Cell surface phenotype and cytokine secretion in Caco-2 cell cultures: increased RANTES production and IL-2 transcription upon stimulation with IL-1beta

Ziziphus jujuba Miller Ethanol Extract Restores Disrupted Intestinal Barrier Function via Tight Junction Recovery and Reduces Inflammation

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic inflammatory condition caused by the disruption of the intestinal barrier. The intestinal barrier is maintained by tight junctions (TJs), which sustain intestinal homeostasis and prevent pathogens from entering the microbiome and mucosal tissues. Ziziphus jujuba Miller (Z. jujuba) is a natural substance that has been used in traditional medicine as a therapy for a variety of diseases. However, in IBD, the efficacy of Z. jujuba is unknown. Therefore, we evaluated ZJB in Caco2 cells and a dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced mouse model to demonstrate its efficacy in IBD. Z. jujuba extracts were prepared using 70% ethanol and were named ZJB. ZJB was found to be non-cytotoxic and to have excellent antioxidant effects. We confirmed its anti-inflammatory properties via the down-regulation of inflammatory factors, including inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2). To evaluate the effects of ZJB on intestinal barrier function and TJ improvement, the trans-epithelial electrical resistance (TEER) and fluorescein isothiocyanate-dextran 4 kDa (FITC-Dextran 4) permeability were assessed. The TEER value increased by 61.389% and permeability decreased by 27.348% in the 200 μg/mL ZJB group compared with the 50 ng/mL IL-6 group after 24 h. Additionally, ZJB alleviated body weight loss, reduced the disease activity index (DAI) score, and induced colon shortening in 5% DSS-induced mice; inflammatory cytokines, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, and interleukin (IL)-6 were down-regulated in the serum. TJ proteins, such as Zonula occludens (ZO)-1 and occludin, were up-regulated by ZJB in an impaired Caco2 mouse model. Additionally, according to the liquid chromatography results, in tandem with mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) analysis, seven active ingredients were detected in ZJB. In conclusion, ZJB down-regulated inflammatory factors, protected intestinal barrier function, and increased TJ proteins. It is thus a safe, natural substance with the potential to be used as a therapeutic agent in IBD treatment.

Electrostatic Self-Assembled Chitosan-Pectin Nano- and Microparticles for Insulin Delivery

A polyelectrolyte complex system of chitosan-pectin nano- and microparticles was developed to encapsulate the hormone insulin. The aim of this work was to obtain small particles for oral insulin delivery without chemical crosslinkers based on natural and biodegradable polysaccharides. The nano- and microparticles were developed using chitosans (with different degrees of acetylation: 15.0% and 28.8%) and pectin solutions at various charge ratios (n⁺/n^- given by the chitosan/pectin mass ratio) and total charge. Nano- and microparticles were characterized regarding particle size, zeta potential, production yield, encapsulation efficiency, stability in different media, transmission electron microscopy and cytotoxicity assays using Caco-2 cells. The insulin release was evaluated in vitro in simulated gastric and intestinal media. Small-sized particles (~240-~1900 nm) with a maximum production yield of ~34.0% were obtained. The highest encapsulation efficiency (~62.0%) of the system was observed at a charge ratio (n⁺/n^-) 5.00. The system was stable in various media, particularly in simulated gastric fluid (pH 1.2). Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) analysis showed spherical shape particles when insulin was added to the system. In simulated intestinal fluid (pH 6.8), controlled insulin release occurred over 2 h. In vitro tests indicated that the proposed system presents potential as a drug delivery for oral administration of bioactive peptides.

Oral delivery of human biopharmaceuticals, autoantigens and vaccine antigens bioencapsulated in plant cells

Among 12billion injections administered annually, unsafe delivery leads to >20million infections and >100million reactions. In an emerging new concept, freeze-dried plant cells (lettuce) expressing vaccine antigens/biopharmaceuticals are protected in the stomach from acids/enzymes but are released to the immune or blood circulatory system when plant cell walls are digested by microbes that colonize the gut. Vaccine antigens bioencapsulated in plant cells upon oral delivery after priming, conferred both mucosal and systemic immunity and protection against bacterial, viral or protozoan pathogens or toxin challenge. Oral delivery of autoantigens was effective against complications of type 1 diabetes and hemophilia, by developing tolerance. Oral delivery of proinsulin or exendin-4 expressed in plant cells regulated blood glucose levels similar to injections. Therefore, this new platform offers a low cost alternative to deliver different therapeutic proteins to combat infectious or inherited diseases by eliminating inactivated pathogens, expensive purification, cold storage/transportation and sterile injections.

Gut immune system and oral tolerance

Gut mucosal surfaces separate the external environment from the internal sterile environment and so represent a first line of defence system. This barrier faces environments rich in pathogens that have developed effective mechanisms for colonisation of epithelial surfaces and invasion of mucosal tissues, but also harmless antigens such as food, airborne antigens or commensal bacterial flora. The latter represent the vast majority of the encountered antigens and require an appropriate response characterised by either ignorance or active suppression. However, for the former, a robust immune response is needed. Mucosae have developed a complex immune system that is capable of mounting an immune response against pathogenic antigens, while maintaining the required ignorance or active suppression against non-pathogenic antigens. Taking advantage of this knowledge, strategies have been devised to induce oral tolerance to antigens involved in experimental autoimmune disease or human conditions. It is now known that oral tolerance induces the up-regulation and activation of T cells with regulatory properties, a subtype of CD4⁺ T cells whose function is to regulate functions of other T lymphocytes to avoid excessive immune activation. Amongst them, the Th3 cells (cells that express the latency-associated peptide on the surface and secrete transforming growth factor β, a cytokine with immunoregulatory properties) are especially relevant in the induction of oral tolerance. Orally fed antigens seek to generate these types of cells in the treatment of autoimmune diseases in experimental animals or human subjects.

The inflammatory response in acyl-CoA oxidase 1 deficiency (pseudoneonatal adrenoleukodystrophy)

Among several peroxisomal neurodegenerative disorders, the pseudoneonatal adrenoleukodystrophy (P-NALD) is characterized by the acyl-coenzyme A oxidase 1 (ACOX1) deficiency, which leads to the accumulation of very-long-chain fatty acids (VLCFA) and inflammatory demyelination. However, the components of this inflammatory process in P-NALD remain elusive. In this study, we used transcriptomic profiling and PCR array analyses to explore inflammatory gene expression in patient fibroblasts. Our results show the activation of IL-1 inflammatory pathway accompanied by the increased secretion of two IL-1 target genes, IL-6 and IL-8 cytokines. Human fibroblasts exposed to very-long-chain fatty acids exhibited increased mRNA expression of IL-1α and IL-1β cytokines. Furthermore, expression of IL-6 and IL-8 cytokines in patient fibroblasts was down-regulated by MAPK, p38MAPK, and Jun N-terminal kinase inhibitors. Thus, the absence of acyl-coenzyme A oxidase 1 activity in P-NALD fibroblasts triggers an inflammatory process, in which the IL-1 pathway seems to be central. The use of specific kinase inhibitors may permit the modulation of the enhanced inflammatory status.

Cytotoxicity of monodispersed chitosan nanoparticles against the Caco-2 cells

Published toxicology data on chitosan nanoparticles (NP) often lack direct correlation to the in situ size and surface characteristics of the nanoparticles, and the repeated NP assaults as experienced in chronic use. The aim of this paper was to breach these gaps. Chitosan nanoparticles synthesized by spinning disc processing were characterised for size and zeta potential in HBSS and EMEM at pHs 6.0 and 7.4. Cytotoxicity against the Caco-2 cells was evaluated by measuring the changes in intracellular mitochondrial dehydrogenase activity, TEER and sodium fluorescein transport data and cell morphology. Cellular uptake of NP was observed under the confocal microscope. Contrary to established norms, the collective data suggest that the in vitro cytotoxicity of NP against the Caco-2 cells was less influenced by positive surface charges than by the particle size. Particle size was in turn determined by the pH of the medium in which the NP was dispersed, with the mean size ranging from 25 to 333 nm. At exposure concentration of 0.1%, NP of 25 ± 7 nm (zeta potential 5.3 ± 2.8 mV) was internalised by the Caco-2 cells, and the particles were observed to inflict extensive damage to the intracellular organelles. Concurrently, the transport of materials along the paracellular pathway was significantly facilitated. The Caco-2 cells were, however, capable of recovering from such assaults 5 days following NP removal, although a repeat NP exposure was observed to produce similar effects to the 1st exposure, with the cells exhibiting comparable resiliency to the 2nd assault.

Biological nanofactories target and activate epithelial cell surfaces for modulating bacterial quorum sensing and interspecies signaling

In order to control the behavior of bacteria present at the surface of human epithelial cells, we have created a biological "nanofactory" construct that "coats" the epithelial cells and "activates" the surface to produce the bacterial quorum sensing signaling molecule, autoinducer-2 (AI-2). Specifically, we demonstrate directed modulation of signaling among Escherichia coli cells grown over the surface of human epithelial (Caco-2) cells through site-directed attachment of biological nanofactories. These "factories" comprise a fusion protein expressed and purified from E. coli containing two AI-2 bacterial synthases (Pfs and LuxS), a protein G IgG binding domain, and affinity ligands for purification. The final factory is fabricated ex vivo by incubating with an anti-CD26 antibody that binds the fusion protein and specifically targets the CD26 dipeptidyl peptidase found on the outer surface of Caco-2 cells. This is the first report of the intentional "in vitro" synthesis of bacterial autoinducers at the surface of epithelial cells for the redirection of quorum sensing behaviors of bacteria. We envision tools such as this will be useful for interrogating, interpreting, and disrupting signaling events associated with the microbiome localized in human intestine and other environments.

Human CD8(+) T cells clear Cryptosporidium parvum from infected intestinal epithelial cells

Intracellular protozoans of the genus Cryptosporidium are a major cause of diarrheal illness worldwide, especially in immunocompromised individuals. CD4(+) T cells and interferon-gamma are key factors in the control of cryptosporidiosis in human and murine models. Previous studies led us to hypothesize that CD8(+) T cells contribute to clearance of intestinal epithelial Cryptosporidium infection in humans. We report here that antigen expanded sensitized CD8(+) T cells reduce the parasite load in infected intestinal epithelial cell cultures and lyse infected intestinal epithelial cells. These effects are most likely mediated by the release of cytotoxic granules. Elimination of parasites seems to require antigen presentation through both human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-A and HLA-B. These data suggest that cytotoxic CD8(+) T cells play a role in clearing Cryptosporidium from the intestine, a previously unrecognized feature of the human immune response against this parasite.