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Lu Y, Cui Y, Cao L, Dong Z, Cheng L, Wu W, Wang C, Liu X, Liu Y, Zhang B, Li D, Zhao B, Wang H, Li K, Ma L, Shi W, Li W, Ma Y, Du Z, Zhang J, Xiong H, Luo N, Liu Y, Hou X, Han J, Sun H, Cai T, Peng Q, Feng L, Wang J, Paxinos G, Yang Z, Fan L, Jiang T. Macaque Brainnetome Atlas: A multifaceted brain map with parcellation, connection, and histology. Sci Bull (Beijing) 2024:S2095-9273(24)00187-7. [PMID: 38580551 DOI: 10.1016/j.scib.2024.03.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2023] [Revised: 01/18/2024] [Accepted: 03/11/2024] [Indexed: 04/07/2024]
Abstract
The rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) is a crucial experimental animal that shares many genetic, brain organizational, and behavioral characteristics with humans. A macaque brain atlas is fundamental to biomedical and evolutionary research. However, even though connectivity is vital for understanding brain functions, a connectivity-based whole-brain atlas of the macaque has not previously been made. In this study, we created a new whole-brain map, the Macaque Brainnetome Atlas (MacBNA), based on the anatomical connectivity profiles provided by high angular and spatial resolution ex vivo diffusion MRI data. The new atlas consists of 248 cortical and 56 subcortical regions as well as their structural and functional connections. The parcellation and the diffusion-based tractography were evaluated with invasive neuronal-tracing and Nissl-stained images. As a demonstrative application, the structural connectivity divergence between macaque and human brains was mapped using the Brainnetome atlases of those two species to uncover the genetic underpinnings of the evolutionary changes in brain structure. The resulting resource includes: (1) the thoroughly delineated Macaque Brainnetome Atlas (MacBNA), (2) regional connectivity profiles, (3) the postmortem high-resolution macaque diffusion and T2-weighted MRI dataset (Brainnetome-8), and (4) multi-contrast MRI, neuronal-tracing, and histological images collected from a single macaque. MacBNA can serve as a common reference frame for mapping multifaceted features across modalities and spatial scales and for integrative investigation and characterization of brain organization and function. Therefore, it will enrich the collaborative resource platform for nonhuman primates and facilitate translational and comparative neuroscience research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuheng Lu
- Brainnetome Center, Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China; School of Artificial Intelligence, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Yue Cui
- Brainnetome Center, Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Long Cao
- Henan Key Laboratory of Imaging and Intelligent Processing, PLA Strategic Support Force Information Engineering University, Zhengzhou 450001, China; Key Laboratory for NeuroInformation of the Ministry of Education, School of Life Science and Technology, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu 610054, China
| | - Zhenwei Dong
- Brainnetome Center, Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China; School of Artificial Intelligence, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Luqi Cheng
- Brainnetome Center, Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China; School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Guilin University of Electronic Technology, Guilin 541004, China; Research Center for Augmented Intelligence, Zhejiang Lab, Hangzhou 311100, China
| | - Wen Wu
- Research Center for Augmented Intelligence, Zhejiang Lab, Hangzhou 311100, China
| | - Changshuo Wang
- Brainnetome Center, Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China; Sino-Danish College, University of Chinese Academy of Science, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Xinyi Liu
- Brainnetome Center, Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China; School of Artificial Intelligence, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Youtong Liu
- Brainnetome Center, Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China; School of Artificial Intelligence, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Baogui Zhang
- Brainnetome Center, Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Deying Li
- Brainnetome Center, Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China; School of Artificial Intelligence, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Bokai Zhao
- Brainnetome Center, Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China; School of Artificial Intelligence, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Haiyan Wang
- Brainnetome Center, Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Kaixin Li
- Brainnetome Center, Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China; School of Mechanical and Power Engineering, Harbin University of Science and Technology, Harbin 150080, China
| | - Liang Ma
- Brainnetome Center, Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China; School of Artificial Intelligence, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Weiyang Shi
- Brainnetome Center, Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China; School of Artificial Intelligence, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Wen Li
- Brainnetome Center, Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Yawei Ma
- Brainnetome Center, Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China; Sino-Danish College, University of Chinese Academy of Science, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Zongchang Du
- Brainnetome Center, Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China; School of Artificial Intelligence, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Jiaqi Zhang
- Brainnetome Center, Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China; School of Artificial Intelligence, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Hui Xiong
- Brainnetome Center, Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Na Luo
- Brainnetome Center, Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Yanyan Liu
- Brainnetome Center, Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Xiaoxiao Hou
- Brainnetome Center, Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Jinglu Han
- Brainnetome Center, Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China; Sino-Danish College, University of Chinese Academy of Science, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Hongji Sun
- Brainnetome Center, Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Tao Cai
- Research Center for Augmented Intelligence, Zhejiang Lab, Hangzhou 311100, China
| | - Qiang Peng
- Research Center for Augmented Intelligence, Zhejiang Lab, Hangzhou 311100, China
| | - Linqing Feng
- Research Center for Augmented Intelligence, Zhejiang Lab, Hangzhou 311100, China
| | - Jiaojian Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Primate Biomedical Research, Institute of Primate Translational Medicine, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming 650500, China
| | - George Paxinos
- Neuroscience Research Australia and The University of New South Wales, Sydney NSW 2031, Australia
| | - Zhengyi Yang
- Brainnetome Center, Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China; Xiaoxiang Institute for Brain Health and Yongzhou Central Hospital, Yongzhou 425000, China.
| | - Lingzhong Fan
- Brainnetome Center, Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China; School of Artificial Intelligence, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China.
| | - Tianzi Jiang
- Brainnetome Center, Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China; School of Artificial Intelligence, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China; Research Center for Augmented Intelligence, Zhejiang Lab, Hangzhou 311100, China; Xiaoxiang Institute for Brain Health and Yongzhou Central Hospital, Yongzhou 425000, China.
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Zhang J, Zhao R, Lin S, Yang D, Lu S, Liu Z, Gao Y, Zhang Y, Hou B, Xi C, Liu J, Bing J, Pang E, Lin K, Zeng S. Comparison of genes involved in brain development: insights into the organization and evolution of the telencephalic pallium. Sci Rep 2024; 14:6102. [PMID: 38480729 PMCID: PMC10937912 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-51964-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2023] [Accepted: 01/11/2024] [Indexed: 03/17/2024] Open
Abstract
The mechanisms underlying the organization and evolution of the telencephalic pallium are not yet clear.. To address this issue, we first performed comparative analysis of genes critical for the development of the pallium (Emx1/2 and Pax6) and subpallium (Dlx2 and Nkx1/2) among 500 vertebrate species. We found that these genes have no obvious variations in chromosomal duplication/loss, gene locus synteny or Darwinian selection. However, there is an additional fragment of approximately 20 amino acids in mammalian Emx1 and a poly-(Ala)6-7 in Emx2. Lentiviruses expressing mouse or chick Emx2 (m-Emx2 or c-Emx2 Lv) were injected into the ventricle of the chick telencephalon at embryonic Day 3 (E3), and the embryos were allowed to develop to E12-14 or to posthatchling. After transfection with m-Emx2 Lv, the cells expressing Reelin, Vimentin or GABA increased, and neurogenesis of calbindin cells changed towards the mammalian inside-out pattern in the dorsal pallium and mesopallium. In addition, a behavior test for posthatched chicks indicated that the passive avoidance ratio increased significantly. The study suggests that the acquisition of an additional fragment in mammalian Emx2 is associated with the organization and evolution of the mammalian pallium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiangyan Zhang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Gene Resource and Molecular Development, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Rui Zhao
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Gene Resource and Molecular Development, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Shiying Lin
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Gene Resource and Molecular Development, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Dong Yang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering Drugs and Biological Technology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Shan Lu
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Gene Resource and Molecular Development, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Zenan Liu
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Gene Resource and Molecular Development, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Yuanyuan Gao
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Gene Resource and Molecular Development, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Yiyun Zhang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Gene Resource and Molecular Development, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Bing Hou
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Gene Resource and Molecular Development, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Chao Xi
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Gene Resource and Molecular Development, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Jin Liu
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Gene Resource and Molecular Development, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Jie Bing
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Gene Resource and Molecular Development, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Erli Pang
- MOE Key Laboratory for Biodiversity Science and Ecological Engineering, College of Life Sciences, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Kui Lin
- MOE Key Laboratory for Biodiversity Science and Ecological Engineering, College of Life Sciences, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China.
| | - Shaoju Zeng
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Gene Resource and Molecular Development, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China.
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Krockenberger MS, Saleh-Mattesich TO, Evrard HC. Cytoarchitectonic and connection stripes in the dysgranular insular cortex in the macaque monkey. J Comp Neurol 2023; 531:2019-2043. [PMID: 38105579 DOI: 10.1002/cne.25571] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2023] [Revised: 11/09/2023] [Accepted: 12/05/2023] [Indexed: 12/19/2023]
Abstract
The insula has been classically divided into broad granular, dysgranular, and agranular architectonic sectors. We previously proposed a novel partition, dividing each sector into four to seven sharply delimited architectonic areas, with the dysgranular areas being possibly further subdivided into subtle horizontal partitions or "stripes." In architectonics, discrete subparcellations are prone to subjective variability and need being supported with additional neuroanatomical methods. Here, using a secondary analysis of indirect connectional data in the rhesus macaque monkey, we examined the spatial relationship between the dysgranular architectonic stripes and tract-tracing labeling patterns produced in the insula with injections of neuronal tracers in other cortical regions. The injections consistently produced sharply delimited patches of anterograde and/or retrograde labeling, which formed stripes across consecutive coronal sections of the insula. While the overall pattern of labeling on individual coronal sections varied with the injection site, the boundaries of the patches consistently coincided with architectonic boundaries on an adjacent cyto- (Nissl) and/or myelo- (Gallyas) architectonic section. This overlap supports the existence of a fine dysgranular stripe-like partition of the primate insula, with possibly major implications for interoceptive processing in primates including humans. The modular organization of the insula could underlie a serial stream of integration from a dorsal primary interoceptive cortex toward progressively more ventral egocentric "self-agency" and allocentric "social" dysgranular processing units.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthias S Krockenberger
- Werner Reichardt Center for Integrative Neuroscience, Karl Eberhard University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Max Planck Institute for Biological Cybernetics, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Tatianna O Saleh-Mattesich
- Werner Reichardt Center for Integrative Neuroscience, Karl Eberhard University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Max Planck Institute for Biological Cybernetics, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Henry C Evrard
- Werner Reichardt Center for Integrative Neuroscience, Karl Eberhard University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Max Planck Institute for Biological Cybernetics, Tübingen, Germany
- International Center for Primate Brain Research (ICPBR), Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
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Han Z, Liu T, Shi Z, Zhang J, Suo D, Wang L, Chen D, Wu J, Yan T. Investigating the heterogeneity within the somatosensory-motor network and its relationship with the attention and default systems. PNAS NEXUS 2023; 2:pgad276. [PMID: 37693210 PMCID: PMC10485902 DOI: 10.1093/pnasnexus/pgad276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2023] [Revised: 06/23/2023] [Accepted: 08/14/2023] [Indexed: 09/12/2023]
Abstract
The somatosensory-motor network (SMN) not only plays an important role in primary somatosensory and motor processing but is also central to many disorders. However, the SMN heterogeneity related to higher-order systems still remains unclear. Here, we investigated SMN heterogeneity from multiple perspectives. To characterize the SMN substructures in more detail, we used ultra-high-field functional MRI to delineate a finer-grained cortical parcellation containing 430 parcels that is more homogenous than the state-of-the-art parcellation. We personalized the new parcellation to account for individual differences and identified multiscale individual-specific brain structures. We found that the SMN subnetworks showed distinct resting-state functional connectivity (RSFC) patterns. The Hand subnetwork was central within the SMN and exhibited stronger RSFC with the attention systems than the other subnetworks, whereas the Tongue subnetwork exhibited stronger RSFC with the default systems. This two-fold differentiation was observed in the temporal ordering patterns within the SMN. Furthermore, we characterized how the distinct attention and default streams were carried forward into the functions of the SMN using dynamic causal modeling and identified two behavioral domains associated with this SMN fractionation using meta-analytic tools. Overall, our findings provided important insights into the heterogeneous SMN organization at the system level and suggested that the Hand subnetwork may be preferentially involved in exogenous processes, whereas the Tongue subnetwork may be more important in endogenous processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ziteng Han
- School of Medical Technology, Beijing Institute of Technology, No. 5 South Zhongguancun Street, Haidian District, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Tiantian Liu
- School of Medical Technology, Beijing Institute of Technology, No. 5 South Zhongguancun Street, Haidian District, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Zhongyan Shi
- School of Medical Technology, Beijing Institute of Technology, No. 5 South Zhongguancun Street, Haidian District, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Jian Zhang
- School of Mechatronical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, No. 5 South Zhongguancun Street, Haidian District, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Dingjie Suo
- School of Medical Technology, Beijing Institute of Technology, No. 5 South Zhongguancun Street, Haidian District, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Li Wang
- School of Medical Technology, Beijing Institute of Technology, No. 5 South Zhongguancun Street, Haidian District, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Duanduan Chen
- School of Medical Technology, Beijing Institute of Technology, No. 5 South Zhongguancun Street, Haidian District, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Jinglong Wu
- School of Medical Technology, Beijing Institute of Technology, No. 5 South Zhongguancun Street, Haidian District, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Tianyi Yan
- School of Medical Technology, Beijing Institute of Technology, No. 5 South Zhongguancun Street, Haidian District, Beijing 100081, China
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Zhou Q, Li H, Yao S, Takahata T. Visual experience-dependent development of ocular dominance columns in pigmented rats. Cereb Cortex 2023; 33:9450-9464. [PMID: 37415464 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhad196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2022] [Revised: 05/13/2023] [Accepted: 05/15/2023] [Indexed: 07/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite previous agreement of the absence of cortical column structure in the rodent visual cortex, we have recently revealed a presence of ocular dominance columns (ODCs) in the primary visual cortex (V1) of adult Long-Evans rats. In this study, we deepened understanding of characteristics of rat ODCs. We found that this structure was conserved in Brown Norway rats, but not in albino rats; therefore, it could be a structure generally present in pigmented wild rats. Activity-dependent gene expression indicated that maturation of eye-dominant patches takes more than 2 weeks after eye-opening, and this process is visual experience dependent. Monocular deprivation during classical critical period strongly influenced size of ODCs, shifting ocular dominance from the deprived eye to the opened eye. On the other hand, transneuronal anterograde tracer showed a presence of eye-dominant patchy innervation from the ipsilateral V1 even before eye-opening, suggesting the presence of visual activity-independent genetic components of developing ODCs. Pigmented C57BL/6J mice also showed minor clusters of ocular dominance neurons. These results provide insights into how visual experience-dependent and experience-independent components both contribute to develop cortical columns during early postnatal stages, and indicate that rats and mice can be excellent models to study them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiuying Zhou
- Department of Neurology and Ophthalmology of the Second Affiliated Hospital, Interdisciplinary Institute of Neuroscience and Technology, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou 310029, P. R. China
| | - Hangqi Li
- Department of Neurology and Ophthalmology of the Second Affiliated Hospital, Interdisciplinary Institute of Neuroscience and Technology, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou 310029, P. R. China
- Key Laboratory for Biomedical Engineering of Ministry of Education, College of Biomedical Engineering and Instrument Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310029, P. R. China
| | - Songping Yao
- Department of Neurology and Ophthalmology of the Second Affiliated Hospital, Interdisciplinary Institute of Neuroscience and Technology, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou 310029, P. R. China
- Key Laboratory for Biomedical Engineering of Ministry of Education, College of Biomedical Engineering and Instrument Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310029, P. R. China
| | - Toru Takahata
- Department of Neurology and Ophthalmology of the Second Affiliated Hospital, Interdisciplinary Institute of Neuroscience and Technology, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou 310029, P. R. China
- Key Laboratory for Biomedical Engineering of Ministry of Education, College of Biomedical Engineering and Instrument Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310029, P. R. China
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Sanati S, Rouhani M, Hodtani GA. Information-theoretic analysis of Hierarchical Temporal Memory-Spatial Pooler algorithm with a new upper bound for the standard information bottleneck method. Front Comput Neurosci 2023; 17:1140782. [PMID: 37351534 PMCID: PMC10282945 DOI: 10.3389/fncom.2023.1140782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2023] [Accepted: 05/17/2023] [Indexed: 06/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Hierarchical Temporal Memory (HTM) is an unsupervised algorithm in machine learning. It models several fundamental neocortical computational principles. Spatial Pooler (SP) is one of the main components of the HTM, which continuously encodes streams of binary input from various layers and regions into sparse distributed representations. In this paper, the goal is to evaluate the sparsification in the SP algorithm from the perspective of information theory by the information bottleneck (IB), Cramer-Rao lower bound, and Fisher information matrix. This paper makes two main contributions. First, we introduce a new upper bound for the standard information bottleneck relation, which we refer to as modified-IB in this paper. This measure is used to evaluate the performance of the SP algorithm in different sparsity levels and various amounts of noise. The MNIST, Fashion-MNIST and NYC-Taxi datasets were fed to the SP algorithm separately. The SP algorithm with learning was found to be resistant to noise. Adding up to 40% noise to the input resulted in no discernible change in the output. Using the probabilistic mapping method and Hidden Markov Model, the sparse SP output representation was reconstructed in the input space. In the modified-IB relation, it is numerically calculated that a lower noise level and a higher sparsity level in the SP algorithm lead to a more effective reconstruction and SP with 2% sparsity produces the best results. Our second contribution is to prove mathematically that more sparsity leads to better performance of the SP algorithm. The data distribution was considered the Cauchy distribution, and the Cramer-Rao lower bound was analyzed to estimate SP's output at different sparsity levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiva Sanati
- Department of Computer Engineering, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Modjtaba Rouhani
- Department of Computer Engineering, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Ghosheh Abed Hodtani
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran
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Hickok G, Venezia J, Teghipco A. Beyond Broca: neural architecture and evolution of a dual motor speech coordination system. Brain 2023; 146:1775-1790. [PMID: 36746488 PMCID: PMC10411947 DOI: 10.1093/brain/awac454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2022] [Revised: 11/04/2022] [Accepted: 11/19/2022] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Classical neural architecture models of speech production propose a single system centred on Broca's area coordinating all the vocal articulators from lips to larynx. Modern evidence has challenged both the idea that Broca's area is involved in motor speech coordination and that there is only one coordination network. Drawing on a wide range of evidence, here we propose a dual speech coordination model in which laryngeal control of pitch-related aspects of prosody and song are coordinated by a hierarchically organized dorsolateral system while supralaryngeal articulation at the phonetic/syllabic level is coordinated by a more ventral system posterior to Broca's area. We argue further that these two speech production subsystems have distinguishable evolutionary histories and discuss the implications for models of language evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory Hickok
- Department of Cognitive Sciences, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
- Department of Language Science, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Jonathan Venezia
- Auditory Research Laboratory, VA Loma Linda Healthcare System, Loma Linda, CA 92357, USA
- Department of Otolaryngology—Head and Neck Surgery, Loma Linda University School of Medicine, Loma Linda, CA 92350, USA
| | - Alex Teghipco
- Department of Psychology, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA
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Vaccari FE, Diomedi S, Filippini M, Hadjidimitrakis K, Fattori P. New insights on single-neuron selectivity in the era of population-level approaches. Front Integr Neurosci 2022; 16:929052. [PMID: 36249900 PMCID: PMC9554653 DOI: 10.3389/fnint.2022.929052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2022] [Accepted: 09/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
In the past, neuroscience was focused on individual neurons seen as the functional units of the nervous system, but this approach fell short over time to account for new experimental evidence, especially for what concerns associative and motor cortices. For this reason and thanks to great technological advances, a part of modern research has shifted the focus from the responses of single neurons to the activity of neural ensembles, now considered the real functional units of the system. However, on a microscale, individual neurons remain the computational components of these networks, thus the study of population dynamics cannot prescind from studying also individual neurons which represent their natural substrate. In this new framework, ideas such as the capability of single cells to encode a specific stimulus (neural selectivity) may become obsolete and need to be profoundly revised. One step in this direction was made by introducing the concept of “mixed selectivity,” the capacity of single cells to integrate multiple variables in a flexible way, allowing individual neurons to participate in different networks. In this review, we outline the most important features of mixed selectivity and we also present recent works demonstrating its presence in the associative areas of the posterior parietal cortex. Finally, in discussing these findings, we present some open questions that could be addressed by future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Stefano Diomedi
- Department of Biomedical and Neuromotor Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Matteo Filippini
- Department of Biomedical and Neuromotor Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
- Alma Mater Research Institute for Human-Centered Artificial Intelligence, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
- *Correspondence: Patrizia Fattori
| | | | - Patrizia Fattori
- Department of Biomedical and Neuromotor Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
- Alma Mater Research Institute for Human-Centered Artificial Intelligence, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
- Matteo Filippini
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Barbas H, Zikopoulos B, John YJ. The inevitable inequality of cortical columns. Front Syst Neurosci 2022; 16:921468. [PMID: 36203745 PMCID: PMC9532056 DOI: 10.3389/fnsys.2022.921468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2022] [Accepted: 09/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The idea of columns as an organizing cortical unit emerged from physiologic studies in the sensory systems. Connectional studies and molecular markers pointed to widespread presence of modular label that necessitated revision of the classical concept of columns. The general principle of cortical systematic variation in laminar structure is at the core of cortical organization. Systematic variation can be traced to the phylogenetically ancient limbic cortices, which have the simplest laminar structure, and continues through eulaminate cortices that show sequential elaboration of their six layers. Connections are governed by relational rules, whereby columns or modules with a vertical organization represent the feedforward mode of communication from earlier- to later processing cortices. Conversely, feedback connections are laminar-based and connect later- with earlier processing areas; both patterns are established in development. Based on studies in primates, the columnar/modular pattern of communication appears to be newer in evolution, while the broadly based laminar pattern represents an older system. The graded variation of cortices entails a rich variety of patterns of connections into modules, layers, and mixed arrangements as the laminar and modular patterns of communication intersect in the cortex. This framework suggests an ordered architecture poised to facilitate seamless recruitment of areas in behavior, in patterns that are affected in diseases of developmental origin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helen Barbas
- Neural Systems Laboratory, Department of Health Sciences, Boston University, Boston, MA, United States
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, United States
- Graduate Program in Neuroscience, Boston University and School of Medicine, Boston, MA, United States
- *Correspondence: Helen Barbas,
| | - Basilis Zikopoulos
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, United States
- Graduate Program in Neuroscience, Boston University and School of Medicine, Boston, MA, United States
- Human Systems Neuroscience Laboratory, Department of Health Sciences, Boston University, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Yohan J. John
- Neural Systems Laboratory, Department of Health Sciences, Boston University, Boston, MA, United States
- Graduate Program in Neuroscience, Boston University and School of Medicine, Boston, MA, United States
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10
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Mir Y, Zalányi L, Pálfi E, Ashaber M, Roe AW, Friedman RM, Négyessy L. Modular Organization of Signal Transmission in Primate Somatosensory Cortex. Front Neuroanat 2022; 16:915238. [PMID: 35873660 PMCID: PMC9305200 DOI: 10.3389/fnana.2022.915238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2022] [Accepted: 06/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Axonal patches are known as the major sites of synaptic connections in the cerebral cortex of higher order mammals. However, the functional role of these patches is highly debated. Patches are formed by populations of nearby neurons in a topographic manner and are recognized as the termination fields of long-distance lateral connections within and between cortical areas. In addition, axons form numerous boutons that lie outside the patches, whose function is also unknown. To better understand the functional roles of these two distinct populations of boutons, we compared individual and collective morphological features of axons within and outside the patches of intra-areal, feedforward, and feedback pathways by way of tract tracing in the somatosensory cortex of New World monkeys. We found that, with the exception of tortuosity, which is an invariant property, bouton spacing and axonal convergence properties differ significantly between axons within patch and no-patch domains. Principal component analyses corroborated the clustering of axons according to patch formation without any additional effect by the type of pathway or laminar distribution. Stepwise logistic regression identified convergence and bouton density as the best predictors of patch formation. These findings support that patches are specific sites of axonal convergence that promote the synchronous activity of neuronal populations. On the other hand, no-patch domains could form a neuroanatomical substrate to diversify the responses of cortical neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaqub Mir
- Theoretical Neuroscience and Complex Systems Group, Department of Computational Sciences, Wigner Research Centre for Physics, Budapest, Hungary
- János Szentágothai Doctoral School of Neurosciences, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
- *Correspondence: Yaqub Mir
| | - László Zalányi
- Theoretical Neuroscience and Complex Systems Group, Department of Computational Sciences, Wigner Research Centre for Physics, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Emese Pálfi
- Department of Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Mária Ashaber
- California Institute of Technology, Department of Biology and Biological Engineering, Pasadena, CA, United States
| | - Anna W. Roe
- Division of Neuroscience, Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, OR, United States
- Interdisciplinary Institute of Neuroscience and Technology, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Biomedical Engineering of Ministry of Education, College of Biomedical Engineering and Instrument Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Robert M. Friedman
- Division of Neuroscience, Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, OR, United States
| | - László Négyessy
- Theoretical Neuroscience and Complex Systems Group, Department of Computational Sciences, Wigner Research Centre for Physics, Budapest, Hungary
- László Négyessy
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11
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Westerberg JA, Schall MS, Maier A, Woodman GF, Schall JD. Laminar microcircuitry of visual cortex producing attention-associated electric fields. eLife 2022; 11:72139. [PMID: 35089128 PMCID: PMC8846592 DOI: 10.7554/elife.72139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2021] [Accepted: 01/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Cognitive operations are widely studied by measuring electric fields through EEG and ECoG. However, despite their widespread use, the neural circuitry giving rise to these signals remains unknown because the functional architecture of cortical columns producing attention-associated electric fields has not been explored. Here, we detail the laminar cortical circuitry underlying an attention-associated electric field measured over posterior regions of the brain in humans and monkeys. First, we identified visual cortical area V4 as one plausible contributor to this attention-associated electric field through inverse modeling of cranial EEG in macaque monkeys performing a visual attention task. Next, we performed laminar neurophysiological recordings on the prelunate gyrus and identified the electric-field-producing dipoles as synaptic activity in distinct cortical layers of area V4. Specifically, activation in the extragranular layers of cortex resulted in the generation of the attention-associated dipole. Feature selectivity of a given cortical column determined the overall contribution to this electric field. Columns selective for the attended feature contributed more to the electric field than columns selective for a different feature. Last, the laminar profile of synaptic activity generated by V4 was sufficient to produce an attention-associated signal measurable outside of the column. These findings suggest that the top-down recipient cortical layers produce an attention-associated electric field that can be measured extracortically with the relative contribution of each column depending upon the underlying functional architecture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob A Westerberg
- Department of Psychology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, United States
| | - Michelle S Schall
- Department of Psychology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, United States
| | - Alexander Maier
- Department of Psychology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, United States
| | - Geoffrey F Woodman
- Department of Psychology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, United States
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12
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Rusch H, Brammerloh M, Stieler J, Sonntag M, Mohammadi S, Weiskopf N, Arendt T, Kirilina E, Morawski M. Finding the best clearing approach - Towards 3D wide-scale multimodal imaging of aged human brain tissue. Neuroimage 2021; 247:118832. [PMID: 34929383 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2021.118832] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2021] [Revised: 12/13/2021] [Accepted: 12/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The accessibility of new wide-scale multimodal imaging techniques led to numerous clearing techniques emerging over the last decade. However, clearing mesoscopic-sized blocks of aged human brain tissue remains an extremely challenging task. Homogenizing refractive indices and reducing light absorption and scattering are the foundation of tissue clearing. Due to its dense and highly myelinated nature, especially in white matter, the human brain poses particular challenges to clearing techniques. Here, we present a comparative study of seven tissue clearing approaches and their impact on aged human brain tissue blocks (> 5 mm). The goal was to identify the most practical and efficient method in regards to macroscopic transparency, brief clearing time, compatibility with immunohistochemical processing and wide-scale multimodal microscopic imaging. We successfully cleared 26 × 26 × 5 mm3-sized human brain samples with two hydrophilic and two hydrophobic clearing techniques. Optical properties as well as light and antibody penetration depths highly vary between these methods. In addition to finding the best clearing approach, we compared three microscopic imaging setups (the Zeiss Laser Scanning Microscope (LSM) 880 , the Miltenyi Biotec Ultramicroscope ll (UM ll) and the 3i Marianas LightSheet microscope) regarding optimal imaging of large-scale tissue samples. We demonstrate that combining the CLARITY technique (Clear Lipid-exchanged Acrylamide-hybridized Rigid Imaging compatible Tissue hYdrogel) with the Zeiss LSM 880 and combining the iDISCO technique (immunolabeling-enabled three-dimensional imaging of solvent-cleared organs) with the Miltenyi Biotec UM ll are the most practical and efficient approaches to sufficiently clear aged human brain tissue and generate 3D microscopic images. Our results point out challenges that arise from seven clearing and three imaging techniques applied to non-standardized tissue samples such as aged human brain tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henriette Rusch
- Paul Flechsig Institute of Brain Research, Medical Faculty, University of Leipzig, Liebigstraße 19, Leipzig 04103, Germany
| | - Malte Brammerloh
- Department of Neurophysics, Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Science, Stephanstraße 1a, Leipzig 04103, Germany; Felix Bloch Institute for Solid State Physics, Faculty of Physics and Earth Sciences, University of Leipzig, Linnéstraße 5, Leipzig 04103, Germany; International Max Planck Research School on Neuroscience of Communication: Function, Structure, and Plasticity, Stephanstraße 1a, Leipzig 04103, Germany
| | - Jens Stieler
- Paul Flechsig Institute of Brain Research, Medical Faculty, University of Leipzig, Liebigstraße 19, Leipzig 04103, Germany
| | - Mandy Sonntag
- Paul Flechsig Institute of Brain Research, Medical Faculty, University of Leipzig, Liebigstraße 19, Leipzig 04103, Germany
| | - Siawoosh Mohammadi
- Department of Neurophysics, Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Science, Stephanstraße 1a, Leipzig 04103, Germany; Institute of Systems Neuroscience, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Martinistraße 52, Hamburg 20246, Germany
| | - Nikolaus Weiskopf
- Department of Neurophysics, Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Science, Stephanstraße 1a, Leipzig 04103, Germany; Felix Bloch Institute for Solid State Physics, Faculty of Physics and Earth Sciences, University of Leipzig, Linnéstraße 5, Leipzig 04103, Germany
| | - Thomas Arendt
- Paul Flechsig Institute of Brain Research, Medical Faculty, University of Leipzig, Liebigstraße 19, Leipzig 04103, Germany
| | - Evgeniya Kirilina
- Department of Neurophysics, Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Science, Stephanstraße 1a, Leipzig 04103, Germany; Center for Cognitive Neuroscience Berlin, Free University Berlin, Habelschwerdter Allee 45, Berlin 14195, Germany
| | - Markus Morawski
- Paul Flechsig Institute of Brain Research, Medical Faculty, University of Leipzig, Liebigstraße 19, Leipzig 04103, Germany; Department of Neurophysics, Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Science, Stephanstraße 1a, Leipzig 04103, Germany.
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13
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Fulvi Mari C. Memory retrieval dynamics and storage capacity of a modular network model of association cortex with featural decomposition. Biosystems 2021; 211:104570. [PMID: 34801644 DOI: 10.1016/j.biosystems.2021.104570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2021] [Revised: 09/02/2021] [Accepted: 10/31/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The primate heteromodal cortex presents an evident functional modularity at a mesoscopic level, with physiological and anatomical evidence pointing to it as likely substrate of long-term memory. In order to investigate some of its properties, a model of multimodular autoassociator is studied. Each of the many modules represents a neocortical functional ensemble of recurrently connected neurons and operates as a Hebbian autoassociator, storing a number of local features which it can recall upon cue. The global memory patterns are made of combinations of features sparsely distributed across the modules. Intermodular connections are modelled as a finite-connectivity random graph. Any pair of features in any respective pair of modules is allowed to be involved in several memory patterns; the coarse-grained modular network dynamics is defined in such a way as to overcome the consequent ambiguity of associations. Effects of long-range homeostatic synaptic scaling on network performance are also assessed. The dynamical process of cued retrieval almost saturates a natural upper bound while producing negligible spurious activation. The extent of finite-size effects on storage capacity is quantitatively evaluated. In the limit of infinite size, the functional relationship between storage capacity and number of features per module reduces to that which other authors found by methods from equilibrium statistical mechanics, which suggests that the origin of the functional form is of a combinatorial nature. In contrast with its apparent inevitability at intramodular level, long-range synaptic scaling results to be of minor relevance to both retrieval and storage capacity, casting doubt on its existence in the neocortex. A conjecture is also posited about how statistical fluctuation of connectivity across the network may underpin spontaneous emergence of semantic hierarchies through learning.
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14
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Cao R, Pastukhov A, Aleshin S, Mattia M, Braun J. Binocular rivalry reveals an out-of-equilibrium neural dynamics suited for decision-making. eLife 2021; 10:61581. [PMID: 34369875 PMCID: PMC8352598 DOI: 10.7554/elife.61581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2020] [Accepted: 05/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
In ambiguous or conflicting sensory situations, perception is often ‘multistable’ in that it perpetually changes at irregular intervals, shifting abruptly between distinct alternatives. The interval statistics of these alternations exhibits quasi-universal characteristics, suggesting a general mechanism. Using binocular rivalry, we show that many aspects of this perceptual dynamics are reproduced by a hierarchical model operating out of equilibrium. The constitutive elements of this model idealize the metastability of cortical networks. Independent elements accumulate visual evidence at one level, while groups of coupled elements compete for dominance at another level. As soon as one group dominates perception, feedback inhibition suppresses supporting evidence. Previously unreported features in the serial dependencies of perceptual alternations compellingly corroborate this mechanism. Moreover, the proposed out-of-equilibrium dynamics satisfies normative constraints of continuous decision-making. Thus, multistable perception may reflect decision-making in a volatile world: integrating evidence over space and time, choosing categorically between hypotheses, while concurrently evaluating alternatives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robin Cao
- Cognitive Biology, Center for Behavioral Brain Sciences, Magdeburg, Germany.,Gatsby Computational Neuroscience Unit, London, United Kingdom.,Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | | | - Stepan Aleshin
- Cognitive Biology, Center for Behavioral Brain Sciences, Magdeburg, Germany
| | | | - Jochen Braun
- Cognitive Biology, Center for Behavioral Brain Sciences, Magdeburg, Germany
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15
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Wang Q, Liao C, Stepniewska I, Gabi M, Kaas JH. Cortical connections of the functional domain for climbing or running in posterior parietal cortex of galagos. J Comp Neurol 2021; 529:2789-2812. [PMID: 33550608 PMCID: PMC9885969 DOI: 10.1002/cne.25123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2020] [Revised: 02/01/2021] [Accepted: 02/02/2021] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Previous studies in prosimian galagos (Otolemur garnetti) have demonstrated that posterior parietal cortex (PPC) is subdivided into several functionally distinct domains, each of which mediates a specific type of complex movements (e.g., reaching, grasping, hand-to-mouth) and has a different pattern of cortical connections. Here we identified a medially located domain in PPC where combined forelimb and hindlimb movements, as if climbing or running, were evoked by long-train intracortical microstimulation. We injected anatomical tracers in this climbing/running domain of PPC to reveal its cortical connections. Our results showed the PPC climbing domain had dense intrinsic connections within rostral PPC and reciprocal connections with forelimb and hindlimb region in primary motor cortex (M1) of the ipsilateral hemisphere. Fewer connections were with dorsal premotor cortex (PMd), supplementary motor (SMA), and cingulate motor (CMA) areas, as well as somatosensory cortex including areas 3a, 3b, and 1-2, secondary somatosensory (S2), parietal ventral (PV), and retroinsular (Ri) areas. The rostral portion of the climbing domain had more connections with primary somatosensory cortex than the caudal portion. Cortical projections were found in functionally matched domains in M1 and premotor cortex (PMC). Similar patterns of connections with fewer labeled neurons and terminals were seen in the contralateral hemisphere. These connection patterns are consistent with the proposed role of the climbing/running domain as part of a parietal-frontal network for combined use of the limbs in locomotion as in climbing and running. The cortical connections identify this action-specific domain in PPC as a more somatosensory driven domain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qimeng Wang
- Department of Psychology Vanderbilt University Nashville Tennessee USA
| | - Chia‐Chi Liao
- Department of Psychology Vanderbilt University Nashville Tennessee USA
| | - Iwona Stepniewska
- Department of Psychology Vanderbilt University Nashville Tennessee USA
| | - Mariana Gabi
- Department of Psychology Vanderbilt University Nashville Tennessee USA
| | - Jon H. Kaas
- Department of Psychology Vanderbilt University Nashville Tennessee USA
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16
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Liang J, Wang SJ, Zhou C. Less is more: Wiring-economical modular networks support self-sustained firing-economical neural avalanches for efficient processing. Natl Sci Rev 2021; 9:nwab102. [PMID: 35355506 PMCID: PMC8962757 DOI: 10.1093/nsr/nwab102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2020] [Revised: 04/28/2021] [Accepted: 05/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The brain network is notably cost-efficient, while the fundamental physical and dynamic mechanisms underlying its economical optimization in network structure and activity have not been determined. In this study, we investigate the intricate cost-efficient interplay between structure and dynamics in biologically plausible spatial modular neuronal network models. We observe that critical avalanche states from excitation-inhibition balance under modular network topology with less wiring cost can also achieve lower costs in firing but with strongly enhanced response sensitivity to stimuli. We derive mean-field equations that govern the macroscopic network dynamics through a novel approximate theory. The mechanism of low firing cost and stronger response in the form of critical avalanches is explained as a proximity to a Hopf bifurcation of the modules when increasing their connection density. Our work reveals the generic mechanism underlying the cost-efficient modular organization and critical dynamics widely observed in neural systems, providing insights into brain-inspired efficient computational designs.
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17
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Meier AM, Wang Q, Ji W, Ganachaud J, Burkhalter A. Modular Network between Postrhinal Visual Cortex, Amygdala, and Entorhinal Cortex. J Neurosci 2021; 41:4809-4825. [PMID: 33849948 PMCID: PMC8260166 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.2185-20.2021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2020] [Revised: 04/02/2021] [Accepted: 04/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The postrhinal area (POR) is a known center for integrating spatial with nonspatial visual information and a possible hub for influencing landmark navigation by affective input from the amygdala. This may involve specific circuits within muscarinic acetylcholine receptor 2 (M2)-positive (M2+) or M2- modules of POR that associate inputs from the thalamus, cortex, and amygdala, and send outputs to the entorhinal cortex. Using anterograde and retrograde labeling with conventional and viral tracers in male and female mice, we found that all higher visual areas of the ventral cortical stream project to the amygdala, while such inputs are absent from primary visual cortex and dorsal stream areas. Unexpectedly for the presumed salt-and-pepper organization of mouse extrastriate cortex, tracing results show that inputs from the dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus and lateral posterior nucleus were spatially clustered in layer 1 (L1) and overlapped with M2+ patches of POR. In contrast, input from the amygdala to L1 of POR terminated in M2- interpatches. Importantly, the amygdalocortical input to M2- interpatches in L1 overlapped preferentially with spatially clustered apical dendrites of POR neurons projecting to amygdala and entorhinal area lateral, medial (ENTm). The results suggest that subnetworks in POR, used to build spatial maps for navigation, do not receive direct thalamocortical M2+ patch-targeting inputs. Instead, they involve local networks of M2- interpatches, which are influenced by affective information from the amygdala and project to ENTm, whose cells respond to visual landmark cues for navigation.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT A central purpose of visual object recognition is identifying the salience of objects and approaching or avoiding them. However, it is not currently known how the visual cortex integrates the multiple streams of information, including affective and navigational cues, which are required to accomplish this task. We find that in a higher visual area, the postrhinal cortex, the cortical sheet is divided into interdigitating modules receiving distinct inputs from visual and emotion-related sources. One of these modules is preferentially connected with the amygdala and provides outputs to entorhinal cortex, constituting a processing stream that may assign emotional salience to objects and landmarks for the guidance of goal-directed navigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew M Meier
- Department of Neuroscience, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri 63110
| | - Quanxin Wang
- Department of Neuroscience, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri 63110
| | - Weiqing Ji
- Department of Neuroscience, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri 63110
| | - Jehan Ganachaud
- Department of Neuroscience, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri 63110
| | - Andreas Burkhalter
- Department of Neuroscience, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri 63110
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18
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Rentzeperis I, van Leeuwen C. Adaptive Rewiring in Weighted Networks Shows Specificity, Robustness, and Flexibility. Front Syst Neurosci 2021; 15:580569. [PMID: 33737871 PMCID: PMC7960922 DOI: 10.3389/fnsys.2021.580569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2020] [Accepted: 02/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Brain network connections rewire adaptively in response to neural activity. Adaptive rewiring may be understood as a process which, at its every step, is aimed at optimizing the efficiency of signal diffusion. In evolving model networks, this amounts to creating shortcut connections in regions with high diffusion and pruning where diffusion is low. Adaptive rewiring leads over time to topologies akin to brain anatomy: small worlds with rich club and modular or centralized structures. We continue our investigation of adaptive rewiring by focusing on three desiderata: specificity of evolving model network architectures, robustness of dynamically maintained architectures, and flexibility of network evolution to stochastically deviate from specificity and robustness. Our adaptive rewiring model simulations show that specificity and robustness characterize alternative modes of network operation, controlled by a single parameter, the rewiring interval. Small control parameter shifts across a critical transition zone allow switching between the two modes. Adaptive rewiring exhibits greater flexibility for skewed, lognormal connection weight distributions than for normally distributed ones. The results qualify adaptive rewiring as a key principle of self-organized complexity in network architectures, in particular of those that characterize the variety of functional architectures in the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Cees van Leeuwen
- Brain and Cognition Research Unit, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
- Department of Cognitive and Developmental Psychology, University of Technology Kaiserslautern, Kaiserslautern, Germany
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19
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Franchini LF. Genetic Mechanisms Underlying Cortical Evolution in Mammals. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:591017. [PMID: 33659245 PMCID: PMC7917222 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.591017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2020] [Accepted: 01/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The remarkable sensory, motor, and cognitive abilities of mammals mainly depend on the neocortex. Thus, the emergence of the six-layered neocortex in reptilian ancestors of mammals constitutes a fundamental evolutionary landmark. The mammalian cortex is a columnar epithelium of densely packed cells organized in layers where neurons are generated mainly in the subventricular zone in successive waves throughout development. Newborn cells move away from their site of neurogenesis through radial or tangential migration to reach their specific destination closer to the pial surface of the same or different cortical area. Interestingly, the genetic programs underlying neocortical development diversified in different mammalian lineages. In this work, I will review several recent studies that characterized how distinct transcriptional programs relate to the development and functional organization of the neocortex across diverse mammalian lineages. In some primates such as the anthropoids, the neocortex became extremely large, especially in humans where it comprises around 80% of the brain. It has been hypothesized that the massive expansion of the cortical surface and elaboration of its connections in the human lineage, has enabled our unique cognitive capacities including abstract thinking, long-term planning, verbal language and elaborated tool making capabilities. I will also analyze the lineage-specific genetic changes that could have led to the modification of key neurodevelopmental events, including regulation of cell number, neuronal migration, and differentiation into specific phenotypes, in order to shed light on the evolutionary mechanisms underlying the diversity of mammalian brains including the human brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucía Florencia Franchini
- Instituto de Investigaciones en Ingeniería Genética y Biología Molecular (INGEBI), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
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20
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Maier A, Tsuchiya N. Growing evidence for separate neural mechanisms for attention and consciousness. Atten Percept Psychophys 2021; 83:558-576. [PMID: 33034851 PMCID: PMC7886945 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-020-02146-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/08/2020] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Our conscious experience of the world seems to go in lockstep with our attentional focus: We tend to see, hear, taste, and feel what we attend to, and vice versa. This tight coupling between attention and consciousness has given rise to the idea that these two phenomena are indivisible. In the late 1950s, the honoree of this special issue, Charles Eriksen, was among a small group of early pioneers that sought to investigate whether a transient increase in overall level of attention (alertness) in response to a noxious stimulus can be decoupled from conscious perception using experimental techniques. Recent years saw a similar debate regarding whether attention and consciousness are two dissociable processes. Initial evidence that attention and consciousness are two separate processes primarily rested on behavioral data. However, the past couple of years witnessed an explosion of studies aimed at testing this conjecture using neuroscientific techniques. Here we provide an overview of these and related empirical studies on the distinction between the neuronal correlates of attention and consciousness, and detail how advancements in theory and technology can bring about a more detailed understanding of the two. We argue that the most promising approach will combine ever-evolving neurophysiological and interventionist tools with quantitative, empirically testable theories of consciousness that are grounded in a mathematically formalized understanding of phenomenology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Maier
- Department of Psychology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA.
| | - Naotsugu Tsuchiya
- Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health & School of Psychological Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Nursing, and Health Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- Center for Information and Neural Networks (CiNet), National Institute of Information and Communications Technology (NICT), Suita, Osaka, 565-0871, Japan
- Advanced Telecommunications Research Computational Neuroscience Laboratories, 2-2-2 Hikaridai, Seika-cho, Soraku-gun, Kyoto, 619-0288, Japan
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21
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Ho CLA, Zimmermann R, Flórez Weidinger JD, Prsa M, Schottdorf M, Merlin S, Okamoto T, Ikezoe K, Pifferi F, Aujard F, Angelucci A, Wolf F, Huber D. Orientation Preference Maps in Microcebus murinus Reveal Size-Invariant Design Principles in Primate Visual Cortex. Curr Biol 2020; 31:733-741.e7. [PMID: 33275889 PMCID: PMC9026768 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2020.11.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2020] [Revised: 10/08/2020] [Accepted: 11/11/2020] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Orientation preference maps (OPMs) are a prominent feature of primary visual cortex (V1) organization in many primates and carnivores. In rodents, neurons are not organized in OPMs but are instead interspersed in a “salt and pepper” fashion, although clusters of orientation-selective neurons have been reported. Does this fundamental difference reflect the existence of a lower size limit for orientation columns (OCs) below which they cannot be scaled down with decreasing V1 size? To address this question, we examined V1 of one of the smallest living primates, the 60-g prosimian mouse lemur (Microcebus murinus). Using chronic intrinsic signal imaging, we found that mouse lemur V1 contains robust OCs, which are arranged in a pinwheel-like fashion. OC size in mouse lemurs was found to be only marginally smaller compared to the macaque, suggesting that these circuit elements are nearly incompressible. The spatial arrangement of pinwheels is well described by a common mathematical design of primate V1 circuit organization. In order to accommodate OPMs, we found that the mouse lemur V1 covers one-fifth of the cortical surface, which is one of the largest V1-to-cortex ratios found in primates. These results indicate that the primate-type visual cortical circuit organization is constrained by a size limitation and raises the possibility that its emergence might have evolved by disruptive innovation rather than gradual change. Orientation preference maps are a hallmark of V1 organization in all primates studied thus far, yet they are absent in rodents. It is uncertain whether these structures scale with body or brain size. Using intrinsic signal imaging, Ho et al. reveal the presence of such maps in the V1 of the world’s smallest primate, the mouse lemur (Microcebus murinus).
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Affiliation(s)
- Chun Lum Andy Ho
- University of Geneva, Department of Basic Neurosciences, Rue Michel Servet 1, Geneva 1211, Switzerland
| | - Robert Zimmermann
- University of Geneva, Department of Basic Neurosciences, Rue Michel Servet 1, Geneva 1211, Switzerland
| | | | - Mario Prsa
- University of Geneva, Department of Basic Neurosciences, Rue Michel Servet 1, Geneva 1211, Switzerland
| | - Manuel Schottdorf
- Max Planck Institute for Dynamics and Self-Organization, Am Faßberg 17, Göttingen 37077, Germany
| | - Sam Merlin
- Moran Eye Center, University of Utah, Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, 65 Mario Capecchi Drive, Salt Lake City, UT 84132, USA
| | - Tsuyoshi Okamoto
- Kyushu University, Faculty of Arts and Science, 744 Motooka Nishi-ku, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan
| | - Koji Ikezoe
- Center for Information and Neural Networks, Osaka University and National Institute of Information and Communications Technology, Graduate School of Frontier Biosciences, 1-3 Yamadaoka Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Fabien Pifferi
- UMR CNRS/MNHN 7179, Mécanismes Adaptatifs et Evolution, 1 Avenue du Petit Chateau, Brunoy 91800, France
| | - Fabienne Aujard
- UMR CNRS/MNHN 7179, Mécanismes Adaptatifs et Evolution, 1 Avenue du Petit Chateau, Brunoy 91800, France
| | - Alessandra Angelucci
- Moran Eye Center, University of Utah, Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, 65 Mario Capecchi Drive, Salt Lake City, UT 84132, USA
| | - Fred Wolf
- Max Planck Institute for Dynamics and Self-Organization, Am Faßberg 17, Göttingen 37077, Germany; Campus Institute for Dynamics of Biological Networks, Hermann-Rein-Straße 3, Göttingen 37075, Germany; Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience, Hermann-Rein-Straße 3, Göttingen 37075, Germany; Max Planck Institute of Experimental Medicine, Hermann-Rein-Straße 3, Göttingen 37075, Germany; Institute for Dynamics of Complex Systems, Georg-August University, Friedrich-Hund-Platz 1, Göttingen 37073, Germany
| | - Daniel Huber
- University of Geneva, Department of Basic Neurosciences, Rue Michel Servet 1, Geneva 1211, Switzerland.
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22
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Torres D, Makarova J, Ortuño T, Benito N, Makarov VA, Herreras O. Local and Volume-Conducted Contributions to Cortical Field Potentials. Cereb Cortex 2020; 29:5234-5254. [PMID: 30941394 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhz061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2018] [Revised: 02/14/2019] [Accepted: 02/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Brain field potentials (FPs) can reach far from their sources, making difficult to know which waves come from where. We show that modern algorithms efficiently segregate the local and remote contributions to cortical FPs by recovering the generator-specific spatial voltage profiles. We investigated experimentally and numerically the local and remote origin of FPs in different cortical areas in anesthetized rats. All cortices examined show significant state, layer, and region dependent contribution of remote activity, while the voltage profiles help identify their subcortical or remote cortical origin. Co-activation of different cortical modules can be discriminated by the distinctive spatial features of the corresponding profiles. All frequency bands contain remote activity, thus influencing the FP time course, in cases drastically. The reach of different FP patterns is boosted by spatial coherence and curved geometry of the sources. For instance, slow cortical oscillations reached the entire brain, while hippocampal theta reached only some portions of the cortex. In anterior cortices, most alpha oscillations have a remote origin, while in the visual cortex the remote theta and gamma even surpass the local contribution. The quantitative approach to local and distant FP contributions helps to refine functional connectivity among cortical regions, and their relation to behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Torres
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, Cajal Institute - CSIC, Av. Dr. Arce 37, Madrid, Spain
| | - Julia Makarova
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, Cajal Institute - CSIC, Av. Dr. Arce 37, Madrid, Spain
| | - Tania Ortuño
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, Cajal Institute - CSIC, Av. Dr. Arce 37, Madrid, Spain
| | - Nuria Benito
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, Cajal Institute - CSIC, Av. Dr. Arce 37, Madrid, Spain
| | - Valeri A Makarov
- Instituto de Matemática Interdisciplinar, Faculty of Mathematics, Universidad, Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain.,N.I. Lobachevsky State University of Nizhny Novgorod, Nizhny Novgorod, Russia
| | - Oscar Herreras
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, Cajal Institute - CSIC, Av. Dr. Arce 37, Madrid, Spain
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23
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Self-organization of cortical areas in the development and evolution of neocortex. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2020; 117:29212-29220. [PMID: 33139564 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2011724117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
While the mechanisms generating the topographic organization of primary sensory areas in the neocortex are well studied, what generates secondary cortical areas is virtually unknown. Using physical parameters representing primary and secondary visual areas as they vary from monkey to mouse, we derived a network growth model to explore if characteristic features of secondary areas could be produced from correlated activity patterns arising from V1 alone. We found that V1 seeded variable numbers of secondary areas based on activity-driven wiring and wiring-density limits within the cortical surface. These secondary areas exhibited the typical mirror-reversal of map topography on cortical area boundaries and progressive reduction of the area and spatial resolution of each new map on the caudorostral axis. Activity-based map formation may be the basic mechanism that establishes the matrix of topographically organized cortical areas available for later computational specialization.
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24
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Chizhov A, Merkulyeva N. Refractory density model of cortical direction selectivity: Lagged-nonlagged, transient-sustained, and On-Off thalamic neuron-based mechanisms and intracortical amplification. PLoS Comput Biol 2020; 16:e1008333. [PMID: 33052899 PMCID: PMC7605712 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1008333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2020] [Revised: 11/02/2020] [Accepted: 09/12/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
A biophysically detailed description of the mechanisms of the primary vision is still being developed. We have incorporated a simplified, filter-based description of retino-thalamic visual signal processing into the detailed, conductance-based refractory density description of the neuronal population activity of the primary visual cortex. We compared four mechanisms of the direction selectivity (DS), three of them being based on asymmetrical projections of different types of thalamic neurons to the cortex, distinguishing between (i) lagged and nonlagged, (ii) transient and sustained, and (iii) On and Off neurons. The fourth mechanism implies a lack of subcortical bias and is an epiphenomenon of intracortical interactions between orientation columns. The simulations of the cortical response to moving gratings have verified that first three mechanisms provide DS to an extent compared with experimental data and that the biophysical model realistically reproduces characteristics of the visual cortex activity, such as membrane potential, firing rate, and synaptic conductances. The proposed model reveals the difference between the mechanisms of both the intact and the silenced cortex, favoring the second mechanism. In the fourth case, DS is weaker but significant; it completely vanishes in the silenced cortex.DS in the On-Off mechanism derives from the nonlinear interactions within the orientation map. Results of simulations can help to identify a prevailing mechanism of DS in V1. This is a step towards a comprehensive biophysical modeling of the primary visual system in the frameworks of the population rate coding concept. A major mechanism that underlies tuning of cortical neurons to the direction of a moving stimulus is still debated. Considering the visual cortex structured with orientation-selective columns, we have realized and compared in our biophysically detailed mathematical model four hypothetical mechanisms of the direction selectivity (DS) known from experiments. The present model accomplishes our previous model that was tuned to experimental data on excitability in slices and reproduces orientation tuning effects in vivo. In simulations, we have found that the convergence of inputs from so-called transient and sustained (or lagged and nonlagged) thalamic neurons in the cortex provides an initial bias for DS, whereas cortical interactions amplify the tuning. In the absence of any bias, DS emerges as an epiphenomenon of the orientation map. In the case of a biased convergence of On- and Off- thalamic inputs, DS emerges with the help of the intracortical interactions on the orientation map, also. Thus, we have proposed a comprehensive description of the primary vision and revealed characteristic features of different mechanisms of DS in the visual cortex with columnar structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anton Chizhov
- Ioffe Institute, St.-Petersburg, Russia
- Sechenov Institute of Evolutionary Physiology and Biochemistry of RAS, St.-Petersburg, Russia
- * E-mail:
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25
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Irwin LN, Irwin BA. Place and Environment in the Ongoing Evolution of Cognitive Neuroscience. J Cogn Neurosci 2020; 32:1837-1850. [PMID: 32662725 DOI: 10.1162/jocn_a_01607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Cognitive science today increasingly is coming under the influence of embodied, embedded, extended, and enactive perspectives, superimposed on the more traditional cybernetic, computational assumptions of classical cognitive research. Neuroscience has contributed to a greatly enhanced understanding of brain function within the constraints of the traditional cognitive science approach, but interpretations of many of its findings can be enriched by the newer alternative perspectives. Here, we note in particular how these frameworks highlight the cognitive requirements of an animal situated within its particular environment, how the coevolution of an organism's biology and ecology shape its cognitive characteristics, and how the cognitive realm extends beyond the brain of the perceiving animal. We argue that these insights of the embodied cognition paradigm reveal the central role that "place" plays in the cognitive landscape and that cognitive scientists and philosophers alike can gain from paying heed to the importance of a concept of place. We conclude with a discussion of how this concept can be applied with respect to cognitive function, species comparisons, ecologically relevant experimental designs, and how the "hard problem" of consciousness might be approached, among its other implications.
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26
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Roe AW, Chen G, Xu AG, Hu J. A roadmap to a columnar visual cortical prosthetic. CURRENT OPINION IN PHYSIOLOGY 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cophys.2020.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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27
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Rentzeperis I, van Leeuwen C. Adaptive rewiring evolves brain-like structure in weighted networks. Sci Rep 2020; 10:6075. [PMID: 32269235 PMCID: PMC7142112 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-62204-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2019] [Accepted: 03/06/2020] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Activity-dependent plasticity refers to a range of mechanisms for adaptively reshaping neuronal connections. We model their common principle in terms of adaptive rewiring of network connectivity, while representing neural activity by diffusion on the network: Where diffusion is intensive, shortcut connections are established, while underused connections are pruned. In binary networks, this process is known to steer initially random networks robustly to high levels of structural complexity, reflecting the global characteristics of brain anatomy: modular or centralized small world topologies. We investigate whether this result extends to more realistic, weighted networks. Both normally- and lognormally-distributed weighted networks evolve either modular or centralized topologies. Which of these prevails depends on a single control parameter, representing global homeostatic or normalizing regulation mechanisms. Intermediate control parameter values exhibit the greatest levels of network complexity, incorporating both modular and centralized tendencies. The simulation results allow us to propose diffusion based adaptive rewiring as a parsimonious model for activity-dependent reshaping of brain connectivity structure.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Cees van Leeuwen
- KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.,University of Technology Kaiserslautern, Kaiserslautern, Germany
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28
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Hartenstein V, Omoto JJ, Lovick JK. The role of cell lineage in the development of neuronal circuitry and function. Dev Biol 2020; 475:165-180. [PMID: 32017903 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2020.01.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2018] [Revised: 01/23/2020] [Accepted: 01/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Complex nervous systems have a modular architecture, whereby reiterative groups of neurons ("modules") that share certain structural and functional properties are integrated into large neural circuits. Neurons develop from proliferating progenitor cells that, based on their location and time of appearance, are defined by certain genetic programs. Given that genes expressed by a given progenitor play a fundamental role in determining the properties of its lineage (i.e., the neurons descended from that progenitor), one efficient developmental strategy would be to have lineages give rise to the structural modules of the mature nervous system. It is clear that this strategy plays an important role in neural development of many invertebrate animals, notably insects, where the availability of genetic techniques has made it possible to analyze the precise relationship between neuronal origin and differentiation since several decades. Similar techniques, developed more recently in the vertebrate field, reveal that functional modules of the mammalian cerebral cortex are also likely products of developmentally defined lineages. We will review studies that relate cell lineage to circuitry and function from a comparative developmental perspective, aiming at enhancing our understanding of neural progenitors and their lineages, and translating findings acquired in different model systems into a common conceptual framework.
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Affiliation(s)
- Volker Hartenstein
- Department of Molecular Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA.
| | - Jaison J Omoto
- Department of Molecular Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Jennifer K Lovick
- Department of Molecular Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
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29
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Seitzman BA, Gratton C, Marek S, Raut RV, Dosenbach NUF, Schlaggar BL, Petersen SE, Greene DJ. A set of functionally-defined brain regions with improved representation of the subcortex and cerebellum. Neuroimage 2020; 206:116290. [PMID: 31634545 PMCID: PMC6981071 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2019.116290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2019] [Revised: 10/15/2019] [Accepted: 10/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
An important aspect of network-based analysis is robust node definition. This issue is critical for functional brain network analyses, as poor node choice can lead to spurious findings and misleading inferences about functional brain organization. Two sets of functional brain nodes from our group are well represented in the literature: (1) 264 volumetric regions of interest (ROIs) reported in Power et al., 2011, and (2) 333 cortical surface parcels reported in Gordon et al., 2016. However, subcortical and cerebellar structures are either incompletely captured or missing from these ROI sets. Therefore, properties of functional network organization involving the subcortex and cerebellum may be underappreciated thus far. Here, we apply a winner-take-all partitioning method to resting-state fMRI data to generate novel functionally-constrained ROIs in the thalamus, basal ganglia, amygdala, hippocampus, and cerebellum. We validate these ROIs in three datasets using several criteria, including agreement with existing literature and anatomical atlases. Further, we demonstrate that combining these ROIs with established cortical ROIs recapitulates and extends previously described functional network organization. This new set of ROIs is made publicly available for general use, including a full list of MNI coordinates and functional network labels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin A Seitzman
- Department of Neurology, Washington University in St. Louis- School of Medicine, 660 S Euclid Ave, St. Louis, MO, 63110, USA.
| | - Caterina Gratton
- Department of Neurology, Washington University in St. Louis- School of Medicine, 660 S Euclid Ave, St. Louis, MO, 63110, USA.
| | - Scott Marek
- Department of Neurology, Washington University in St. Louis- School of Medicine, 660 S Euclid Ave, St. Louis, MO, 63110, USA.
| | - Ryan V Raut
- Department of Radiology, Washington University in St. Louis- School of Medicine, 660 S Euclid Ave, St. Louis, MO, 63110, USA.
| | - Nico U F Dosenbach
- Department of Neurology, Washington University in St. Louis- School of Medicine, 660 S Euclid Ave, St. Louis, MO, 63110, USA; Department of Radiology, Washington University in St. Louis- School of Medicine, 660 S Euclid Ave, St. Louis, MO, 63110, USA; Department of Pediatrics, Washington University in St. Louis- School of Medicine, 660 S Euclid Ave, St. Louis, MO, 63110, USA; Department of Occupational Therapy, Washington University in St. Louis- School of Medicine, 660 S Euclid Ave, St. Louis, MO, 63110, USA; Department of Biomedical Engineering, Washington University in St. Louis- School of Engineering and Applied Science, One Brookings Dr, St. Louis, MO, 63130, USA.
| | - Bradley L Schlaggar
- Department of Neurology, Washington University in St. Louis- School of Medicine, 660 S Euclid Ave, St. Louis, MO, 63110, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Washington University in St. Louis- School of Medicine, 660 S Euclid Ave, St. Louis, MO, 63110, USA; Department of Radiology, Washington University in St. Louis- School of Medicine, 660 S Euclid Ave, St. Louis, MO, 63110, USA; Department of Pediatrics, Washington University in St. Louis- School of Medicine, 660 S Euclid Ave, St. Louis, MO, 63110, USA; Department of Neuroscience, Washington University in St. Louis- School of Medicine, 660 S Euclid Ave, St. Louis, MO, 63110, USA.
| | - Steven E Petersen
- Department of Neurology, Washington University in St. Louis- School of Medicine, 660 S Euclid Ave, St. Louis, MO, 63110, USA; Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Washington University in St. Louis, One Brookings Dr, St. Louis, MO, 63130, USA; Department of Radiology, Washington University in St. Louis- School of Medicine, 660 S Euclid Ave, St. Louis, MO, 63110, USA; Department of Neuroscience, Washington University in St. Louis- School of Medicine, 660 S Euclid Ave, St. Louis, MO, 63110, USA; Department of Biomedical Engineering, Washington University in St. Louis- School of Engineering and Applied Science, One Brookings Dr, St. Louis, MO, 63130, USA.
| | - Deanna J Greene
- Department of Psychiatry, Washington University in St. Louis- School of Medicine, 660 S Euclid Ave, St. Louis, MO, 63110, USA; Department of Radiology, Washington University in St. Louis- School of Medicine, 660 S Euclid Ave, St. Louis, MO, 63110, USA.
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30
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Abstract
A defining aspect of brain organization is its spatial heterogeneity, which gives rise to multiple topographies at different scales. Brain parcellation - defining distinct partitions in the brain, be they areas or networks that comprise multiple discontinuous but closely interacting regions - is thus fundamental for understanding brain organization and function. The past decade has seen an explosion of in vivo MRI-based approaches to identify and parcellate the brain on the basis of a wealth of different features, ranging from local properties of brain tissue to long-range connectivity patterns, in addition to structural and functional markers. Given the high diversity of these various approaches, assessing the convergence and divergence among these ensuing maps is a challenge. Inter-individual variability adds to this challenge but also provides new opportunities when coupled with cross-species and developmental parcellation studies.
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31
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Miller DJ, Bhaduri A, Sestan N, Kriegstein A. Shared and derived features of cellular diversity in the human cerebral cortex. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2019; 56:117-124. [PMID: 30677551 PMCID: PMC6996583 DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2018.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2018] [Revised: 12/11/2018] [Accepted: 12/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The cerebral cortex is the hallmark of the mammalian nervous system, and its large size and cellular diversity in humans support our most sophisticated cognitive abilities. Although the basic cellular organization of the cortex is conserved across mammals, cells have diversified during evolution. An increasingly integrated taxonomy of cell types, especially with the advent of single-cell transcriptomic data, has revealed an unprecedented variety of human cortical cell subtypes. Here, we broadly review the cellular composition and diversity of the mammalian brain, and how progenitor pools generate cell subtypes during development. We then discuss human cortical cells that are distinct from rodent cells, as well as the challenges and advantages of using model systems to study human cell types in health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J Miller
- Department of Neuroscience and Kavli Institute for Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Aparna Bhaduri
- Department of Neurology and the Eli and Edythe Broad Center for Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research at the University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Nenad Sestan
- Department of Neuroscience and Kavli Institute for Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA; Departments of Genetics, of Psychiatry, and of Comparative Medicine, Program in Cellular Neuroscience, Neurodegeneration and Repair, Yale Child Study Center, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA.
| | - Arnold Kriegstein
- Department of Neurology and the Eli and Edythe Broad Center for Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research at the University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA.
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32
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Kaas JH. The origin and evolution of neocortex: From early mammals to modern humans. PROGRESS IN BRAIN RESEARCH 2019; 250:61-81. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.pbr.2019.03.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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33
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Moore B, Li K, Kaas JH, Liao CC, Boal AM, Mavity-Hudson J, Casagrande V. Cortical projections to the two retinotopic maps of primate pulvinar are distinct. J Comp Neurol 2018; 527:577-588. [PMID: 30078198 DOI: 10.1002/cne.24515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2018] [Revised: 07/20/2018] [Accepted: 07/23/2018] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Comprised of at least five distinct nuclei, the pulvinar complex of primates includes two large visually driven nuclei; one in the dorsal (lateral) pulvinar and one in the ventral (inferior) pulvinar, that contain similar retinotopic representations of the contralateral visual hemifield. Both nuclei also appear to have similar connections with areas of visual cortex. Here we determined the cortical connections of these two nuclei in galagos, members of the stepsirrhine primate radiation, to see if the nuclei differed in ways that could support differences in function. Injections of different retrograde tracers in each nucleus produced similar patterns of labeled neurons, predominately in layer 6 of V1, V2, V3, MT, regions of temporal cortex, and other visual areas. More complete labeling of neurons with a modified rabies virus identified these neurons as pyramidal cells with apical dendrites extending into superficial cortical layers. Importantly, the distributions of cortical neurons projecting to each of the two nuclei were highly overlapping, but formed separate populations. Sparse populations of double-labeled neurons were found in both V1 and V2 but were very low in number (<0.1%). Finally, the labeled cortical neurons were predominately in layer 6, and layer 5 neurons were labeled only in extrastriate areas. Terminations of pulvinar projections to area 17 was largely in superficial cortical layers, especially layer 1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandon Moore
- Vanderbilt Brain Institute, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Keji Li
- Vanderbilt Brain Institute, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee.,Department of Cellular and Developmental Biology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Jon H Kaas
- Vanderbilt Brain Institute, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee.,Department of Psychology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Chia-Chi Liao
- Department of Psychology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Andrew M Boal
- Vanderbilt Brain Institute, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee
| | | | - Vivien Casagrande
- Vanderbilt Brain Institute, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee.,Department of Cellular and Developmental Biology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee.,Department of Psychology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee
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34
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Hegdé J. Neural Mechanisms of High-Level Vision. Compr Physiol 2018; 8:903-953. [PMID: 29978891 DOI: 10.1002/cphy.c160035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
The last three decades have seen major strides in our understanding of neural mechanisms of high-level vision, or visual cognition of the world around us. Vision has also served as a model system for the study of brain function. Several broad insights, as yet incomplete, have recently emerged. First, visual perception is best understood not as an end unto itself, but as a sensory process that subserves the animal's behavioral goal at hand. Visual perception is likely to be simply a side effect that reflects the readout of visual information processing that leads to behavior. Second, the brain is essentially a probabilistic computational system that produces behaviors by collectively evaluating, not necessarily consciously or always optimally, the available information about the outside world received from the senses, the behavioral goals, prior knowledge about the world, and possible risks and benefits of a given behavior. Vision plays a prominent role in the overall functioning of the brain providing the lion's share of information about the outside world. Third, the visual system does not function in isolation, but rather interacts actively and reciprocally with other brain systems, including other sensory faculties. Finally, various regions of the visual system process information not in a strict hierarchical manner, but as parts of various dynamic brain-wide networks, collectively referred to as the "connectome." Thus, a full understanding of vision will ultimately entail understanding, in granular, quantitative detail, various aspects of dynamic brain networks that use visual sensory information to produce behavior under real-world conditions. © 2017 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 8:903-953, 2018.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jay Hegdé
- Brain and Behavior Discovery Institute, Augusta University, Augusta, Georgia, USA.,James and Jean Culver Vision Discovery Institute, Augusta University, Augusta, Georgia, USA.,Department of Ophthalmology, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University, Augusta, Georgia, USA.,The Graduate School, Augusta University, Augusta, Georgia, USA
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35
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Plebe A. The search of "canonical" explanations for the cerebral cortex. HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF THE LIFE SCIENCES 2018; 40:40. [PMID: 29905901 DOI: 10.1007/s40656-018-0205-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2017] [Accepted: 06/07/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
This paper addresses a fundamental line of research in neuroscience: the identification of a putative neural processing core of the cerebral cortex, often claimed to be "canonical". This "canonical" core would be shared by the entire cortex, and would explain why it is so powerful and diversified in tasks and functions, yet so uniform in architecture. The purpose of this paper is to analyze the search for canonical explanations over the past 40 years, discussing the theoretical frameworks informing this research. It will highlight a bias that, in my opinion, has limited the success of this research project, that of overlooking the dimension of cortical development. The earliest explanation of the cerebral cortex as canonical was attempted by David Marr, deriving putative cortical circuits from general mathematical laws, loosely following a deductive-nomological account. Although Marr's theory turned out to be incorrect, one of its merits was to have put the issue of cortical circuit development at the top of his agenda. This aspect has been largely neglected in much of the research on canonical models that has followed. Models proposed in the 1980s were conceived as mechanistic. They identified a small number of components that interacted as a basic circuit, with each component defined as a function. More recent models have been presented as idealized canonical computations, distinct from mechanistic explanations, due to the lack of identifiable cortical components. Currently, the entire enterprise of coming up with a single canonical explanation has been criticized as being misguided, and the premise of the uniformity of the cortex has been strongly challenged. This debate is analyzed here. The legacy of the canonical circuit concept is reflected in both positive and negative ways in recent large-scale brain projects, such as the Human Brain Project. One positive aspect is that these projects might achieve the aim of producing detailed simulations of cortical electrical activity, a negative one regards whether they will be able to find ways of simulating how circuits actually develop.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessio Plebe
- Department of Cognitive Science, Università degli Studi di Messina, v. Concezione 8, Messina, Italy.
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36
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Nurzynska K, Mikhalkin A, Piorkowski A. CAS: Cell Annotation Software - Research on Neuronal Tissue Has Never Been so Transparent. Neuroinformatics 2018; 15:365-382. [PMID: 28849545 PMCID: PMC5671565 DOI: 10.1007/s12021-017-9340-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
CAS (Cell Annotation Software) is a novel tool for analysis of microscopic images and selection of the cell soma or nucleus, depending on the research objectives in medicine, biology, bioinformatics, etc. It replaces time-consuming and tiresome manual analysis of single images not only with automatic methods for object segmentation based on the Statistical Dominance Algorithm, but also semi-automatic tools for object selection within a marked region of interest. For each image, a broad set of object parameters is computed, including shape features and optical and topographic characteristics, thus giving additional insight into data. Our solution for cell detection and analysis has been verified by microscopic data and its application in the annotation of the lateral geniculate nucleus has been examined in a case study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karolina Nurzynska
- Institute of Informatics, Silesian University of Technology, Gliwice, Poland.
| | - Aleksandr Mikhalkin
- Laboratory of Neuromorphology, Pavlov Institute of Physiology RAS, St. Petersburg, Russia
| | - Adam Piorkowski
- Department of Geoinformatics and Applied Computer Science, AGH University of Science and Technology, Cracow, Poland
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37
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Kaas JH. The Skinny on Brains: Size Matters. CEREBRUM : THE DANA FORUM ON BRAIN SCIENCE 2018; 2018:cer-06-18. [PMID: 30746024 PMCID: PMC6353109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
This article is the second of two that addresses the development of the human brain. Last month's article, "The Evolution of Human Capabilities and Abilities," focused on neurons, the basic information-processing units of the nervous system. This month's article examines the evolution of the neocortex, a part of the cerebral cortex concerned with sight and hearing in mammals, regarded as the most developed part of the cortex.
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Toro R, Bakker R, Delzescaux T, Evans A, Tiesinga P. FIIND: Ferret Interactive Integrated Neurodevelopment Atlas. RESEARCH IDEAS AND OUTCOMES 2018. [DOI: 10.3897/rio.4.e25312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The first days after birth in ferrets provide a privileged view of the development of a complex mammalian brain. Unlike mice, ferrets develop a rich pattern of deep neocortical folds and cortico- cortical connections. Unlike humans and other primates, whose brains are well differentiated and folded at birth, ferrets are born with a very immature and completely smooth neocortex: folds, neocortical regionalisation and cortico-cortical connectivity develop in ferrets during the first postnatal days. After a period of fast neocortical expansion, during which brain volume increases by up to a factor of 4 in 2 weeks, the ferret brain reaches its adult volume at about 6 weeks of age. Ferrets could thus become a major animal model to investigate the neurobiological correlates of the phenomena observed in human neuroimaging. Many of these phenomena, such as the relationship between brain folding, cortico-cortical connectivity and neocortical regionalisation cannot be investigated in mice, but could be investigated in ferrets.
Our aim is to provide the research community with a detailed description of the development of a complex brain, necessary to better understand the nature of human neuroimaging data, create models of brain development, or analyse the relationship between multiple spatial scales. We have already started a project to constitute an open, collaborative atlas of ferret brain development, integrating multi-modal and multi-scale data. We have acquired data for 28 ferrets (4 animals per time point from P0 to adults), using high-resolution MRI and diffusion tensor imaging (DTI). We have developed an open-source pipeline to segment and produce – online – 3D reconstructions of brain MRI data.
We propose to process the brains of 16 of our specimens (from P0 to P16) using high-throughput 3D histology, staining for cytoarchitectonic landmarks, neuronal progenitors and neurogenesis. This would allow us to relate the MRI data that we have already acquired with multi-dimensional cell-scale information. Brains will be sectioned at 25 μm, stained, scanned at 0.25 μm of resolution, and processed for real-time multi-scale visualisation. We will extend our current web-platform to integrate an interactive multi-scale visualisation of the data. Using our combined expertise in computational neuroanatomy, multi-modal neuroimaging, neuroinformatics, and the development of inter-species atlases, we propose to build an open-source web platform to allow the collaborative, online, creation of atlases of the development of the ferret brain. The web platform will allow researchers to access and visualise interactively the MRI and histology data. It will also allow researchers to create collaborative, human curated, 3D segmentations of brain structures, as well as vectorial atlases. Our work will provide a first integrated atlas of ferret brain development, and the basis for an open platform for the creation of collaborative multi-modal, multi-scale, multi-species atlases.
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Foubet O, Trejo M, Toro R. Mechanical morphogenesis and the development of neocortical organisation. Cortex 2018; 118:315-326. [PMID: 30503630 DOI: 10.1016/j.cortex.2018.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2017] [Revised: 02/07/2018] [Accepted: 03/07/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The development of complex neocortical organisations is thought to result from the interaction of genetic and activity-dependent processes. We propose that a third type of process - mechanical morphogenesis - may also play an important role. We review theoretical and experimental results in physics showing how even homogeneous growth can produce a variety of forms, in particular neocortical folding. The mechanical instabilities that produce these forms induce heterogeneous patterns of stress at the scale of the organ. We review the evidence showing how these stresses can influence cell proliferation, migration and apoptosis, cell differentiation and shape, migration and axonal guidance, and could thus be able to influence regional neocortical identity and connectivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ophélie Foubet
- Human Genetics and Cognitive Functions Unit, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France; CNRS UMR 3571: Genes, Synapses and Cognition, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France; Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Human Genetics and Cognitive Functions, Paris, France
| | - Miguel Trejo
- Laboratoire de Physique et Mécanique des Milieux Hétérogènes (PMMH), CNRS UMR 7636, ESPCI-ParisTech, Paris Cedex 05, France
| | - Roberto Toro
- Human Genetics and Cognitive Functions Unit, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France; CNRS UMR 3571: Genes, Synapses and Cognition, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France; Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Human Genetics and Cognitive Functions, Paris, France.
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40
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Naumann RK, Preston-Ferrer P, Brecht M, Burgalossi A. Structural modularity and grid activity in the medial entorhinal cortex. J Neurophysiol 2018. [PMID: 29513150 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00574.2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Following the groundbreaking discovery of grid cells, the medial entorhinal cortex (MEC) has become the focus of intense anatomical, physiological, and computational investigations. Whether and how grid activity maps onto cell types and cortical architecture is still an open question. Fundamental similarities in microcircuits, function, and connectivity suggest a homology between rodent MEC and human posteromedial entorhinal cortex. Both are specialized for spatial processing and display similar cellular organization, consisting of layer 2 pyramidal/calbindin cell patches superimposed on scattered stellate neurons. Recent data indicate the existence of a further nonoverlapping modular system (zinc patches) within the superficial MEC layers. Zinc and calbindin patches have been shown to receive largely segregated inputs from the presubiculum and parasubiculum. Grid cells are also clustered in the MEC, and we discuss possible structure-function schemes on how grid activity could map onto cortical patch systems. We hypothesize that in the superficial layers of the MEC, anatomical location can be predictive of function; thus relating functional properties and neuronal morphologies to the cortical modules will be necessary for resolving how grid activity maps onto cortical architecture. Imaging or cell identification approaches in freely moving animals will be required for testing this hypothesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert K Naumann
- Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience, Humboldt University of Berlin , Berlin , Germany.,Max-Planck-Institute for Brain Research, Frankfurt am Main , Germany.,Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen University Town, Nanshan District, Shenzhen , China
| | | | - Michael Brecht
- Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience, Humboldt University of Berlin , Berlin , Germany.,German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases , Berlin , Germany
| | - Andrea Burgalossi
- Werner-Reichardt Centre for Integrative Neuroscience , Tübingen , Germany
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41
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Lean GA, Liu YJ, Lyon DC. Cell type specific tracing of the subcortical input to primary visual cortex from the basal forebrain. J Comp Neurol 2018; 527:589-599. [PMID: 29441578 DOI: 10.1002/cne.24412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2018] [Revised: 02/01/2018] [Accepted: 02/02/2018] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
The basal forebrain provides cholinergic inputs to primary visual cortex (V1) that play a key modulatory role on visual function. While basal forebrain afferents terminate in the infragranular layers of V1, acetylcholine is delivered to more superficial layers through volume transmission. Nevertheless, direct synaptic contact in deep layers 5 and 6 may provide a more immediate effect on V1 modulation. Using helper viruses with cell type specific promoters to target retrograde infection of pseudotyped and genetically modified rabies virus evidence was found for direct synaptic input onto V1 inhibitory neurons. These inputs were similar in number to geniculocortical inputs and, therefore, considered robust. In contrast, while clear evidence for dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus input to V1 excitatory neurons was found, there was no evidence of direct synaptic input from the basal forebrain. These results suggest a direct and more immediate influence of the basal forebrain on local V1 inhibition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georgina A Lean
- Department of Cognitive Sciences, School of Social Sciences, University of California, Irvine, California.,Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, School of Medicine, University of California, Irvine, California
| | - Yong-Jun Liu
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, School of Medicine, University of California, Irvine, California
| | - David C Lyon
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, School of Medicine, University of California, Irvine, California
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42
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Lauer SM, Schneeweiß U, Brecht M, Ray S. Visualization of Cortical Modules in Flattened Mammalian Cortices. J Vis Exp 2018. [PMID: 29443106 DOI: 10.3791/56992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The cortex of mammalian brains is parcellated into distinct substructures or modules. Cortical modules typically lie parallel to the cortical sheet, and can be delineated by certain histochemical and immunohistochemical methods. In this study, we highlight a method to isolate the cortex from mammalian brains and flatten them to obtain sections parallel to the cortical sheet. We further highlight selected histochemical and immunohistochemical methods to process these flattened tangential sections to visualize cortical modules. In the somatosensory cortex of various mammals, we perform cytochrome oxidase histochemistry to reveal body maps or cortical modules representing different parts of the body of the animal. In the medial entorhinal cortex, an area where grid cells are generated, we utilize immunohistochemical methods to highlight modules of genetically determined neurons which are arranged in a grid-pattern in the cortical sheet across several species. Overall, we provide a framework to isolate and prepare layer-wise flattened cortical sections, and visualize cortical modules using histochemical and immunohistochemical methods in a wide variety of mammalian brains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon M Lauer
- Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience, Humboldt University of Berlin
| | - Undine Schneeweiß
- Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience, Humboldt University of Berlin
| | - Michael Brecht
- Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience, Humboldt University of Berlin; NeuroCure Cluster of Excellence; German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases
| | - Saikat Ray
- Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience, Humboldt University of Berlin;
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43
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Opris I, Chang S, Noga BR. What Is the Evidence for Inter-laminar Integration in a Prefrontal Cortical Minicolumn? Front Neuroanat 2017; 11:116. [PMID: 29311848 PMCID: PMC5735117 DOI: 10.3389/fnana.2017.00116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2017] [Accepted: 11/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The objective of this perspective article is to examine columnar inter-laminar integration during the executive control of behavior. The integration hypothesis posits that perceptual and behavioral signals are integrated within the prefrontal cortical inter-laminar microcircuits. Inter-laminar minicolumnar activity previously recorded from the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC) of nonhuman primates, trained in a visual delay match-to-sample (DMS) task, was re-assessed from an integrative perspective. Biomorphic multielectrode arrays (MEAs) played a unique role in the in vivo recording of columnar cell firing in the dlPFC layers 2/3 and 5/6. Several integrative aspects stem from these experiments: 1. Functional integration of perceptual and behavioral signals across cortical layers during executive control. The integrative effect of dlPFC minicolumns was shown by: (i) increased correlated firing on correct vs. error trials; (ii) decreased correlated firing when the number of non-matching images increased; and (iii) similar spatial firing preference across cortical-striatal cells during spatial-trials, and less on object-trials. 2. Causal relations to integration of cognitive signals by the minicolumnar turbo-engines. The inter-laminar integration between the perceptual and executive circuits was facilitated by stimulating the infra-granular layers with firing patterns obtained from supra-granular layers that enhanced spatial preference of percent correct performance on spatial trials. 3. Integration across hierarchical levels of the brain. The integration of intention signals (visual spatial, direction) with movement preparation (timing, velocity) in striatum and with the motor command and posture in midbrain is also discussed. These findings provide evidence for inter-laminar integration of executive control signals within brain's prefrontal cortical microcircuits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ioan Opris
- The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Stephano Chang
- The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Brian R. Noga
- The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States
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44
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Palazzolo G, Moroni M, Soloperto A, Aletti G, Naldi G, Vassalli M, Nieus T, Difato F. Fast wide-volume functional imaging of engineered in vitro brain tissues. Sci Rep 2017; 7:8499. [PMID: 28819205 PMCID: PMC5561227 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-08979-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2017] [Accepted: 07/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The need for in vitro models that mimic the human brain to replace animal testing and allow high-throughput screening has driven scientists to develop new tools that reproduce tissue-like features on a chip. Three-dimensional (3D) in vitro cultures are emerging as an unmatched platform that preserves the complexity of cell-to-cell connections within a tissue, improves cell survival, and boosts neuronal differentiation. In this context, new and flexible imaging approaches are required to monitor the functional states of 3D networks. Herein, we propose an experimental model based on 3D neuronal networks in an alginate hydrogel, a tunable wide-volume imaging approach, and an efficient denoising algorithm to resolve, down to single cell resolution, the 3D activity of hundreds of neurons expressing the calcium sensor GCaMP6s. Furthermore, we implemented a 3D co-culture system mimicking the contiguous interfaces of distinct brain tissues such as the cortical-hippocampal interface. The analysis of the network activity of single and layered neuronal co-cultures revealed cell-type-specific activities and an organization of neuronal subpopulations that changed in the two culture configurations. Overall, our experimental platform represents a simple, powerful and cost-effective platform for developing and monitoring living 3D layered brain tissue on chip structures with high resolution and high throughput.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Palazzolo
- Department of Neuroscience and Brain Technologies, Fondazione Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Genoa, Italy
| | - M Moroni
- Department of Neuroscience and Brain Technologies, Fondazione Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Genoa, Italy.,Center for Neuroscience and Cognitive Systems @UniTn, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Rovereto, Italy.,Center for Mind/Brain Sciences, University of Trento, Rovereto, Italy
| | - A Soloperto
- Department of Neuroscience and Brain Technologies, Fondazione Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Genoa, Italy
| | - G Aletti
- Dipartimento di Matematica, Università degli studi di Milano, Milano, Italy
| | - G Naldi
- Dipartimento di Matematica, Università degli studi di Milano, Milano, Italy
| | - M Vassalli
- Institute of Biophysics, National Research Council of Italy, Genoa, Italy
| | - T Nieus
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences "L. Sacco", Università degli Studi di Milano, Milano, Italy.
| | - F Difato
- Department of Neuroscience and Brain Technologies, Fondazione Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Genoa, Italy.
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45
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Pallas SL. The Impact of Ecological Niche on Adaptive Flexibility of Sensory Circuitry. Front Neurosci 2017; 11:344. [PMID: 28701910 PMCID: PMC5487431 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2017.00344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2017] [Accepted: 06/01/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Evolution and development are interdependent, particularly with regard to the construction of the nervous system and its position as the machine that produces behavior. On the one hand, the processes directing development and plasticity of the brain provide avenues through which natural selection can sculpt neural cell fate and connectivity, and on the other hand, they are themselves subject to selection pressure. For example, mutations that produce heritable perturbations in neuronal birth and death rates, transcription factor expression, or availability of axon guidance factors within sensory pathways can markedly affect the development of form and thus the function of stimulus decoding circuitry. This evolvability of flexible circuits makes them more adaptable to environmental variation. Although there is general agreement on this point, whether the sensitivity of circuits to environmental influence and the mechanisms underlying development and plasticity of sensory pathways are similar across species from different ecological niches has received almost no attention. Neural circuits are generally more sensitive to environmental influences during an early critical period, but not all niches afford the same access to stimuli in early life. Furthermore, depending on predictability of the habitat and ecological niche, sensory coding circuits might be more susceptible to sensory experience in some species than in others. Despite decades of work on understanding the mechanisms underlying critical period plasticity, the importance of ecological niche in visual pathway development has received little attention. Here, I will explore the relationship between critical period plasticity and ecological niche in mammalian sensory pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah L. Pallas
- Neuroscience Institute, Georgia State UniversityAtlanta, GA, United States
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46
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Dooley JC, Donaldson MS, Krubitzer LA. Cortical plasticity following stripe rearing in the marsupial Monodelphis domestica: neural response properties of V1. J Neurophysiol 2017; 117:566-581. [PMID: 27852732 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00431.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2016] [Accepted: 11/04/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The functional organization of the primary visual area (V1) and the importance of sensory experience in its normal development have been well documented in eutherian mammals. However, very few studies have investigated the response properties of V1 neurons in another large class of mammals, or whether sensory experience plays a role in shaping their response properties. Thus we reared opossums (Monodelphis domestica) in normal and vertically striped cages until they reached adulthood. They were then anesthetized using urethane, and electrophysiological techniques were used to examine neuronal responses to different orientations, spatial and temporal frequencies, and contrast levels. For normal opossums, we observed responses to the temporal and spatial characteristics of the stimulus to be similar to those described in small, nocturnal, eutherian mammals such as rats and mice; neurons in V1 responded maximally to stimuli at 0.09 cycles per degree and 2.12 cycles per second. Unlike other eutherians, but similar to other marsupials investigated, only 40% of the neurons were orientation selective. In stripe-reared animals, neurons were significantly more likely to respond to vertical stimuli at a wider range of spatial frequencies, and were more sensitive to gratings at lower contrast values compared with normal animals. These results are the first to demonstrate experience-dependent plasticity in the visual system of a marsupial species. Thus the ability of cortical neurons to alter their properties based on the dynamics of the visual environment predates the emergence of eutherian mammals and was likely present in our earliest mammalian ancestors. NEW & NOTEWORTHY These results are the first description of visual response properties of the most commonly studied marsupial model organism, the short-tailed opossum (Monodelphis domestica). Further, these results are the first to demonstrate experience-dependent plasticity in the visual system of a marsupial species. Thus the ability of cortical neurons to alter their properties based on the dynamics of the visual environment predates the emergence of eutherian mammals and was likely present in our earliest mammalian ancestors.
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Affiliation(s)
- James C Dooley
- Center for Neuroscience, University of California, Davis, Davis, California; and
| | - Michaela S Donaldson
- Center for Neuroscience, University of California, Davis, Davis, California; and
| | - Leah A Krubitzer
- Center for Neuroscience, University of California, Davis, Davis, California; and .,Department of Psychology, University of California, Davis, Davis, California
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47
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Combes RD, Shah AB. The use of in vivo, ex vivo, in vitro, computational models and volunteer studies in vision research and therapy, and their contribution to the Three Rs. Altern Lab Anim 2017; 44:187-238. [PMID: 27494623 DOI: 10.1177/026119291604400302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Much is known about mammalian vision, and considerable progress has been achieved in treating many vision disorders, especially those due to changes in the eye, by using various therapeutic methods, including stem cell and gene therapy. While cells and tissues from the main parts of the eye and the visual cortex (VC) can be maintained in culture, and many computer models exist, the current non-animal approaches are severely limiting in the study of visual perception and retinotopic imaging. Some of the early studies with cats and non-human primates (NHPs) are controversial for animal welfare reasons and are of questionable clinical relevance, particularly with respect to the treatment of amblyopia. More recently, the UK Home Office records have shown that attention is now more focused on rodents, especially the mouse. This is likely to be due to the perceived need for genetically-altered animals, rather than to knowledge of the similarities and differences of vision in cats, NHPs and rodents, and the fact that the same techniques can be used for all of the species. We discuss the advantages and limitations of animal and non-animal methods for vision research, and assess their relative contributions to basic knowledge and clinical practice, as well as outlining the opportunities they offer for implementing the principles of the Three Rs (Replacement, Reduction and Refinement).
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Atul B Shah
- Ophthalmic Surgeon, National Eye Registry Ltd, Leicester, UK
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48
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Koch E, Jin J, Alonso JM, Zaidi Q. Functional implications of orientation maps in primary visual cortex. Nat Commun 2016; 7:13529. [PMID: 27876796 PMCID: PMC5122974 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms13529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2016] [Accepted: 10/12/2016] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Stimulus orientation in the primary visual cortex of primates and carnivores is mapped as iso-orientation domains radiating from pinwheel centres, where orientation preferences of neighbouring cells change circularly. Whether this orientation map has a function is currently debated, because many mammals, such as rodents, do not have such maps. Here we show that two fundamental properties of visual cortical responses, contrast saturation and cross-orientation suppression, are stronger within cat iso-orientation domains than at pinwheel centres. These differences develop when excitation (not normalization) from neighbouring oriented neurons is applied to different cortical orientation domains and then balanced by inhibition from un-oriented neurons. The functions of the pinwheel mosaic emerge from these local intra-cortical computations: Narrower tuning, greater cross-orientation suppression and higher contrast gain of iso-orientation cells facilitate extraction of object contours from images, whereas broader tuning, greater linearity and less suppression of pinwheel cells generate selectivity for surface patterns and textures. Stimulus orientation in the primary visual cortex of primates and carnivores is mapped into a geometrical mosaic but the functional implications of these maps remain debated. Here the authors reveal an association between the structure of cortical orientation maps in cats, and the functions of local cortical circuits in processing patterns and contours.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin Koch
- Graduate Center for Vision Research, College of Optometry, State University of New York, 33 West 42nd Street, New York, New York 10036, USA
| | - Jianzhong Jin
- Graduate Center for Vision Research, College of Optometry, State University of New York, 33 West 42nd Street, New York, New York 10036, USA
| | - Jose M Alonso
- Graduate Center for Vision Research, College of Optometry, State University of New York, 33 West 42nd Street, New York, New York 10036, USA
| | - Qasim Zaidi
- Graduate Center for Vision Research, College of Optometry, State University of New York, 33 West 42nd Street, New York, New York 10036, USA
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49
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Watakabe A, Sadakane O, Hata K, Ohtsuka M, Takaji M, Yamamori T. Application of viral vectors to the study of neural connectivities and neural circuits in the marmoset brain. Dev Neurobiol 2016; 77:354-372. [PMID: 27706918 PMCID: PMC5324647 DOI: 10.1002/dneu.22459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2016] [Revised: 09/18/2016] [Accepted: 09/20/2016] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
It is important to study the neural connectivities and functions in primates. For this purpose, it is critical to be able to transfer genes to certain neurons in the primate brain so that we can image the neuronal signals and analyze the function of the transferred gene. Toward this end, our team has been developing gene transfer systems using viral vectors. In this review, we summarize our current achievements as follows. 1) We compared the features of gene transfer using five different AAV serotypes in combination with three different promoters, namely, CMV, mouse CaMKII (CaMKII), and human synapsin 1 (hSyn1), in the marmoset cortex with those in the mouse and macaque cortices. 2) We used target‐specific double‐infection techniques in combination with TET‐ON and TET‐OFF using lentiviral retrograde vectors for enhanced visualization of neural connections. 3) We used an AAV‐mediated gene transfer method to study the transcriptional control for amplifying fluorescent signals using the TET/TRE system in the primate neocortex. We also established systems for shRNA mediated gene targeting in a neocortical region where a gene is significantly expressed and for expressing the gene using the CMV promoter for an unexpressed neocortical area in the primate cortex using AAV vectors to understand the regulation of downstream genes. Our findings have demonstrated the feasibility of using viral vector mediated gene transfer systems for the study of primate cortical circuits using the marmoset as an animal model. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Develop Neurobiol 77: 354–372, 2017
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Affiliation(s)
- Akiya Watakabe
- Laboratory for Molecular Analysis of Higher Brain Function, Brain Science Institute, RIKEN, 2-1 Hirosawa, Wako, Saitama, 351-0198, Japan
| | - Osamu Sadakane
- Laboratory for Molecular Analysis of Higher Brain Function, Brain Science Institute, RIKEN, 2-1 Hirosawa, Wako, Saitama, 351-0198, Japan
| | - Katsusuke Hata
- Laboratory for Molecular Analysis of Higher Brain Function, Brain Science Institute, RIKEN, 2-1 Hirosawa, Wako, Saitama, 351-0198, Japan
| | - Masanari Ohtsuka
- Laboratory for Molecular Analysis of Higher Brain Function, Brain Science Institute, RIKEN, 2-1 Hirosawa, Wako, Saitama, 351-0198, Japan
| | - Masafumi Takaji
- Laboratory for Molecular Analysis of Higher Brain Function, Brain Science Institute, RIKEN, 2-1 Hirosawa, Wako, Saitama, 351-0198, Japan
| | - Tetsuo Yamamori
- Laboratory for Molecular Analysis of Higher Brain Function, Brain Science Institute, RIKEN, 2-1 Hirosawa, Wako, Saitama, 351-0198, Japan
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50
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Ringach DL, Mineault PJ, Tring E, Olivas ND, Garcia-Junco-Clemente P, Trachtenberg JT. Spatial clustering of tuning in mouse primary visual cortex. Nat Commun 2016; 7:12270. [PMID: 27481398 PMCID: PMC4974656 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms12270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2016] [Accepted: 06/16/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The primary visual cortex of higher mammals is organized into two-dimensional maps, where the preference of cells for stimulus parameters is arranged regularly on the cortical surface. In contrast, the preference of neurons in the rodent appears to be arranged randomly, in what is termed a salt-and-pepper map. Here we revisited the spatial organization of receptive fields in mouse primary visual cortex by measuring the tuning of pyramidal neurons in the joint orientation and spatial frequency domain. We found that the similarity of tuning decreases as a function of cortical distance, revealing a weak but statistically significant spatial clustering. Clustering was also observed across different cortical depths, consistent with a columnar organization. Thus, the mouse visual cortex is not strictly a salt-and-pepper map. At least on a local scale, it resembles a degraded version of the organization seen in higher mammals, hinting at a possible common origin. The preference of cells in mouse primary visual cortex are thought to be randomly distributed in a salt-and-pepper map, in contrast to the smooth cortical maps observed in higher mammals. Here the authors show that excitatory cells in mouse primary visual cortex are spatially clustered, resembling a degraded version of the organization seen in higher mammals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dario L Ringach
- Department of Neurobiology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, USA.,Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, USA
| | - Patrick J Mineault
- Department of Neurobiology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, USA
| | - Elaine Tring
- Department of Neurobiology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, USA
| | - Nicholas D Olivas
- Department of Neurobiology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, USA
| | - Pablo Garcia-Junco-Clemente
- Department of Neurobiology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, USA
| | - Joshua T Trachtenberg
- Department of Neurobiology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, USA
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