Avian Influenza A Viruses: Evolution and Zoonotic Infection

Exploring the Microbial Community Structure in the Chicken House Environment by Metagenomic Analysis

The environmental conditions of chicken houses play an important role in the growth and development of these animals. The chicken house is an essential place for the formation of microbial aerosols. Microbial aerosol pollution and transmission can affect human and animal health. In this work, we continuously monitored fine particulate matter (PM2.5) in the chicken house environment for four weeks and studied the microbial community structure in the aerosols of the chicken house environment through metagenomic sequencing. Our results found that bacteria, fungi, viruses, and archaea were the main components of PM2.5 in the chicken house environment, accounting for 89.80%, 1.08%, 2.06%, and 0.49%, respectively. Conditional pathogens are a type of bacteria that poses significant harm to animals themselves and to farm workers. We screened ten common conditional pathogens and found that Staphylococcus had the highest relative abundance, while Clostridium contained the most microbial species, up to 456. Basidiomycetes and Ascomycota in fungi showed dramatic changes in relative abundance, and other indexes showed no significant difference. Virulence factors (VF) are also a class of molecules produced by pathogenic microbes that can cause host diseases. The top five virulence factors were found in four groups: FbpABC, HitABC, colibactin, acinetobactin, and capsule, many of which are used for the iron uptake system. In the PM2.5 samples, eight avian viruses were the most significant discoveries, namely Fowl aviadovirus E, Fowl aviadovirus D, Avian leukosis virus, Avian endogenous retrovirus EAV-HP, Avian dependent parvovirus 1, Fowl adenovus, Fowl aviadovirus B, and Avian sarcoma virus. The above results significantly improve our understanding of the microbial composition of PM2.5 in chicken houses, filling a gap on virus composition; they also indicate a potential threat to poultry and to human health. This work provides an important theoretical basis for animal house environmental monitoring and protection.

The identification and genetic characteristics of Quang Binh virus from field-captured Culex tritaeniorhynchus (Diptera: Culicidae) from Guizhou Province, China

BACKGROUND

Mosquitoes carry a variety of viruses that can cause disease in humans, animals and livestock. Surveys for viruses carried by wild mosquitoes can significantly contribute to surveillance efforts and early detection systems. In addition to mosquito-borne viruses, mosquitoes harbor many insect-specific viruses (ISVs). Quang Binh virus (QBV) is one such example, categorized as an ISV within the Flavivirus genus (family Flaviviridae). QBV has been specifically documented in Vietnam and China, with reports limited to several mosquito species.

METHODS

The homogenate obtained from female mosquitoes was cultured on C6/36 (Aedes albopictus) and BHK-21 (baby hamster kidney) cell lines. Positive cultures were identified by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT‒PCR) with taxon- or species-specific primers. Next-generation sequencing was employed to sequence the complete genomes of the identified positive samples. Subsequently, phylogenetic, gene homology, molecular evolutionary and genetic variation analyses were conducted.

RESULT

In 2021, a total of 32,177 adult female mosquitoes were collected from 15 counties in Guizhou Province, China. The predominant mosquito species identified were Culex tritaeniorhynchus, Armigeres subalbatus and Anopheles sinensis. Among the collected mosquitoes, three positive cultures were obtained from Cx. tritaeniorhynchus pools, revealing the presence of Quang Binh virus (QBV) RNA sequences. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that the three Guizhou isolates, along with the prototype isolate from Vietnam, formed distinct branches. These branches were primarily closely related to other QBV isolates reported in China. Comparative analysis revealed a high degree of nucleotide and amino acid homology between the Guizhou isolates and both Vietnamese and other indigenous Chinese isolates. Additionally, nonsynonymous single-nucleotide variants (SNVs) were observed in these strains compared to the QBV prototype strain.

CONCLUSION

This study represents the first report of QBV presences in Cx. tritaeniorhynchus mosquitoes in Guizhou Province, China. Phylogenetic tree analysis showed that the three Guizhou isolates were most closely related to the QBV genes found in China. In addition, the study of the genetic characteristics and variation of this virus provided a deeper understanding of QBV and enriched the baseline data of these insect-specific flaviviruses (ISFVs).

Genes, inflammatory response, tolerance, and resistance to virus infections in migratory birds, bats, and rodents

Normally, the host immunological response to viral infection is coordinated to restore homeostasis and protect the individual from possible tissue damage. The two major approaches are adopted by the host to deal with the pathogen: resistance or tolerance. The nature of the responses often differs between species and between individuals of the same species. Resistance includes innate and adaptive immune responses to control virus replication. Disease tolerance relies on the immune response allowing the coexistence of infections in the host with minimal or no clinical signs, while maintaining sufficient viral replication for transmission. Here, we compared the virome of bats, rodents and migratory birds and the molecular mechanisms underlying symptomatic and asymptomatic disease progression. We also explore the influence of the host physiology and environmental influences on RNA virus expression and how it impacts on the whole brain transcriptome of seemingly healthy semipalmated sandpiper (Calidris pusilla) and spotted sandpiper (Actitis macularius). Three time points throughout the year were selected to understand the importance of longitudinal surveys in the characterization of the virome. We finally revisited evidence that upstream and downstream regulation of the inflammatory response is, respectively, associated with resistance and tolerance to viral infections.

Narrative review on century of respiratory pandemics from Spanish flu to COVID-19 and impact of nanotechnology on COVID-19 diagnosis and immune system boosting

The rise of the highly lethal severe acute respiratory syndrome-2 (SARS-2) as corona virus 2019 (COVID-19) reminded us of the history of other pandemics that happened in the last century (Spanish flu) and stayed in the current century, which include Severe-Acute-Respiratory-Syndrome (SARS), Middle-East-Respiratory-Syndrome (MERS), Corona Virus 2019 (COVID-19). We review in this report the newest findings and data on the origin of pandemic respiratory viral diseases, reservoirs, and transmission modes. We analyzed viral adaption needed for host switch and determinants of pathogenicity, causative factors of pandemic viruses, and symptoms and clinical manifestations. After that, we concluded the host factors associated with pandemics morbidity and mortality (immune responses and immunopathology, ages, and effect of pandemics on pregnancy). Additionally, we focused on the burdens of COVID-19, non-pharmaceutical interventions (quarantine, mass gatherings, facemasks, and hygiene), and medical interventions (antiviral therapies and vaccines). Finally, we investigated the nanotechnology between COVID-19 analysis and immune system boosting (Nanoparticles (NPs), antimicrobial NPs as antivirals and immune cytokines). This review presents insights about using nanomaterials to treat COVID-19, improve the bioavailability of the abused drugs, diminish their toxicity, and improve their performance.

Higher Viral Stability and Ethanol Resistance of Avian Influenza A(H5N1) Virus on Human Skin

Evaluating the stability of highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses on human skin and measuring the effectiveness of disinfectants are crucial for preventing contact disease transmission. We constructed an evaluation model using autopsy skin samples and evaluated factors that affect the stability and disinfectant effectiveness for various subtypes. The survival time of the avian influenza A(H5N1) virus on plastic surfaces was ≈26 hours and on skin surfaces ≈4.5 hours, >2.5-fold longer than other subtypes. The effectiveness of a relatively low ethanol concentration (32%–36% wt/wt) against the H5N1 subtype was substantially reduced compared with other subtypes. Moreover, recombinant viruses with the neuraminidase gene of H5N1 survived longer on plastic and skin surfaces than other recombinant viruses and were resistant to ethanol. Our results imply that the H5N1 subtype poses a higher contact transmission risk because of its higher stability and ethanol resistance, which might depend on the neuraminidase protein.

Immune Evaluation of Recombinant Lactobacillus plantarum With Surface Display of HA1-DCpep in Mice

Avian influenza viruses can be efficiently transmitted through mucous membranes, and conventional vaccines are not effective in protecting against mucosal infection by influenza viruses. To induce multiple immune responses in an organism, we constructed a recombinant Lactobacillus plantarum expressing the influenza virus antigen HA1 with the adjuvant dendritic cell-targeting peptide (DCpep). The recombinant L. plantarum strains NC8Δ-pWCF-HA1 and NC8Δ-pWCF-HA1-DCpep were used to immunize mice via oral administration, and the humoral, cellular and mucosal immune responses were evaluated. In addition, the serum levels of specific antibodies and hemagglutination inhibition (HI) levels were also measured. Our results showed that recombinant L. plantarum activated dendritic cells in Peyer's patches (PPs), increased the numbers of CD4⁺IFN-γ⁺ and CD8⁺IFN-γ⁺ cells in the spleen and mesenteric lymph nodes (MLNs), and affected the ability of CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ cells to proliferate in the spleen and MLNs. Additionally, recombinant L. plantarum increased the number of B220⁺IgA⁺ cells in PPs and the level of IgA in the lungs and different intestinal segments. In addition, specific IgG, IgG1 and IgG2a antibodies were induced at high levels in the mice serum, specific IgA antibodies were induced at high levels in the mice feces, and HI potency was significantly increased. Thus, the recombinant L. plantarum strains NC8Δ-pWCF-HA1 and NC8Δ-pWCF-HA1-DCpep have potential as vaccine candidates for avian influenza virus.

Regional Distribution of Non-human H7N9 Avian Influenza Virus Detections in China and Construction of a Predictive Model

Introduction

H7N9 avian influenza has broken out in Chinese poultry 10 times since 2013 and impacted the industry severely. Although the epidemic is currently under control, there is still a latent threat.

Material and Methods

Epidemiological surveillance data for non-human H7N9 avian influenza from April 2013 to April 2020 were used to analyse the regional distribution and spatial correlations of positivity rates in different months and years and before and after comprehensive immunisation. In addition, positivity rate monitoring data were disaggregated into a low-frequency and a high-frequency trend sequence by wavelet packet decomposition (WPD). The particle swarm optimisation algorithm was adopted to optimise the least squares support-vector machine (LS-SVM) model parameters to predict the low-frequency trend sequence, and the autoregressive integrated moving average (ARIMA) model was used to predict the high-frequency one. Ultimately, an LS-SVM-ARIMA combined model based on WPD was constructed.

Results

The virus positivity rate was the highest in late spring and early summer, and overall it fell significantly after comprehensive immunisation. Except for the year 2015 and the single month of December from 2013 to 2020, there was no significant spatiotemporal clustering in cumulative non-human H7N9 avian influenza virus detections. Compared with the ARIMA and LS-SVM models, the LS-SVM-ARIMA combined model based on WPD had the highest prediction accuracy. The mean absolute and root mean square errors were 2.4% and 2.0%, respectively.

Conclusion

Low error measures prove the validity of this new prediction method and the combined model could be used for inference of future H7N9 avian influenza virus cases. Live poultry markets should be closed in late spring and early summer, and comprehensive H7N9 immunisation continued.

Transboundary Animal Diseases, an Overview of 17 Diseases with Potential for Global Spread and Serious Consequences

Animals provide food and other critical resources to most of the global population. As such, diseases of animals can cause dire consequences, especially disease with high rates of morbidity or mortality. Transboundary animal diseases (TADs) are highly contagious or transmissible, epidemic diseases, with the potential to spread rapidly across the globe and the potential to cause substantial socioeconomic and public health consequences. Transboundary animal diseases can threaten the global food supply, reduce the availability of non-food animal products, or cause the loss of human productivity or life. Further, TADs result in socioeconomic consequences from costs of control or preventative measures, and from trade restrictions. A greater understanding of the transmission, spread, and pathogenesis of these diseases is required. Further work is also needed to improve the efficacy and cost of both diagnostics and vaccines. This review aims to give a broad overview of 17 TADs, providing researchers and veterinarians with a current, succinct resource of salient details regarding these significant diseases. For each disease, we provide a synopsis of the disease and its status, species and geographic areas affected, a summary of in vitro or in vivo research models, and when available, information regarding prevention or treatment.

Development of reverse transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification assays for point-of-care testing of avian influenza virus subtype H5 and H9

Avian influenza (AIV) outbreaks can induce fatal human pulmonary infections in addition to economic losses to the poultry industry. In this study, we aimed to develop a rapid and sensitive point-of-care AIV test using loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) technology. We designed three sets of reverse transcription LAMP (RT-LAMP) primers targeting the matrix (M) and hemagglutinin (HA) genes of the H5 and H9 subtypes. RT-LAMP targeting the universal M gene was designed to screen for the presence of AIV and RT-LAMP assays targeting H5-HA and H9-HA were designed to discriminate between the H5 and H9 subtypes. All three RT-LAMP assays showed specific amplification results without nonspecific reactions. In terms of sensitivity, the detection limits of our RT-LAMP assays were 100 to 1,000 RNA copies per reaction, which were 10 times more sensitive than the detection limits of the reference reverse‒transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) (1,000 to 10,000 RNA copies per reaction). The reaction time of our RT-LAMP assays was less than 30 min, which was approximately four times quicker than that of conventional RT-PCR. Altogether, these assays successfully detected the existence of AIV and discriminated between the H5 or H9 subtypes with higher sensitivity and less time than the conventional RT-PCR assay.

COVID-19 and possible links with Parkinson's disease and parkinsonism: from bench to bedside

This Viewpoint discusses insights from basic science and clinical perspectives on coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)/severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection in the brain, with a particular focus on Parkinson's disease. Major points include that neuropathology studies have not answered the central issue of whether the virus enters central nervous system neurons, astrocytes or microglia, and the brain vascular cell types that express virus have not yet been identified. Currently, there is no clear evidence for human neuronal or astrocyte expression of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), the major receptor for viral entry, but ACE2 expression may be activated by inflammation, and a comparison of healthy and infected brains is important. In contrast to the 1918 influenza pandemic and avian flu, reports of encephalopathy in COVID-19 have been slow to emerge, and there are so far no documented reports of parkinsonism apart from a single case report. We recommend consensus guidelines for the clinical treatment of Parkinson's patients with COVID-19. While a role for the virus in causing or exacerbating Parkinson's disease appears unlikely at this time, aggravation of specific motor and non-motor symptoms has been reported, and it will be important to monitor subjects after recovery, particularly for those with persisting hyposmia.

Substitutions in the PB2 methionine 283 residue affect H5 subtype avian influenza virus virulence

The influenza A virus (IAV) PB2 subunit modulates viral polymerase activity, replication kinetics and pathogenicity. Here we identified novel PB2 substitutions at position 283 of H5 subtype IAV and evaluated their biological characteristics and virulence. The substitution PB2-M283L enhanced the growth capacity and polymerase activity in human and mammalian cells in comparison to the rWT virus. The substitution PB2-M283L displayed high virulence, resulting in a greater virus load in different tissues, more severe histopathological lesions and proinflammatory cytokines burst in mice. The substitution PB2-M283I had an opposite phenotype. Our data extend the important role of PB2 substitutions in the adaptation of H5 subtype IAVs to mammalian hosts.

Current and Future Point-of-Care Tests for Emerging and New Respiratory Viruses and Future Perspectives

The availability of pathogen-specific treatment options for respiratory tract infections (RTIs) increased the need for rapid diagnostic tests. Besides, retrospective studies, improved lab-based detection methods and the intensified search for new viruses since the beginning of the twenty-first century led to the discovery of several novel respiratory viruses. Among them are human bocavirus (HBoV), human coronaviruses (HCoV-HKU1, -NL63), human metapneumovirus (HMPV), rhinovirus type C (RV-C), and human polyomaviruses (KIPyV, WUPyV). Additionally, new viruses like SARS coronavirus (SARS-CoV), MERS coronavirus (MERS-CoV), novel strains of influenza virus A and B, and (most recently) SARS coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) have emerged. Although clinical presentation may be similar among different viruses, associated symptoms may range from a mild cold to a severe respiratory illness, and thus require a fast and reliable diagnosis. The increasing number of commercially available rapid point-of-care tests (POCTs) for respiratory viruses illustrates both the need for this kind of tests but also the problem, i.e., that the majority of such assays has significant limitations. In this review, we summarize recently published characteristics of POCTs and discuss their implications for the treatment of RTIs. The second key aspect of this work is a description of new and innovative diagnostic techniques, ranging from biosensors to novel portable and current lab-based nucleic acid amplification methods with the potential future use in point-of-care settings. While prototypes for some methods already exist, other ideas are still experimental, but all of them give an outlook of what can be expected as the next generation of POCTs.

An Overview of the Most Significant Zoonotic Viral Pathogens Transmitted from Animal to Human in Saudi Arabia

Currently, there has been an increasing socioeconomic impact of zoonotic pathogens transmitted from animals to humans worldwide. Recently, in the Arabian Peninsula, including in Saudi Arabia, epidemiological data indicated an actual increase in the number of emerging and/or reemerging cases of several viral zoonotic diseases. Data presented in this review are very relevant because Saudi Arabia is considered the largest country in the Peninsula. We believe that zoonotic pathogens in Saudi Arabia remain an important public health problem; however, more than 10 million Muslim pilgrims from around 184 Islamic countries arrive yearly at Makkah for the Hajj season and/or for the Umrah. Therefore, for health reasons, several countries recommend vaccinations for various zoonotic diseases among preventive protocols that should be complied with before traveling to Saudi Arabia. However, there is a shortage of epidemiological data focusing on the emerging and reemerging of zoonotic pathogens transmitted from animal to humans in different densely populated cities and/or localities in Saudi Arabia. Therefore, further efforts might be needed to control the increasing impacts of zoonotic viral disease. Also, there is a need for a high collaboration to enhance the detection and determination of the prevalence, diagnosis, control, and prevention as well as intervention and reduction in outbreaks of these diseases in Saudi Arabia, particularly those from other countries. Persons in the health field including physicians and veterinarians, pet owners, pet store owners, exporters, border guards, and people involved in businesses related to animal products have adopted various preventive strategies. Some of these measures might pave the way to highly successful prevention and control results on the different transmission routes of these viral zoonotic diseases from or to Saudi Arabia. Moreover, the prevention of these viral pathogens depends on socioeconomic impacts, available data, improved diagnosis, and highly effective therapeutics or prophylaxis.

Epidemiological and molecular analysis of avian influenza A(H7N9) virus in Shanghai, China, 2013-2017

Background

Human infections with a novel avian influenza A virus (H7N9) were reported in Shanghai municipality, China, at the beginning of 2013. High-pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H7N9 virus emerged in late February 2017 along with existing low-pathogenic avian influenza (LPAI) H7N9 virus, and this has the potential to develop into a pandemic that could be harmful to humans.

Methods

To elucidate the epidemiological characteristics of H7N9-infected cases from 2013 to 2017 in Shanghai, data on the 59 laboratory-confirmed human cases and 26 bird and environmental contamination cases were collected from the WHO website and Food and Agriculture Organization Emergency Prevention System for Animal Health (FAO EMPRES-AH). Full-length sequences of H7N9 viruses that emerged in Shanghai were collected from the Global Initiative on Sharing Avian Influenza Data to analyze the evolutionary and genetic features.

Results

We found that genetically different strains emerged in every epidemic in Shanghai, and most of the circulating H7N9 strains had affinity to human-type receptors, with the characteristics of high-virulence and low-pathogenic influenza viruses. Furthermore, our findings suggest that the Shanghai chicken strains are closely related to the HPAI H7N9 virus A/Guangdong/17SF003/2016, indicating that this viral strain is of avian origin and generated from the LPAI H7N9 viruses in Shanghai. The gradual decrease in H7N9 human infection in Shanghai was probably due to the control measures taken by the Shanghai government and the enhanced public awareness leading to a reduced risk of H7N9 virus infection. However, LPAI H7N9 viruses from poultry and environmental samples were continually detected in Shanghai across the epidemics, increasing the risk of new emerging H7N9 outbreaks.

Conclusion

It is important to consistently obtain sufficient surveillance data and implement prevention measures against H7N9 viruses in Shanghai municipality.

Assessment of low pathogenic avian influenza virus transmission via raw poultry meat and raw table eggs

A rapid qualitative assessment has been done by performing a theoretical analysis on the transmission of low pathogenic avian influenza (LPAI) via fresh meat from poultry reared or kept in captivity for the production of meat (raw poultry meat) or raw table eggs. A predetermined transmission pathway followed a number of steps from a commercial or non-commercial poultry establishment within the EU exposed to LPAI virus (LPAIV) to the onward virus transmission to animals and humans. The combined probability of exposure and subsequent LPAIV infection via raw poultry meat containing LPAIV is negligible for commercial poultry and humans exposed via consumption whereas it is very unlikely for non-commercial poultry, wild birds and humans exposed via handling and manipulation. The probability of LPAIV transmission from an individual infected via raw poultry meat containing LPAIV is negligible for commercial poultry and humans, whereas it is very unlikely for non-commercial poultry and wild birds. The combined probability of exposure and subsequent LPAIV infection via raw table eggs containing LPAIV is negligible for commercial poultry and humans and extremely unlikely to negligible for non-commercial poultry and wild birds. The probability of LPAIV transmission from an individual infected via raw table eggs containing LPAIV is negligible for commercial poultry and humans and very unlikely to negligible for non-commercial poultry and wild birds. Although the presence of LPAIV in raw poultry meat and table eggs is very unlikely to negligible, there is in general a high level of uncertainty on the estimation of the subsequent probabilities of key steps of the transmission pathways for poultry and wild birds, mainly due to the limited number of studies available, for instance on the viral load required to infect a bird via raw poultry meat or raw table eggs containing LPAIV.

Altered virulence of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI) H5N8 reassortant viruses in mammalian models

Recently identified highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N8 viruses (clade 2.3.4.4) are relatively low to moderately pathogenic in mammalian hosts compared with HPAI H5N1 viruses. In this study, we generated reassortant viruses comprised of A/MD/Korea/W452/2014(H5N8) with substitution of individual genes from A/EM/Korea/W149/2006(H5N1) to understand the contribution of each viral gene to virulence in mammals. Substituting the PB2 gene segment or the NA gene segment of the H5N8 virus by that from the H5N1 virus resulted in significantly enhanced pathogenicity compared with the parental H5N8 virus in mice. Of note, substitution of the PB2 gene segment of the H5N8 virus by that from the H5N1 virus resulted in a 1000-fold increase in virulence for mice compared with the parental virus (MLD50 decreased from 105.8 to 102.5 EID50). Further, the W452W149PB2 virus also induced the highest virus titers in lungs at all time points and the highest levels of inflammatory cytokine responses among all viruses tested. This high virulence phenotype was also confirmed by high viral titers in the respiratory tracts of infected ferrets. Further, a mini-genome assay revealed that W452W149PB2 has significantly increased polymerase activity (p < 0.001). Taken together, our study demonstrates that a single gene substitution from other avian influenza viruses can alter the pathogenicity of recent H5N8 viruses, and therefore emphasizes the need for intensive monitoring of reassortment events among co-circulating avian and mammalian viruses.

Synergistic effect of PB2 283M and 526R contributes to enhanced virulence of H5N8 influenza viruses in mice

Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N8 virus has caused considerable economic losses to poultry industry and poses a great threat to public health. Our previous study revealed two genetically similar HPAI H5N8 viruses displaying completely different virulence in mice. However, the molecular basis for viral pathogenicity to mammals remains unknown. Herein, we generated a series of reassortants between the two viruses and evaluated their virulence in mice. We demonstrated that 283M in PB2 is a new mammalian virulence marker for H5 viruses and that synergistic effect of amino acid residues 283M and 526R in PB2 is responsible for high virulence of the HPAI H5N8 virus. Analysis of available PB2 sequences showed that PB2 283M is highly conserved among influenza A viruses, while PB2 526R presents in most of human H3N2 and H5N1 isolates. Further study confirmed that the residues 283M and 526R had similar impacts on an HPAI H5N1 virus, suggesting that influenza viruses with both residues may replicate well in mammalian hosts. Together, these results present new insights for synergistic effect of 283M and 526R in PB2 of H5 HPAI virus on virulence to mammalian host, furthering our understanding of the pathogenesis of influenza A virus.

A Comprehensive Review of Common Bacterial, Parasitic and Viral Zoonoses at the Human-Animal Interface in Egypt

Egypt has a unique geographical location connecting the three old-world continents Africa, Asia and Europe. It is the country with the highest population density in the Middle East, Northern Africa and the Mediterranean basin. This review summarizes the prevalence, reservoirs, sources of human infection and control regimes of common bacterial, parasitic and viral zoonoses in animals and humans in Egypt. There is a gap of knowledge conerning the epidemiology of zoonotic diseases at the human-animal interface in different localities in Egypt. Some zoonotic agents are “exotic” for Egypt (e.g., MERS-CoV and Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus), others are endemic (e.g., Brucellosis, Schistosomiasis and Avian influenza). Transboundary transmission of emerging pathogens from and to Egypt occurred via different routes, mainly importation/exportation of apparently healthy animals or migratory birds. Control of the infectious agents and multidrug resistant bacteria in the veterinary sector is on the frontline for infection control in humans. The implementation of control programs significantly decreased the prevalence of some zoonoses, such as schistosomiasis and fascioliasis, in some localities within the country. Sustainable awareness, education and training targeting groups at high risk (veterinarians, farmers, abattoir workers, nurses, etc.) are important to lessen the burden of zoonotic diseases among Egyptians. There is an urgent need for collaborative surveillance and intervention plans for the control of these diseases in Egypt.

Assessment of listing and categorisation of animal diseases within the framework of the Animal Health Law (Regulation (EU) No 2016/429): low pathogenic avian influenza

Low pathogenic avian influenza (LPAI) has been assessed according to the criteria of the Animal Health Law (AHL), in particular criteria of Article 7 on disease profile and impacts, Article 5 on the eligibility of LPAI to be listed, Article 9 for the categorisation of LPAI according to disease prevention and control rules as in Annex IV and Article 8 on the list of animal species related to LPAI. The assessment has been performed following a methodology composed of information collection and compilation, expert judgement on each criterion at individual and, if no consensus was reached before, also at collective levels. The output is composed of the categorical answer, and for the questions where no consensus was reached, the different supporting views are reported. Details on the methodology used for this assessment are explained in a separate opinion. According to the assessment performed, LPAI can be considered eligible to be listed for Union intervention as laid down in Article 5(3) of the AHL. The disease would comply with the criteria as in Sections 3 and 5 of Annex IV of the AHL, for the application of the disease prevention and control rules referred to in points (c) and (e) of Article 9(1). The animal species to be listed for LPAI according to Article 8(3) criteria are all species of domestic poultry and wild species of mainly Anseriformes and Charadriiformes, as indicated in the present opinion.