the piglets

Within-litter variation in birth weight is a relevant factor in pig production. This study aimed at comparing pre-weaning mortality, colostrum intake (CI), passive immunization, and growth of piglets from litters of uniform (UN) or heterogeneous (HET) birth weights. The study included 52 multiparous sows (Large White × Landrace) and their litters. Two types of litters were constituted based on birth weight, namely: UN or HET, the control group, using piglets from two to three sows farrowing approximately at the same time. At birth, piglets were weighed, identified, and placed in a box under an IR lamp. At the end of farrowing, piglets were re-weighed and allotted to groups UN or HET (12 per litter) with average weights of 1394 and 1390 g, respectively, and allowed to suckle (time 0). They were re-weighed 24 h later to estimate CI and sows' colostrum yield. At time 0, the average intra-litter CV (%) in weight of experimental litters were 9.3 ± 0.8 (SEM) and 27.8 ± 0.7 in groups UN and HET, respectively (P < 0.001). At 2 days of age, blood samples were taken from the piglets of 11 litters five UN and six HET) and serum Immunoglobulin G (IgG) contents were determined. Mean CI/piglet/litter was similar in both groups, that is, 415 ± 13 in UN and 395 ± 13 g in HET (P = 0.28), but was less variable in UN litters (CV = 22.4 ± 2 vs 36.0 ± 2%, P < 0.001). The IgG levels at 2 days of age were higher in piglets from UN litters (22.5 ± 0.8 vs 18.4 ± 0.7 g/l; P < 0.001) but the CV of IgG levels was not different between litter type (P= 0.46). Mortality up to 21 days of age was lower in UN litters (6.4 vs 11.9%, P = 0.03). The BW at 21 days was not different between litter type (P = 0.25) but it was less variable among piglets from UN litters (CV: 17.1 ± 1.3 vs 25.7 ± 1.3%; P = 0.01). Results reveal that CI is less variable and mortality is lower in piglets from litters of UN birth weight. The results infer that genetic improvement to decrease variation in birth weight within-litter could have a positive effect on homogeneous CI and thus contribute to reducing piglet mortality.

Coping with large litters: the management of neonatal piglets and sow reproduction

As a result of intensive breeding, litter size has considerably increased in pig production over the last three decades. This has resulted in an increase in farrowing complications. Prolonged farrowing will shorten the window for suckling colostrum and reduce the chances for high-quality colostrum intake. Studies also agree that increasing litter sizes concomitantly resulted in decreased piglet birth weight and increased within-litter birth weight variations. Birth weight, however, is one of the critical factors affecting the prognosis of colostrum intake, and piglet growth, welfare, and survival. Litters of uneven birth weight distribution will suffer and lead to increased piglet mortality before weaning. The proper management is key to handle the situation. Feeding strategies before farrowing, management routines during parturition (e.g., drying and moving piglets to the udder and cross-fostering) and feeding an energy source to piglets after birth may be beneficial management tools with large litters. Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1)-driven recovery from energy losses during lactation appears critical for supporting follicle development, the viability of oocytes and embryos, and, eventually, litter uniformity. This paper explores certain management routines for neonatal piglets that can lead to the optimization of their colostrum intake and thereby their survival in large litters. In addition, this paper reviews the evidence concerning nutritional factors, particularly lactation feeding that may reduce the loss of sow body reserves, affecting the growth of the next oocyte generation. In conclusion, decreasing birth weight and compromised immunity are subjects warranting investigation in the search for novel management tools. Furthermore, to increase litter uniformity, more focus should be placed on nutritional factors that affect IGF-1-driven follicle development before ovulation.

[Clinical, ethologic, endokrinologic, and metabolic aspects of the peripartal period in pigs]

The aim of this review article is to provide an overview of the literature relevant to the peripartal period in swine. As in all other mammals, the farrowing process in pigs is divided into 3 phases (I-III; opening, expulsion, and postnatal stage), during which various essential endocrine and metabolic mechanisms initiate or maintain parturition. These include the hormones progesterone, cortisol, prostaglandin F_2α, oxytocin, estradiol, relaxin as well as electrolytes, enzymes, and metabolites such as calcium, magnesium, inorganic phosphate, glucose, creatine kinase, lactate, non-esterified free fatty acids, and β-hydroxybutyrate. Exogenous or endogenous disruptive factors may result in a delay or even stagnation of labor. For example, the form of husbandry may represent a possible exogenous disruptive factor. Endogenous disruptive factors may arise from insufficient storage and/or distribution of the above-mentioned labor-associated parameters. Subsequent dystocia leads to temporary or permanent consequences for maternal reproductive fitness and impairs piglet vitality at the time of birth, possibly resulting in lower survival rates.

Impact of sow parity on yield and composition of colostrum and milk in Danish Landrace × Yorkshire crossbred sows

The present study aims to characterize the colostrum, milk yield and composition and to determine whether sow parity would influence yield and composition of colostrum and milk in Danish Landrace × Yorkshire crossbred sows. The data were collected from sow parity numbers 1 (n = 27), 2-4 (n = 48) and 5-6 (n = 30) from Danish Landrace × Yorkshire crossbred sows reared in a commercial swine herd in Thailand. The piglets were weighed on day 0 (<1 h), 1 (24 h), 3, 10 and 17 after birth to determine the colostrum and milk yields of the sows using a prediction equation. Milk samples were collected manually within 1 h of the onset of parturition and on days 3, 10 and 17 after farrowing to evaluate milk composition. A general linear model procedure was used to analyze the effects of sow parity numbers on colostrum yield and composition and a general linear mixed model procedure was used to analyze the effects of sow parity numbers on yield and composition of milk. The model included the fixed effects of sow parity number and time (day after parturition). The sow parity numbers 2-4 (7.0 kg) had a higher colostrum yield than 1st parity sows (5.4 kg, P =  0.002) and parity 5-6 sows (5.9 kg, P = 0.025). No evidence of parity differences was observed on milk yield (P = 0.306). No effect of sow parity numbers on fat, protein and lactose in milk was observed. The dry matter in sow parity numbers 2-4 (19.8 g/100 g) had a tendency to be higher than sow parity number 1 (18.6 g/100 g, P =  0.107) and 5-6 (18.4 g/ 100 g, P =  0.053). In conclusion, sow parity number had an impact on colostrum yield in Danish Landrace × Yorkshire crossbred sows in a tropical climate but did not influence colostrum, milk composition and milk yield. Colostrum yield in Danish Landrace × Yorkshire crossbred sows was the highest in sow parity numbers 2-4.

Effects of Maternal Supplementation with Rare Earth Elements during Late Gestation and Lactation on Performances, Health, and Fecal Microbiota of the Sows and Their Offspring

Simple Summary

The immunological and metabolic status of breeding sows directly affect the overall productivity of porcine operations. Especially, maternal health status during the transition from gestation to lactation are important in maintaining health and growth of the suckling piglets. Rare earth elements (REEs) have been considered as a promising natural feed additive and been reported to exert their activity locally within the gastrointestinal tract, including effects on the bacterial microflora and on nutrient utilization. The present study was conducted to explore the effects of dietary maternal REE supplementation during late gestation and lactation on sows and their offspring. After the experiment, we found that maternal REE addition enhanced antioxidant activity and immunity of sows and their suckling piglets. At the same time, REE supplementation during perinatal period improved the reproductivity of the sows as well as the growth of their offspring. Besides, maternal REEs supply altered the intestinal microbiota community and composition of sows as well as their offspring, and Spearman correlation analysis shows that fecal bacteria are associated with the antioxidase, inflammatory factors of the sows and offspring as well as average daily gain of the suckling piglets. In addition, our results suggested that REE supplementation during both gestation and lactation are more beneficial to sows and their offspring than supplementation during only late gestation. This paper holds promise in providing efficient feeding strategies in swine production.

Abstract

The study was conducted to investigate the effects of maternal supplementation with rare earth elements (REEs) on sows and their offspring. During late gestation, 120 multiparous sows were divided randomly into the control group (Basal diet) and REE-G group (Basal diet supplemented with 200 mg REE/kg). After delivery, REE-G group was further divided into two groups: REE-L- (Change to basal diet during lactation) and REE-L+ group (REE diet all the time). Our results showed that maternal REE supplementation improved the antioxidant and immunity of sows and piglets. Additionally, REE supply during late gestation significantly decreased the coefficient of within-litter variation (CV) in birth weight and increased the weaning weights and the average daily gain (ADG) of piglets. During lactation, the insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) levels in piglets of REE-L+ group were higher, while no difference between REE-L- and the control group. More beneficial bacteria (Christensenellaceae and Ruminococcaceae) were found in the REE-L+ group while some opportunistic pathogens (Proteobacteria and Campylobacter) were relatively suppressed. Fecal microbiota showed correlation with antioxidase, inflammatory factors, and average daily gain (ADG). Collectively, our findings indicated that REEs added in both gestation and lactation was more conducive to establish a healthier status for sows and their offspring.

Effects of dietary grape seed polyphenols supplementation during late gestation and lactation on antioxidant status in serum and immunoglobulin content in colostrum of multiparous sows1

The aim of this study was to determine the effects of dietary grape seed polyphenols (GSP) supplementation during the late gestation and lactation period on reproductive performance, antioxidative status in serum, nutrient composition, and Ig content in colostrum of multiparous sows. On day 80 of gestation, a total of 64 sows with similar body condition were allocated to a completely randomized block design with 4 dietary treatments (n = 16 sows per treatment): 1) basal diet (CON, control group); 2) basal diet supplemented with 200 IU/kg vitamin E (200VE, positive control group); 3) basal diet supplemented with 200 mg/kg GSP (200GSP); and 4) basal diet supplemented with 300 mg/kg GSP (300GSP). The trial lasted 56 d until the piglets were weaned on day 21 of lactation. Reproductive performance, parameters of antioxidative status, and levels of progesterone (P4) and estradiol (E2) in serum, nutrient composition, and Ig content in colostrum of sows were determined. The number of dead fetuses was reduced, and farrowing survival was significantly improved in the litters from 300GSP-fed (P < 0.05). Preweaning survivability significantly increased in the litters from sows fed 200GSP and 200VE (P < 0.05). The activity of superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) in the serum was significantly increased in sows fed 200GSP and 300GSP (P < 0.05). The activity of GSH-Px in the serum also significantly increased in sows fed 200VE (P < 0.05). Sows fed 300GSP had the greatest levels of P4 and E2 in the serum, which was significantly greater than sows fed 200VE and CON (P < 0.05). No significant differences were found among treatments for the content of solids-not-fat, fat, protein, and lactose in colostrum (P > 0.05). However, sows fed GSP had greater IgM and IgG content in colostrum compared with sows fed 200VE and CON (P < 0.05). In conclusion, dietary GSP supplementation during late gestation and lactation improved the farrowing survival and preweaning survivability, enhanced the antioxidant status and hormone levels in serum, and increased the IgM and IgG content in colostrum of sows.

Adding α-tocopherol-selenium and ascorbic acid to periparturient sow diets influences hemogram, lipid profile, leptin, oxidant/antioxidant imbalance, performance and neonatal piglet mortality

Alpha-tocopherol-selenium (ATS) and ascorbic acid (AA) are the potent antioxidants. The present study investigated whether supplementation of ATS and AA in periparturient sows has positive effects on amelioration of oxidative stress, serum immunoglobulin G (IgG), lipid profile and sows performance. For this, twenty-four pregnant multiparous sows (landrace×indigenous) were randomly distributed into four groups (6 sows per group) 20 days before expected date of farrowing as Control (basal diet); ATS (basal diet + ATS); AA (basal diet + AA) and ATS-AA (basal diet + ATS plus AA). The results of the study revealed that the concentrations of triglyceride and cholesterol significantly reduced from day -7 to day 7 of farrowing irrespective of supplementations to sows, but the leptin concentration significantly reduced on day 7 of farrowing in ATS-AA supplemented sows (p<0.05). Moreover, sows of supplemented groups experienced decreased oxidative stress and cortisol level than control sows. The serum IgG concentration was significantly increased on day 7 post-farrowing in ATS group but it was much earlier on day 2 of farrowing in ATS-AA group (p<0.001). Supplementing sows with ATS and/or AA did not influence significantly the birth weight, weaning weight and litter size at weaning (p>0.05). Although piglet survival rate was not affected significantly by supplementation, however, piglet mortality rate was lowest in ATS-AA than any other groups. It was concluded that supplementation of ATS and/or AA to sows during late gestating and early lactating period ameliorated oxidative stress, improved lipid profile and serum IgG level without influencing reproductive performance.

Review: Nutrient requirements of the modern high-producing lactating sow, with an emphasis on amino acid requirements

Sow productivity improvements continue to increase metabolic demands during lactation. During the peripartum period, energy requirements increase by 60%, and amino acid needs increase by 150%. As litter size has increased, research on peripartum sows has focused on increasing birth weight, shortening farrowing duration to reduce stillbirths and improving colostrum composition and yield. Dietary fibre can provide short-chain fatty acids to serve as an energy source for the uterus prior to farrowing; however, fat and glucose appear to be the main energy sources used by the uterus during farrowing. Colostrum immunoglobulin G concentration can be improved by increasing energy and amino acid availability prior to farrowing; however, the influence of nutrient intake on colostrum yield is unequivocal. As sows transition to the lactation period, nutrient requirements increase with milk production demands to support large, fast-growing litters. The adoption of automated feed delivery systems has increased feed supply and intake of lactating sows; however, sows still cannot consume enough feed to meet energy and amino acid requirements during lactation. Thus, sows typically catabolise body fat and protein to meet the needs for milk production. The addition of energy sources to lactation diets increases energy intake and energy output in milk, leading to a reduction in BW loss and an improvement in litter growth rate. The supply of dietary amino acids and CP close to the requirements improves milk protein output and reduces muscle protein mobilisation. The amino acid requirements of lactating sows are variable as a consequence of the dynamic body tissue mobilisation during lactation; however, lysine (Lys) is consistently the first-limiting amino acid. A regression equation using published data on Lys requirement of lactating sows predicted a requirement of 27 g/day of digestible Lys intake for each 1 kg of litter growth, and 13 g/day of Lys mobilisation from body protein reserves. Increases in dietary amino acids reduce protein catabolism, which historically leads to improvements in subsequent reproductive performance. Although the connection between lactation catabolism and subsequent reproduction remains a dogma, recent literature with high-producing sows is not as clear on this response. Many practical aspects of meeting the nutrient requirements of lactating sows have not changed. Sows with large litters should approach farrowing without excess fat reserves (e.g. <18 mm backfat thickness), be fed ad libitum from farrowing to weaning, be housed in a thermoneutral environment and have their skin wetted to remove excess heat when exposed to high temperatures.

Mammary metabolism and colostrogenesis in sows during late gestation and the colostral period

The aims of this study were to investigate 1) the effect of high dietary fiber (DF; 19.3% to 21.7%) supplemented to late gestating sows on mammary uptake and metabolism of energy substrates as well as colostrum production and 2) the ontogeny of colostral fat and lactose synthesis using mammary carbon balance, and colostral protein using IgG as a biomarker. Sows were fed either a control diet (CON) consisting of a standard gestation diet (14.6% DF) until day 108 of gestation and a transition diet (16.8% DF) from day 109 of gestation until farrowing or a high DF treatment where part of the daily ration was replaced with a high DF supplement (FIB). The FIB sows received 19.3% and 21.7% DF in the last 2 wk prior to farrowing. Sows were surgically implanted with permanent indwelling catheters at day 75 ± 2 of gestation and blood samples were collected at 6 different time points in late gestation and at 11 different time points within 24 h after the onset of farrowing. Colostrum samples were collected at 0, 12, and 24 h after the onset of farrowing. Arterial concentration of acetate (P = 0.05) and colostral fat content (P = 0.009) were greater in FIB sows compared with CON sows. Plasma IgG dropped from day -10 relative to farrowing (P < 0.001), suggesting an uptake by the mammary glands. Mammary plasma flow (P = 0.007) and net mammary uptake of glucose (P = 0.04) increased during farrowing while dietary treatment had no effect on net mammary uptake of other energy substrates during late gestation and farrowing. The net mammary uptake of carbon from glucogenic precursors did not equate to the sum of carbons secreted in colostral lactose and released as CO2, indicating that carbons from ketogenic precursors were likely used for colostral fat and for oxidation. Mammary nonprotein carbon uptake matched the mammary output, indicating that the majority of colostral fat and lactose were produced after the onset of farrowing. In conclusion, high DF included in the diet for late gestating sows increased colostral fat content by 49% but this substantial dietary response could not be explained by the increased carbon uptake from short chain fatty acids during the colostral period. The nonprotein carbon balance of mammary glands during farrowing suggests that the majority of colostral fat and lactose were produced after the onset of farrowing, whereas the drop in plasma IgG in late gestation suggests that the mammary glands take up this colostral component prior to farrowing.

Cross-sectional study on viraemia and shedding of porcine circovirus type 2 in a subclinically infected multiplier sow herd

Vertical and horizontal transmission of porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) plays an important role for the spread of PCV2 within piglet-producing farms and following production steps. Further information is crucial to learn about the principles of PCV2 circulation among sows in piglet-producing farms to improve preventive healthcare concerning porcine circovirus diseases (PCVD) in downstream production steps. The present study was conducted as a cross-sectional study in a 400 sow multiplier herd in Germany with no PCV2 vaccination. Blood, faeces and saliva of the sows in all stages of production were tested for PCV2-DNA by real-time PCR. Results were analysed under respect of the parity and stage of production of the sows. PCV2-DNA in faeces or saliva was observed especially in young sows. Highest rates of viraemia in productive sows were found in the early stages of pregnancy. The results revealed that particularly gilts from the quarantine and rearing area and sows up to the second parity play a major role for the spread of PCV2 and thus for the maintenance of PCV2 infection in sow herds. Furthermore, the stage of production had a significant influence on the detection rate of PCV2-DNA in serum, saliva or faeces of the sows.

Transcriptional profiling of swine mammary gland during the transition from colostrogenesis to lactogenesis using RNA sequencing

Background

Colostrum and milk are essential sources of antibodies and nutrients for the neonate, playing a key role in their survival and growth. Slight abnormalities in the timing of colostrogenesis/lactogenesis potentially threaten piglet survival. To further delineate the genes and transcription regulators implicated in the control of the transition from colostrogenesis to lactogenesis, we applied RNA-seq analysis of swine mammary gland tissue from late-gestation to farrowing. Three 2nd parity sows were used for mammary tissue biopsies on days 14, 10, 6 and 2 before (−) parturition and on day 1 after (+) parturition. A total of 15 mRNA libraries were sequenced on a HiSeq2500 (Illumina Inc.). The Dynamic Impact Approach and the Ingenuity Pathway Analysis were used for pathway analysis and gene network analysis, respectively.

Results

A large number of differentially expressed genes were detected very close to parturition (−2d) and at farrowing (+ 1d). The results reflect the extraordinary metabolic changes in the swine mammary gland once it enters into the crucial phases of lactogenesis and underscore a strong transcriptional component in the control of colostrogenesis. There was marked upregulation of genes involved in synthesis of colostrum and main milk components (i.e. proteins, fat, lactose and antimicrobial factors) with a pivotal role of CSN1S2, LALBA, WAP, SAA2, and BTN1A1. The sustained activation of transcription regulators such as SREBP1 and XBP1 suggested they help coordinate these adaptations.

Conclusions

Overall, the precise timing for the transition from colostrogenesis to lactogenesis in swine mammary gland remains uncharacterized. However, our transcriptomic data support the hypothesis that the transition occurs before parturition. This is likely attributable to upregulation of a wide array of genes including those involved in ‘Protein and Carbohydrate Metabolism’, ‘Immune System’, ‘Lipid Metabolism’, ‘PPAR signaling pathway’ and ‘Prolactin signaling pathway’ along with the activation of transcription regulators controlling lipid synthesis and endoplasmic reticulum biogenesis and stress response.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12864-018-4719-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Estimation of the effects of selection on French Large White sow and piglet performance during the suckling period

The effects of 21 yr of selection were estimated for sow and piglet performance during the suckling period in a French Large White (LW) pig population using frozen semen. Two experimental groups (EXP = L77 and L98) were produced by inseminating LW sows with either stored frozen semen from 17 LW boars born in 1977 (EXP = L77) or with fresh semen from 23 LW boars born in 1998 (EXP = L98). Seventy-four L77 and 89 L98 randomly chosen females were mated to 15 L77 and 15 L98, respectively, randomly chosen boars for 6 successive parities. They produced 2,796 L77 progeny (G77) and 3,529 L98 progeny (G98) piglets including stillbirths. To disentangle direct and maternal effects on piglet growth, a 2 × 2 factorial design was set by cross-fostering half-litters across genetic groups the day after farrowing, resulting in mixed G77/G98 litters nursed by either L77 or L98 sows. Piglet traits investigated included individual weight at birth (IWB), at 21 d of age (IW21d), and at weaning at 4 wk of age (IWW) and ADG from birth to 21 d of age (ADG21d) and from birth to weaning (ADGBW) as well as probability of stillbirth, probability of mortality on the first day after farrowing and from d 2 to weaning. Sow traits analyzed included weight before farrowing and at weaning, feed intake, milk production, colostrum, and milk composition. The variability of performance across genetic groups and litters was also investigated. The data were analyzed using generalized (piglet mortality) or linear mixed models (other traits). Results showed an increase in IWB (+240 ± 72 g in 21 yr for IWB adjusted for total number born), and a negative maternal genetic trend was observed on piglet growth during the suckling period (e.g., +33 ± 13 g/d in 21 yr for ADG21d, that is, 14% of the mean), whereas direct genetic effects remained unchanged. Piglets from L98 litters also had a 40% larger probability of being stillborn and a 28% larger probability of dying on d 1 and had a more heterogeneous IWB (358 vs. 336 g; < 0.001) and growth during the suckling period (60 vs. 56 g/d; < 0.001). Sows from L77 and L98 experimental groups did not differ in weight, feed intake, colostrum, and milk composition. These results give evidence of negative correlated effects of selection for piglet traits related to robustness. These adverse effects are at least partly of maternal origin.

Colostrum yield and litter performance in multiparous sows subjected to farrowing induction

The consumption of colostrum at a low level can compromise the survival and growth of piglets. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the effect of farrowing induction on colostrum yield, IgG concentration and the survival and performance of piglets until the weaning. Sows of parity 3 to 7 were assigned into two groups: Control (n = 48), sows with spontaneous farrowing; and induction (n = 48), sows induced to farrow on day 114 of gestation with a PGF₂ analogue. Colostrum and blood samples were collected from the sows, at farrowing and 24 hr later. Blood samples from the piglets were collected at 24 hr after birth. The performance of the piglets was evaluated in a subsample of 28 litters from each group. All piglets were weighed at 7, 14 and 20 days of age. The farrowing length, the number of piglets born alive, stillborn piglets, weight at birth, litter weight at birth and colostrum yield were not significantly affected (p > .05) by farrowing induction. There was no difference between the groups (p > .05) in the percentage of sows with obstetric interventions. Serum IgG concentration, in both sows and piglets, and colostrum IgG concentration were similar between the groups (p > .05). Furthermore, survival rate, piglet weight and litter weight at 7, 14 and 20 days of age were also similar between the groups (p > .05). Therefore, it can be concluded that the farrowing induction performed on day 114 of gestation does not affect the colostrum yield, the IgG concentration in colostrum and serum of piglets, and the litter performance until the weaning.

Dietary Supplementation of Astragalus Polysaccharides Enhanced Immune Components and Growth Factors EGF and IGF-1 in Sow Colostrum

Colostrum is the main external resource providing piglets with nutrients and maternal immune molecules. Astragalus polysaccharides (APS) have been used as immunopotentiators in vitro and several animal models. This study aimed to determine the effects of APS on immune factors in sow colostrum and milk. The sow diet was supplemented with APS one week before the expected delivery date. Colostrum and milk were collected and designated as 0 h- (onset of parturition), 12 h-, and 24 h-colostrum and 36 h-milk postpartum. Samples were measured using porcine immunoglobulin (Ig) G, IgM, classical swine fever virus antibody (CSFV Ab), epidermal growth factor (EGF), and insulin-like growth factor- (IGF-) 1 ELISA Quantitation Kits. Dietary supplementation of APS significantly enhanced the presence of IgG, IgM, EGF, and IGF-1 in 0 h-colostrum (P < 0.001). The blocking rates of CSFV Ab were increased in samples from APS-supplemented sow when compared to those from the matched samples without APS treatment. The results indicate that supplement of APS could improve the immune components in sow colostrum and/or milk; and status of some specific vaccination could be determined through using colostrum or early milk in sow.

Quantifying the effect of lactogenic antibody on porcine epidemic diarrhea virus infection in neonatal piglets

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The objective of this experiment was to assess the role of lactogenic immunity in protecting piglets against the effects of PEDV by quantifying virus shedding in feces and piglet growth, thermoregulation, and survival in the presence (PEDV exposed sows) or absence (PEDV negative sows) of PEDV antibody in colostrum and milk.

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The presence of lactogenic antibody markedly affected the outcome of PEDV infection in neonates, including less PEDV shedding in feces, better thermostability (p = 0.0001), higher rate of growth, and higher rate of survivability.

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Therefore, maintenance of sufficient levels of lactogenic immunity will be the cornerstone for the prevention of PED in endemically-infected herds.

The contribution of lactogenic antibody to the protection of piglets against porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) was evaluated. Pregnant multiparous sows and their litters were allocated to one of 3 treatment groups: Group 1–6 serum antibody-negative sows and a subset (n = 11) of their piglets. Group 2–8 serum antibody-positive sows and their 91 piglets. Piglets were orally inoculated with PEDV at 4 (Group 1) or 2 (Group 2) days of age. Group 3–2 PEDV serum antibody-negative sows and 22 piglets, provided a baseline for piglet survivability and growth rate. Piglets were monitored daily for clinical signs, body weight, and body temperature through day post-inoculation (DPI) 12 (Groups 2 and 3) or 14 (Group 1). Serum and mammary secretions were tested for PEDV IgG, IgA, and virus-neutralizing antibody. Feces were tested by PEDV real-time, reverse transcriptase PCR (rRT-PCR). Piglets on sows without (Group 1) or with (Group 2) anti-PEDV antibody showed significantly different responses to PEDV infection in virus shedding (p < 0.05), thermoregulation (p < 0.05), growth rate (p < 0.05), and survivability (p < 0.0001). Specifically, Group 1 piglets shed more virus on DPIs 1 to 5, were hypothermic at all sampling points except DPIs 9, 11, and 12, gained weight more slowly, and exhibited lower survivability than Group 2 piglets. Within Group 2 litters, significant differences were found in virus shedding (p < 0.05), and body temperature (p < 0.05), but not in piglet survival rate. The number of sows and litters in Group 2 was insufficient to derive the relationship between specific levels of lactogenic antibody (FFN, IgA, and IgG) and the amelioration of clinical effects. However, when combined with previous PEDV literature, it can be concluded that the optimal protection to piglets will be provided by dams able to deliver sufficient lactogenic immunity, both humoral and cellular, to their offspring.

Colostrum production in sows fed different sources of fiber and fat during late gestation

Krogh, U., Bruun, T. S., Amdi, C., Flummer, C., Poulsen, J. and Theil, P. K. 2015. Colostrum production in sows fed different sources of fiber and fat during late gestation. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 95: 211–223. The objective was to study yield and composition of colostrum and transient milk from 36 second-parity sows fed a standard lactation diet (CON) low in fiber or one of two high-fiber diets based on sugar beet pulp (SBP) or alfalfa meal (ALF), combined with one of three fat sources, palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD), soybean oil (SOYO) or trioctanoate (C8TG) from day 105 of gestation onward. Sows were milked at 0, 12, 24 and 36 h relative to onset of parturition. Jugular vein blood was collected on day 112 of gestation. Plasma acetate content was affected by dietary fiber and fat treatment (P<0.05), indicating altered intermediary metabolism. Colostrum yield, predicted from piglet birth weight, suckling duration and weight gain, was unaffected by dietary treatments (P>0.10). Colostral (24 h) and transient milk dry matter contents were greater in SOYO compared with PFAD and C8TG sows (P<0.05). Colostrum (12 and 24 h) and transient milk lactose contents were greatest in CON-fed sows compared with sows fed ALF or SBP diets (P<0.05). In conclusion, nutrition in late gestation affected the intermediary metabolism and colostrum composition, but did not affect colostrum yield of sows.

Effects of dietary enrichment with a marine oil-based n-3 LCPUFA supplement in sows with predicted birth weight phenotypes on birth litter quality and growth performance to weaning

The effects of a marine oil-based n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid (mLCPUFA) supplement fed to the sow from weaning, through the rebreeding period, during gestation and until end of lactation on litter characteristics from birth until weaning were studied in sows with known litter birth weight phenotypes. It was hypothesized that low birth weight (LBW) litters would benefit more from mLCPUFA supplementation than high birth weight litters. A total of 163 sows (mean parity=4.9 ± 0.9) were rebred after weaning. Sows were pair-matched by parity and litter average birth weight of the previous three litters. Within pairs, sows were allocated to be fed either standard corn/soyabean meal-based gestation and lactation diets (CON), or the same diets enriched with 0.5% of the mLCPUFA supplement at the expense of corn. Each litter between 9 and 16 total pigs born was classified as LBW or medium/high average birth weight (MHBW) litter and there was a significant correlation (P<0.001) between litter average birth weight of the current and previous litters within sows (r=0.49). Sow serum was harvested at day 113 of gestation for determination of immunoglobulin G (IgG) concentrations. The number of pigs born total and alive were lower (P=0.01) in mLCPUFA than CON sows, whereas the number of stillborn and mummified pigs were similar between treatments. Number of stillborns (trend) and mummies (P<0.01) were higher in LBW than MHBW litters. Tissue weights and brain : tissue weight ratios were similar between treatments, but LBW litters had decreased tissue weights and increased brain : tissue weight ratios compared with MHBW litters. Placental weight was lower (P=0.01) in LBW than MHBW litters, but was not different between treatments. Average and total litter weight at day 1 was similar between treatments. mLCPUFA increased weaning weight (P=0.08) and average daily gain (P<0.05) in MHBW litters, but not in LBW litters. Pre-weaning mortality was similar between treatments, but was higher (P<0.01) in LBW than MHBW litters. IgG concentration in sow serum was similar between treatments and litter birth weight categories. In conclusion, litter birth weight phenotype was repeatable within sows and LBW litters showed the benchmarks of intra-uterine growth retardation (lower placental weight and brain sparing effects). As maternal mLCPUFA supplementation decreased litter size overall, only improved litter growth rate until weaning in MHBW litters, and did not affect pre-weaning mortality, maternal mLCPUFA supplementation was not an effective strategy in our study for mitigating negative effects of a LBW litter phenotype.

Short Communication: Relations between peripartum concentrations of prolactin and progesterone in sows and piglet growth in early lactation

Quesnel, H., Ramaekers, P., van Hees, H. and Farmer, C. 2013. Short Communication: Relations between peripartum concentrations of prolactin and progesterone in sows and piglet growth in early lactation. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 93: 109–112. Postpartum hypogalactia has been suggested to be related to an impaired secretion of prolactin or to elevated concentrations of progesterone around farrowing. In the current study, peripartum circulating concentrations of prolactin and progesterone were determined in 50 multiparous sows (parities 1 to 5) and related to the Na K−1 ratio and lactose in colostrum and to piglet growth in early lactation. An effect of parity (P<0.001) was observed for prolactin, with sows from parity 1 having lower concentrations than sows from parities 2, 3, 4 and 5, and sows from parities 4 and 5 having the greatest concentrations. Piglet growth from day 1 to day 5 was negatively correlated with progesterone concentrations in sows on day 1 (r=−0.36, P=0.01). The present study supports the hypothesis of a negative impact of high concentrations of progesterone after farrowing on early growth of piglets and also shows a clear effect of sow parity on the peripartum concentrations of prolactin suggesting that younger sows are more vulnerable to reduced milk yield due to lower prolactin concentrations.

Effect of organic and inorganic selenium sources in sow diets on colostrum production and piglet response to a poor sanitary environment after weaning

The objectives of this study were to determine the effect of the chemical form of selenium (Se) fed to sows (1) on production and immune quality of colostrum and (2) on piglet response to a deterioration of sanitary conditions after weaning. Twenty-two pregnant sows were assigned to receive a diet supplemented with 0.3 ppm Se from either sodium selenite (inorganic Se) or Se-enriched yeast (organic Se as Sel-Plex®; Alltech Inc., Nicholasville, KY, USA). Dietary treatments were applied during the last month of pregnancy and lactation. Blood samples were collected on sows before dietary treatment, on the day of weaning and 6 weeks later, and on three to five piglets within litters at birth, at weaning and 6 weeks post weaning. Whole blood was analysed for Se concentration. Colostrum samples were collected at 0, 3, 6 and 24 h post partum and milk samples on days 14 and 27 of lactation. Colostrum and milk were analysed for Se and immunoglobulin G (IgG) concentrations. At weaning, 40 pairs of littermate piglets were moved to rooms where sanitary conditions were good or purposely deteriorated. Piglets were reared individually and fed ad libitum. After 15 days, piglets and feed refusals were weighed and a blood sample was collected to measure plasma haptoglobin concentration. When sows were fed organic Se, Se concentrations were increased by 33% in colostrum (P < 0.05), 89% in milk (P < 0.001) and by 28% in whole blood of piglets at weaning (P < 0.001). Colostrum production during the 24 h after the onset of farrowing and IgG concentrations in colostrum and milk did not significantly differ between the two groups of sows. Weaned piglets reared in good sanitary conditions grew faster (P < 0.001) than piglets housed in poor conditions. Sanitary conditions did not influence mean plasma haptoglobin concentrations of piglets (P > 0.1). The source of Se fed to the dams did not influence piglet performance or haptoglobin concentrations after weaning. These findings confirm that, compared with inorganic Se, organic Se fed to the dam is better transferred to colostrum and milk, and consequently to piglets. They indicate that the Se source influences neither colostrum production nor IgG concentrations in colostrum, and that the higher Se contents of piglets does not limit the reduction of growth performance when weaning occurs in experimentally deteriorated sanitary conditions.

Influence of housing and social changes on growth, behaviour and cortisol in piglets at weaning

The present experiment aimed at evaluating the relative effects of environmental and social changes on behaviour, growth and salivary cortisol of piglets at weaning. On Day 0, 26-day old piglets were weaned and allocated to one of four treatments: neither environmental nor social change (C), environmental change (E), social change (S), and both changes (SE). Overall, 6 replicates of 10-12 animals/pen/treatment were analysed. Piglets were video recorded during the first three days after weaning to observe social behaviour and general activity. Saliva was collected between 07:00 and 09:00 on Day 0 just before weaning (D0H7), on Day 1 (D1H7) and Day 2 (D2H7 and D2H16) to measure cortisol. Saliva cortisol did not change after weaning in C piglets but increased significantly at D1H7 in S and SE piglets, at D2H7 and D2H16 in E and SE piglets. Compared to C piglets, numerous behaviours were altered in SE piglets: more total lying (P<0.08), less lying on the belly, less environmental exploration, less playing, more fighting regardless the day, more lying awake inactive on Day 0 (P<0.05). Compared to C piglets, E piglets displayed more total lying but less environmental exploration whereas S piglets showed less lying on the belly but more fighting (P<0.05). Present results show that moving piglets to a new environment as well as mixing them with unfamiliar conspecifics at weaning have stressful effects which are additive.

Influence of colostrum intake on piglet survival and immunity

Colostrum intake from birth to 24 h after the onset of parturition (T24) was estimated for 526 piglets from 40 litters. Plasma concentrations of immunoglobulin G (IgG), lactate, glucose and cortisol were determined at T24 for six piglets per litter. Plasma IgG concentration was also assayed at weaning (28 days) on the same piglets. Rectal temperature was measured at T24 on all piglets. Mortality was recorded until weaning and comparisons were made between piglets that died before weaning and those that were still alive at weaning. The piglets that died before weaning had lower birth weight, lower colostrum intake, lower weight gain between birth and T24, and had a lower rectal temperature, higher plasma cortisol concentration and lower plasma IgG and glucose concentrations at T24 than piglets still alive at weaning. In addition, a higher proportion of piglets that died before weaning had difficulty taking their first breath after birth and were affected by splayleg. Considering all piglets, colostrum intake was positively related to rectal temperature and plasma glucose concentration and negatively related to plasma cortisol concentration at T24. Plasma IgG concentration at T24 was explained by colostrum intake, IgG concentration in the ingested colostrum, birth weight and birth rank (P<0.0001). Plasma IgG concentration at weaning was related to plasma IgG concentration at T24 (r=0.54; P<0.0001) and to colostrum intake (r=0.32; P<0.0001). Finally, body weight was explained by colostrum intake, birth weight and age until 6 weeks of age (P<0.0001). These results show that colostrum intake is the main determinant of piglet survival through provision of energy and immune protection and has potential long-term effects on piglet growth and immunity.

Altrenogest treatment during late pregnancy did not reduce colostrum yield in primiparous sows

The decrease in circulating concentrations of progesterone is the lactogenic trigger in many species. The aim of the present study was to determine the effect of an orally active progestogen, altrenogest, administered in late gestation, on lactogenesis in sows. Gilts were treated with altrenogest (20 mg/d) from d 109 to 112 of gestation (ALT112, n = 6) or d 113 (ALT113, n = 8) or were not treated (control, n = 9). Colostrum production, estimated from the BW gains of the piglets, was measured during 24 h starting at the onset of parturition. Colostrum samples were collected at the onset of parturition until 48 h later. Jugular blood samples were taken from d -8 prepartum until d 3 postpartum. Altrenogest treatment extended the gestation length of ALT113 sows in comparison with control sows (116.3 vs. 114.7 d; P < 0.05). Litter size and litter weight at birth did not differ between groups (P > 0.1). Estimated colostrum yield was not reduced in altrenogest-treated sows compared with control sows (4.20 kg) and tended to be greater in ALT112 (4.73 kg) than in ALT113 sows (3.74 kg; P = 0.09). Altrenogest reduced endogenous progesterone concentrations during the 2 d prepartum in ALT113 relative to control sows (P < 0.05), likely because luteolysis occurred earlier in relation to parturition in ALT113 sows. Altrenogest reduced estradiol-17beta concentrations during the 2 d prepartum in ALT113 (P < 0.05) and ALT112 (P < 0.1) sows. Altrenogest treatment did not influence the timing of the prepartum peak of prolactin in relation to parturition. The ALT113 sows had lesser (P < 0.05) concentrations of lactose in plasma and a lesser Na:K ratio in colostrum after parturition than Control and ALT112 sows, indicating that the junctions between their mammary epithelial cells were tighter. Concentrations of colostral IgG in sows that received altrenogest tended to be less than in control sows (P = 0.08). In conclusion, altrenogest administered from d 109 to 112 or 113 of pregnancy did not affect lactogenesis in sows, possibly because the treatment delayed farrowing and main hormonal changes without affecting the relative chronology of these changes.

Tryptophan metabolism and related B vitamins in the multiparous sow fed ad libitum after farrowing

Although dietary content of tryptophan has been related to variations of feed intake in lactating sows, the mechanisms remain to be elucidated. Twenty multiparous crossbred Landrace × Large White sows were used to assess variations of tryptophan metabolism around farrowing. Sows were fed 3 kg/d of a standard gestation diet from insemination until farrowing. They were then fed ad libitum a standard lactation diet until weaning. Sows were catheterised on day 70 of gestation and blood samples were drawn on day 37 before parturition, daily during the week before and the week after farrowing, and on days 14 and 21 of lactation. Plasma concentrations of amino acids, kynurenine, niacin, haptoglobin, urea, and vitamin B6 concentration in red blood cells were determined. During the week following parturition, plasma tryptophan and niacin decreased while plasma kynurenine increased (p < 0.05). On the 2nd and 3rd weeks of lactation, plasma tryptophan and kynurenine returned to pre-farrowing concentrations, while niacin increased throughout lactation (p < 0.05). Vitamin B6 increased progressively during the week after farrowing (p < 0.05) and remained constant at a high concentration thereafter. The average feed intake of the sow during lactation was positively correlated with the mean concentrations of niacin (r(2) = 0.25; p < 0.001) and kynurenine (r(2) = 0.31; p < 0.001) in plasma and with vitamin B6 in red blood cells (r(2) = 0.68; p < 0.001). This study suggests that tryptophan catabolism presumably through the kynurenine pathway is high during the 1st week after farrowing, and that dietary supply of niacin and vitamin B6 could be transiently suboptimal in early lactation.

Effect of age on the behavioral and physiological responses of piglets to tail docking and ear notching

Neonatal piglets are often subject to potentially painful processing procedures such as tail docking and ear notching during the first few days after birth. However, these procedures may influence the development of suckling behavior and passive transfer of immunoglobulins, especially if done within the first day postpartum. The objective of this experiment was to compare the effects of processing piglets during the first 24 h versus at 3 d of age on suckling and pain-related behavior, the passive transfer of immunoglobulins, and growth. Six piglets per litter from 20 litters (n = 120 piglets) were used in a 3 x 2 complete block design. Piglets were weighed at birth and assigned to 1 of 3 treatments (balanced by birth weight): control (unmanipulated), sham processed (manually manipulated), and processed (tail docked and ear notched) at 1 of 2 ages (1 or 3 d of age). Vocalizations were recorded during the procedures, and piglets were observed after the procedures for pain-related behavior. Suckling behavior was observed for 6 h on each of d 1 to 4. Colostrum samples were collected after the birth of all piglets (before first suck), and blood samples were collected on d 5 to examine concentrations of immunoglobulins (IgA and IgG) and IGF-I. Body weights were measured at birth and on d 5 and 14. During the procedures, processed piglets, regardless of age, vocalized at a greater frequency (P < 0.001) and produced more high frequency calls (P = 0.016) than sham-processed piglets. All piglets on d 1 produced more high frequency calls than all piglets on d 3 (P = 0.047). Immediately after the procedures, sham-processed and processed piglets spent less time lying and more time standing than control piglets (P < 0.001), whereas processed piglets jammed their tail between their legs more than sham-processed or control piglets (P < 0.001). Lying, standing and tail posture were not influenced by age, nor were there age by treatment interactions. Piglets on d 1 trembled more than piglets on d 3 (P < 0.001), and this tended to be exacerbated by processing (P = 0.076). There was no effect of treatment or age of treatment on suckling behavior. Processed piglets had decreased IgG serum concentrations compared with sham-processed and control piglets (P = 0.029), although there was no interaction between treatment and age of treatment (P = 0.67). Whereas tail docking and ear notching do appear to result in short-term pain and modulated immune status, processing on d 1 appears neither better nor worse than processing on d 3.

C-reactive protein quantification in porcine saliva: a minimally invasive test for pig health monitoring

Study objectives were to investigate whether C-reactive protein (CRP) in pig saliva could be quantified using an adapted, time-resolved immunofluorometry assay (TR-IFMA), and to determine whether the assay could distinguish healthy from diseased animals. The test method had intra- and inter-assay coefficients of variation of 5.75% and 9.73%, respectively, the limit of detection was 0.47ng/mL and the coefficient of determination was 0.98. Analysis of CRP concentrations in paired serum and saliva samples from 50 pigs gave a positive correlation (r=0.702, P<0.01) and the salivary CRP concentration was able to distinguish healthy from diseased animals in 62 samples from pigs with naturally occurring or experimentally-induced inflammation. The results suggest that this minimally invasive, straightforward and sensitive assay may be useful in pig health and welfare monitoring.

Stress, behaviour and reproductive performance in female cattle and pigs

Female farm animals are exposed to a great variety of environmental and management related stressors. As a consequence, their reproductive and maternal abilities may be compromised through mechanisms acting on the hypothalamic, pituitary, ovarian and uterine function. Responses to short- and long-term stressors may differ as short-term stressors often fail to affect reproduction or even may have stimulatory effects. Thus, the stress response induces diverse neuroendocrine reactions that can either increase or decrease the probability of an animal reproducing depending on the specific situation. The aim of the present review is to summarise the current knowledge on the stress concept and its implications on behaviour and reproductive performance in cows and female pigs as phenomena reported in laboratory animals are unable to explain all effects encountered in domesticated farm animals.