Efficient delivery of genome-editing proteins using bioreducible lipid nanoparticles

In vivo delivery of antioxidant enzymes with multi-functionalized lipid nanoparticles for sepsis therapy

Supplementing the cell with specific proteins is essential for disease prevention and therapy. However, protein permeability to the cell membrane is quite low because of the molecules large size and hydrophilic nature. Although protein delivery systems have been developing using vectors, their protein encapsulation efficiency depends on electrostatic interaction between proteins and vectors. Since proteins have a weaker net charge high affinity between vector and protein cannot be realized, and thus the encapsulation efficiency of naked proteins into vector is low. Herein, we developed a strategy for delivering target proteins into cells utilizing multifunctionalized lipid nanoparticles (MF-LNPs) prepared using several functional lipids that induce noncovalent interactions. We used two types of antioxidant enzymes, superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT), as model proteins for inflammation therapy. MF-LNPs are prepared by combining positively charged, neutral, and hydrophobic group-functionalized lipids. Optimization of the functional lipid composition alone resulted in MF-LNPs exhibiting nM affinity for SOD and CAT. Proteins were encapsulated in each optimized MF-LNP by freeze-thawing of MF-LNP and protein complexes. Co-treatment with SOD- and CAT-encapsulated MF-LNPs significantly inhibited ROS production in vitro and in vivo. Notably, the survival rate of model mice with severe sepsis was dramatically improved following the co-administration of SOD- and CAT-encapsulated MF-LNPs through the suppression of inflammatory cytokines and improvement of ROS scavenging activities. The findings indicate that this fundamental technology could be useful information for designing protein delivery vectors.

Machine-Learning Framework to Predict the Performance of Lipid Nanoparticles for Nucleic Acid Delivery

Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) are highly effective carriers for gene therapies, including mRNA and siRNA delivery, due to their ability to transport nucleic acids across biological membranes, low cytotoxicity, improved pharmacokinetics, and scalability. A typical approach to formulate LNPs is to establish a quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) between their compositions and in vitro/in vivo activities, which allows for the prediction of activity based on molecular structure. However, developing QSAR for LNPs can be challenging due to the complexity of multicomponent formulations, interactions with biological membranes, stability in physiological environments, and diverse physicochemical properties. To address these challenges, we developed a machine-learning (ML) framework to predict the activity and cell viability of LNPs for nucleic acid delivery. We curated data from 6454 LNP formulations reported across 21 independent studies and implemented 11 different molecular featurization techniques, ranging from descriptors and fingerprints to graph-based representations, alongside six ML algorithms for binary and multiclass classification. Using scaffold-based 5-fold cross-validation, our models achieved classification accuracies exceeding 90% for both activity and cell viability prediction tasks. Among all model-feature combinations, descriptor-based features combined with ensemble models such as balanced random forest and extra trees yielded the highest performance. Through SHAP-based feature attribution and interaction analysis, we identified key physicochemical properties and compositional features driving the LNP performance, highlighting the importance of synergistic effects among multiple molecular features. Furthermore, we developed a transfer-learning strategy to bridge in vitro-to-in vivo prediction gaps by incorporating base model predictions along with additional biological attributes, such as the particle size, polydispersity index, and ζ potential. Despite the smaller size and inherent class imbalance of the in vivo data set, the transfer-learning models demonstrated a promising predictive performance, with accuracies exceeding 82%. Our findings underscore the potential of interpretable ML frameworks to guide rational LNP design and provide a scalable approach to QSAR modeling in complex nanomedicine systems.

More than a delivery system: the evolving role of lipid-based nanoparticles

Lipid-based nanoparticles, including liposomes and lipid nanoparticles (LNPs), make up an important class of drug delivery systems. Their modularity enables encapsulation of a wide range of therapeutic cargoes, their ease of functionalization allows for incorporation of targeting motifs and anti-fouling coatings, and their scalability facilitates rapid translation to the clinic. While the discovery and early understanding of lipid-based nanoparticles is heavily rooted in biology, formulation development has largely focused on materials properties, such as how liposome and lipid nanoparticle composition can be altered to maximize drug loading, stability and circulation. To achieve targeted delivery and enable improved accumulation of therapeutics at target tissues or disease sites, emphasis is typically placed on the use of external modifications, such as peptide, protein, and polymer motifs. However, these approaches can increase the complexity of the nanocarrier and complicate scale up. In this review, we focus on how our understanding of lipid structure and function in biological contexts can be used to design intrinsically functional and targeted nanocarriers. We highlight formulation-based strategies, such as the incorporation of bioactive lipids, that have been used to modulate liposome and lipid nanoparticle properties and improve their functionality while retaining simple nanocarrier designs. We also highlight classes of naturally occurring lipids, their functions, and how they have been incorporated into lipid-based nanoparticles. We will additionally position these approaches into the historical context of both liposome and LNP development.

Efficient Direct Cytosolic Protein Delivery via Protein-Linker Co-engineering

Protein therapeutics have enormous potential for transforming the treatment of intracellular cell disorders, such as genetic disorders and cancers. Due to proteins' cell-membrane impermeability, protein-based drugs against intracellular targets require efficient cytosolic delivery strategies; however, none of the current approaches are optimal. Here, we present a simple approach to render proteins membrane-permeable. We use arginine-mimicking ligand N,N'-dimethyl-1,3-propanediamine (DMPA) to functionalize the surface of a few representative proteins, varying in isoelectric point and molecular weight. We show that when these proteins have a sufficient number of these ligands on their surface, they acquire the property of penetrating the cell cytosol. Uptake experiments at 37 and 4 °C indicate that one of the penetration pathways is energy independent, with no evidence of pore formation, with inhibition assays indicating the presence of other uptake pathways. Functional tests demonstrate that the modified proteins maintain their main cellular function; specifically, modified ovalbumin (OVA) leads to enhanced antigen presentation and modified cytochrome C (Cyto C) leads to enhanced cell apoptosis. We modified bovine serum albumin (BSA) with ligands featuring different hydrophobicity and end group charges and showed that, to confer cytosolic penetration, the ligands must be cationic and that some hydrophobic content improves the penetration efficiency. This study provides a simple strategy for efficiently delivering proteins directly to the cell cytosol and offers important insights into the design and development of arginine-rich cell-penetrating peptide mimetic small molecules for protein transduction.

Intracellular delivery of proteins for live cell imaging

The majority of cellular functions are regulated by intracellular proteins, and regulating their interactions can unlock fundamental insights in biology and open new avenues for drug discovery. Because the vast majority of intracellular targets remain undruggable, there is significant current interest in developing protein-based agents especially monoclonal antibodies due to their specificity, availability, and established screening/engineering methods. However, efficient delivery of proteins into the cytoplasm has been a major challenge in biological engineering and drug discovery. We previously reported a platform technology based on a Coomassie blue-cholesterol conjugate (CB-tag) capable of delivering small proteins directly into the cytoplasm. Here, we report a new generation of CB-tag that can bring proteins with a wide size range into the cytoplasm, bypassing endosomal sequestration. Remarkably, intracellular targets with distinct structures were visualized. Overall, the new CB-tag demonstrated a robust ability in protein delivery with broad applications ranging from live-cell immunofluorescence to protein-based therapeutic development.

CRISPR/Cas9 Delivery Systems to Enhance Gene Editing Efficiency

CRISPR/Cas9 has revolutionized genome editing by enabling precise and efficient genetic modifications across multiple biological systems. Despite its growing therapeutic potential, key challenges remain in mitigating off-target effects, minimizing immunogenicity, and improving the delivery of CRISPR components into target cells. This review provides an integrated analysis of physical, viral, and non-viral delivery systems, highlighting recent advances in the use of lipid nanoparticles, polymeric carriers, and hybrid platforms. We also examine an often overlooked factor: the aggregation behavior of the Cas9 protein, which may interfere with cellular uptake, the encapsulation efficiency, and nuclear localization. By comparing delivery platforms and their reported editing outcomes, we identify critical physicochemical parameters that influence therapeutic success. Finally, we propose standardized methods to assess Cas9 encapsulation and aggregation and discuss translational barriers such as manufacturing scalability and regulatory requirements. These insights aim to guide the development of safer and more effective CRISPR/Cas9-based therapies.

Enhanced mRNA delivery via incorporating hydrophobic amines into lipid nanoparticles

Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) have shown promising performance in mRNA delivery. Nevertheless, a thorough understanding of the relationship between mRNA delivery efficacy and the structure of LNPs remains imperative. In this study, we systematically investigated the effects of additional hydrophobic amines on the physicochemical properties of mRNA LNPs and their delivery efficacy. The results indicated that this influence depended on the chemical structure of the additional amines and the structure of the lipid carriers. The appropriate addition of the hydrophobic amine 2C8 to lipid carriers with structural 2C8 or 2C6 tails significantly increased their mRNA delivery efficiency. In contrast, the addition of hydrophobic amine C18 to LNPs resulted in a decrease in mRNA delivery efficiency, while the addition of hydrophobic amines 2C6 and C8, as well as alkanes C12' and C16', had relatively little effect on mRNA delivery. Further investigations demonstrated that the appropriate addition of 2C8 could reduce LNP size, moderate internal hydrophobicity and LNP stability, facilitate mRNA release, enhance cellular uptake, and improve intracellular transportation of LNPs, thereby achieving superior mRNA delivery efficiency. These findings highlight the important role of additional hydrophobic amines in mRNA delivery with LNPs and provide valuable insights for the advancement of mRNA delivery carriers.

In Vivo Cytosolic Delivery of Biomolecules into Neurons for Super-Resolution Imaging and Genome Modification

Efficient delivery of biomolecules into neurons has significant impacts on therapeutic applications in the central nervous system (CNS) and fundamental neuroscience research. Existing viral and non-viral delivery methods often suffer from inefficient intracellular access due to the endocytic pathway. Here, a neuron-targeting and direct cytosolic delivery platform is discovered by using a 15-amino-acid peptide, termed the N1 peptide, which enables neuron-specific targeting and cytosolic delivery of functional biomolecules. The N1 peptide initially binds hyaluronan in the extracellular matrix and subsequently passes the membrane of neurons without being trapped into endosome. This mechanism facilitates the efficient delivery of cell-impermeable and photo-stable fluorescent dye for super-resolution imaging of dendritic spines, and functional proteins, such as Cre recombinase, for site-specific genome modification. Importantly, the N1 peptide exhibits robust neuronal specificity across diverse species, including mice, rats, tree shrews, and zebra finches. Its targeting capability is further demonstrated through various administration routes, including intraparenchymal, intrathecal, and intravenous (i.v.) injections after blood-brain barrier (BBB) opening with focused ultrasound (FUS). These findings establish the N1 peptide as a versatile and functional platform with significant potential for bioimaging and advanced therapeutic applications.

Lipid Nanoparticles for In Vivo Lung Delivery of CRISPR-Cas9 Ribonucleoproteins Allow Gene Editing of Clinical Targets

In the past 10 years, CRISPR-Cas9 has revolutionized the gene-editing field due to its modularity, simplicity, and efficacy. It has been applied for the creation of in vivo models, to further understand human biology, and toward the curing of genetic diseases. However, there remain significant delivery barriers for CRISPR-Cas9 application in the clinic, especially for in vivo and extrahepatic applications. In this work, high-throughput molecular barcoding techniques were used alongside traditional screening methodologies to simultaneously evaluate LNP formulations encapsulating ribonucleoproteins (RNPs) for in vitro gene-editing efficiency and in vivo biodistribution. This resulted in the identification of a lung-tropic LNP formulation, which shows efficient gene editing in endothelial and epithelial cells within the lung, targeting both model reporter and clinically relevant genomic targets. Further, this LNP shows no off-target indel formation in the liver, making it a highly specific extrahepatic delivery system for lung-editing applications.

Synergistic Effects of Polycationic and Polyfluorinated Functionalities for Efficient Intracellular Protein Delivery

Intracellular protein therapy is a promising strategy in biologics, including vaccine development, gene editing, and cancer therapeutics. However, protein-based drug delivery remains a significant challenge, particularly in penetrating cell barriers to reach intracellular targets. Inspired by transport adjuvants, we designed a series of polymeric vectors to achieve efficient functional protein trafficking with low cytotoxicity. With an adequate combination of guanidinium and fluorocarbon functionalities, a synergistic improvement of intracellular delivery is achieved in terms of both high intracellular transport and low cellular toxicity. The observed synergistic outcomes highlight new opportunities for delivery vehicle optimizations of intracellular biologics.

Engineering of peptide assemblies for adaptable protein delivery to achieve efficient intracellular biocatalysis

Efficient intracellular delivery of native proteins remains a big challenge, which greatly hinders the development of protein therapy. Here, we report a generalizable peptide vector that can encapsulate and deliver various proteins to achieve efficient intracellular biocatalysis. The peptide was rationally designed to be cationic amphiphilic peptide that consist of four functional fragments, that is, a hydrophobic domain to promote molecular assembly, an enzyme-cleavable fragment to introduce stimuli-responsibility, several cationic arginine (Arg) residues to enhance cell interaction and transmembrane efficiency, and the cystine (Cys) residues with redox sensitivity to adjust the stability of the peptide/protein complexes as needed. The peptide can co-assemble with proteins to form stable complexes in aqueous solution under mild condition. The complexes enter cell mainly through caveolae- and lipid raft-mediated endocytosis, giving a delivery efficiency of up to ∼97.2 %. They can then achieve efficient lysosomal escape and disassociation to release native proteins inside cells in response to intracellular stimuli. More strikingly, the delivered protein's bioactivity can be well maintained and the two model proteins of β-galactosidase (β-Gal) and horseradish peroxidase (HRP) both showed excellent intracellular biocatalytic activity. The study develops a versatile and adjustable peptide carrier platform for protein delivery and highlights impactful structure-function relationships, providing a new chemical guide for the design and optimization of functional protein nanocarriers.

Strategies to Enhance Protein Delivery

Therapeutic proteins play a crucial role in modern healthcare. However, the rapid clearance of proteins in the circulation system poses a significant threat to their therapeutic efficacy. The generation of anti-drug antibodies expedites drug clearance, resulting in another challenge to overcome in protein delivery. Several methods to increase the circulation half-lives of these proteins and to minimize their immunogenicity have been developed. This Review discusses the causes of protein clearance in the body, evaluates the FDA-approved strategies to prolong protein circulation, and highlights recent progress in the field. Additionally, the strengths and drawbacks of these methods and our perspectives for advancing protein delivery are provided.

Characterization and targeting of the endosomal signaling of the gastrin releasing peptide receptor in pruritus

Chronic pruritus is a major unmet clinical problem affecting one in four adults. G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are key receptors driving itch signaling and are a therapeutic target for itch relief. The endosomal signaling of GPCRs provides new challenges for understanding how GPCR signaling is regulated, how endosomal signaling of GPCRs contributes to disease states like chronic pruritus and opens new targets for therapeutic development. The Gastrin releasing peptide receptor (GRPR) is a key mediator of pruritus in the spinal cord. Yet, little is known about the molecular mechanisms regulating GRPR signaling in pruritus, if GRPR can signal from endosomes, or the role of endosomal GRPR in the development of pruritus. Here we show the importance of internalization and endosomal signaling of GRPR in pruritus. Agonist induced GRPR internalization and trafficking was quantified using BRET or microscopy while endosomal-mediated ERK signaling was measured using compartmentalized FRET biosensors. Recruitment of G proteins to endosomes was measured with NanoBit BRET. pH sensitive mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSN) which accumulated in endosomes were used to deliver RC-3095, a GRPR specific antagonist, intracellularly to block endosomal signaling of GRPR. MSN-RC proved more effective than free RC-3095 at inhibiting chloroquine scratching in mice. Our results demonstrate a critical role for GRPR endosomal signaling in itch sensation. These results highlight the ability of endosomally targeted antagonist to inhibit GRPR signaling and provide a new target for developing therapeutics that block GRPR mediated pruritus.

Genome-Wide CRISPR Screening Identifies Cellular Factors Controlling Nonviral Genome Editing Efficiency

After administering genome editors, their efficiency is limited by a multi-step process involving cellular uptake, trafficking, and nuclear import of the vector and its payload. These processes vary widely across cell types and differ depending on the nature and structure of the vector, whether it is a lipid nanoparticle or a different synthetic material. We developed a novel genome-wide CRISPR screening strategy to better understand these limitations within human cells to identify genes modulating cellular uptake, payload delivery, and gene editing efficiency. Our screen interrogates the cellular processes controlling genome editing by Cas-based nuclease and base editing strategies in human cells. We designed a genome-wide screen targeting 19,114 genes in HEK293 cells, and we identified six genes whose knockout increased nonviral editing efficiency in human cells by up to five-fold. Further validation through arrayed knockouts of the top hits from our screen boosted the editing efficiency from 5% to 50% when Cas9 was delivered via lipid-based nanoparticles. By designing the guides to target the screen library cassette, we could accurately track the library sgRNA identity and the editing outcome on the same amplicon via short-read sequencing, enabling the identification of rare outcomes via 'computationally' sorting edited from unedited cells within a heterogenous pool of >200M cells. In patient-derived human retinal pigment epithelium cells derived from pluripotent stem cells, BET1L, GJB2, and MS4A13 gene knockouts increased targeted genome editing by over five-fold. We anticipate that this high-throughput screening approach will facilitate the systematic engineering of novel nonviral genome editing delivery methods, where the identified novel gene hits can be further used to increase editing efficiency for other therapeutically relevant cell types.

SynBioNanoDesign: pioneering targeted drug delivery with engineered nanomaterials

Synthetic biology and nanotechnology fusion represent a transformative approach promoting fundamental and clinical biomedical science development. In SynBioNanoDesign, biological systems are reimagined as dynamic and programmable materials to yield engineered nanomaterials with emerging and specific functionalities. This review elucidates a comprehensive examination of synthetic biology's pivotal role in advancing engineered nanomaterials for targeted drug delivery systems. It begins with exploring the fundamental synergy between synthetic biology and nanotechnology, then highlights the current landscape of nanomaterials in targeted drug delivery applications. Subsequently, the review discusses the design of novel nanomaterials informed by biological principles, focusing on expounding the synthetic biology tools and the potential for developing advanced nanomaterials. Afterward, the research advances of innovative materials design through synthetic biology were systematically summarized, emphasizing the integration of genetic circuitry to program nanomaterial responses. Furthermore, the challenges, current weaknesses and opportunities, prospective directions, and ethical and societal implications of SynBioNanoDesign in drug delivery are elucidated. Finally, the review summarizes the transformative impact that synthetic biology may have on drug-delivery technologies in the future.

Focused ultrasound and microbubble-mediated delivery of CRISPR-Cas9 ribonucleoprotein to human induced pluripotent stem cells

CRISPR-Cas9 ribonucleoproteins (RNPs) have been heavily considered for gene therapy due to their high on-target efficiency, rapid activity, and lack of insertional mutagenesis relative to other CRISPR-Cas9 delivery formats. Genetic diseases such as hypertrophic cardiomyopathy currently lack effective treatment strategies and are prime targets for CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing technology. However, current in vivo delivery strategies for Cas9 pose risks of unwanted immunogenic responses. This proof-of-concept study aimed to demonstrate that focused ultrasound (FUS) in combination with microbubbles can be used to deliver Cas9-sgRNA (single-guide RNA) RNPs and functionally edit human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) in vitro, a model system that can be expanded to cardiovascular research via hiPSC-derived cardiomyocytes. Here, we first determine acoustic conditions suitable for the viable delivery of large proteins to hiPSCs with clinical Definity microbubble agents using our customized experimental platform. From here, we delivered Cas9-sgRNA RNP complexes targeting the EGFP (enhanced green fluorescent protein) gene to EGFP-expressing hiPSCs for EGFP knockout. Simultaneous acoustic cavitation detection during treatment confirmed a strong correlation between microbubble disruption and viable FUS-mediated protein delivery in hiPSCs. This study shows for the first time the potential for an FUS-mediated technique for targeted and precise CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing in human stem cells.

Intelligent Design of Lipid Nanoparticles for Enhanced Gene Therapeutics

Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) are an effective delivery system for gene therapeutics. By optimizing their formulation, the physiochemical properties of LNPs can be tailored to improve tissue penetration, cellular uptake, and precise targeting. The application of these targeted delivery strategies within the LNP framework ensures efficient delivery of therapeutic agents to specific organs or cell types, thereby maximizing therapeutic efficacy. In the realm of genome editing, LNPs have emerged as a potent vehicle for delivering CRISPR/Cas components, offering significant advantages such as high in vivo efficacy. The incorporation of machine learning into the optimization of LNP platforms for gene therapeutics represents a significant advancement, harnessing its predictive capabilities to substantially accelerate the research and development process. This review highlights the dynamic evolution of LNP technology, which is expected to drive transformative progress in the field of gene therapy.

Vectors in CRISPR Gene Editing for Neurological Disorders: Challenges and Opportunities

Diseases of the nervous system are recognized as the second leading cause of death worldwide. The global prevalence of neurological diseases, such as Huntington's disease, Alzheimer's disease, and Parkinson's disease has seen a significant rise due to the increasing proportion of the aging population. The discovery of the clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) genome editing technique has paved way for universal neurological diseases treatment. However, finding a safe and effective method to deliver CRISPR gene-editing tools remains a main challenge for genome editing therapies in vivo. Adeno-associated virus (AAV) is currently one of the most commonly used vector systems, but some issues remain unresolved, including capsid immunogenicity, off-target mutations, and potential genotoxicity. To address these concerns, researchers are actively encouraging the development of new delivery systems, like virus-like particles and nanoparticles. These novel systems have the potential to enhance targeting efficiency, thereby offering possible solutions to the current challenges. This article reviews CRISPR delivery vectors for neurological disorders treatment and explores potential solutions to overcome limitations in vector systems. Additionally, the delivery strategies of CRISPR systems are highlighted as valuable tools for studying neurological diseases, and the challenges and opportunities that these vectors present.

Packaged delivery of CRISPR-Cas9 ribonucleoproteins accelerates genome editing

Effective genome editing requires a sufficient dose of CRISPR-Cas9 ribonucleoproteins (RNPs) to enter the target cell while minimizing immune responses, off-target editing, and cytotoxicity. Clinical use of Cas9 RNPs currently entails electroporation into cells ex vivo, but no systematic comparison of this method to packaged RNP delivery has been made. Here we compared two delivery strategies, electroporation and enveloped delivery vehicles (EDVs), to investigate the Cas9 dosage requirements for genome editing. Using fluorescence correlation spectroscopy, we determined that >1300 Cas9 RNPs per nucleus are typically required for productive genome editing. EDV-mediated editing was >30-fold more efficient than electroporation, and editing occurs at least 2-fold faster for EDV delivery at comparable total Cas9 RNP doses. We hypothesize that differences in efficacy between these methods result in part from the increased duration of RNP nuclear residence resulting from EDV delivery. Our results directly compare RNP delivery strategies, showing that packaged delivery could dramatically reduce the amount of CRISPR-Cas9 RNPs required for experimental or clinical genome editing.

Advances in Cytosolic Delivery of Proteins: Approaches, Challenges, and Emerging Technologies

Although therapeutic proteins have achieved recognized clinical success, they are inherently membrane impermeable, which limits them to acting only on extracellular or membrane-associated targets. Developing an efficient protein delivery method will provide a unique opportunity for intracellular target-related therapeutic proteins. In this review article, we summarize the different pathways by which cells take up proteins. These pathways fall into two main categories: One in which proteins are transported directly across the cell membrane and the other through endocytosis. At the same time, important features to ensure successful delivery through these pathways are highlighted. We then provide a comprehensive overview of the latest developments in the transduction of covalent protein modifications, such as coupling cell-penetrating motifs and supercharging, as well as the use of nanocarriers to mediate protein transport, such as liposomes, polymers, and inorganic nanoparticles. Finally, we emphasize the existing challenges of cytoplasmic protein delivery and provide an outlook for future progress.

Nature Inspired Delivery Vehicles for CRISPR-Based Genome Editing

The advent of Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR)-based genome editing technologies has opened up groundbreaking possibilities for treating a wide spectrum of genetic disorders and diseases. However, the success of these technologies relies heavily on the development of efficient and safe delivery systems. Among the most promising approaches are natural and synthetic nanocarrier-mediated delivery systems, including viral vectors, extracellular vesicles (EVs), engineered cellular membrane particles, liposomes, and various nanoparticles. These carriers enhance the efficacy of the CRISPR system by providing a unique combination of efficiency, specificity, and reduced immunogenicity. Synthetic carriers such as liposomes and nanoparticles facilitate CRISPR delivery with high reproducibility and customizable functions. Viral vectors, renowned for their high transduction efficiency and broad tropism, serve as powerful vehicles for delivering CRISPR components to various cell types. EVs, as natural carriers of RNA and proteins, offer a stealth mechanism to evade immune detection, allowing for the targeted delivery of genome editors with minimal off-target effects. Engineered cellular membrane particles further improve delivery by simulating the cellular environment, enhancing uptake, and minimizing immune response. This review explores the innovative integration of CRISPR genome editors with various nanocarrier systems, focusing on recent advancements, applications, and future directions in therapeutic genome editing.

Rationally Engineering Pro-Proteins and Membrane-Penetrating α‑Helical Polypeptides for Genome Editing Toward Choroidal Neovascularization Treatment

Ribonucleoprotein (RNP)-based CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing holds great potential for the treatment of choroidal neovascularization (CNV), which however, is challenged by the lack of efficient cytosolic protein delivery tools. Herein, reversibly-phosphorylated pro-proteins (P-proteins) with conjugated adenosine triphosphate (ATP) tags are engineered and coupled with a membrane-penetrating, guanidine-enriched, α-helical polypeptide (LGP) to mediate robust and universal cytosolic delivery. LGP forms salt-stable nanocomplexes (NCs) with P-proteins via electrostatic interaction and salt bridging, and the helix-assisted, strong membrane activities of LGP enabled efficient cellular internalization and endolysosomal escape of NCs. Therefore, this approach allows efficient cytosolic delivery of a wide range of protein cargoes and maintains their bioactivities due to endolysosomal acidity-triggered traceless restoration of P-proteins. Notably, intravitreally delivered LGP/P-RNP NCs targeting hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α) induce pronounced gene disruption to downregulate pro-angiogenic factors and alleviate subretinal fibrosis, ultimately provoking robust therapeutic efficacy in CNV mice. Such a facile and versatile platform provides a powerful tool for cytosolic protein delivery and genome editing, and it holds promising potential for the treatment of CNV-associated diseases, such as age-related macular degeneration.

A controlled co-assembly approach to tune temperature responsiveness of biomimetic proteins

The controlled co-assembly of biomacromolecules through tuneable interactions offers a simple and fascinating opportunity to assemble multiple molecules into a single entity with enhanced complexity and unique properties. Herein, our study presents a dynamic co-assembled system using the multistimuli responsive intrinsically disordered protein Rec1-resilin and the adhesive hydrophilic protein silk sericin (SS). We utilized advanced characterization techniques including circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy, dynamic light scattering (DLS), small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), and small/ultra-small angle neutron scattering (SANS/USANS) to elucidate the detailed co-assembly behavior of the system and its evolution over time and temperature. To achieve sufficient neutron contrast, we successfully biosynthesised deuterium-labeled Rec1-resilin (D-Rec1). Our research demonstrates that this co-assembly allows the formation of a robust entity with dynamic conformational assembly and disassembly, exhibiting both the upper critical solution temperature (UCST) and lower critical solution temperature (LCST) with reversibility. The assembly and disassembly dynamics of the co-assembled entity at UCST are very fast, while the process is kinetically controlled at LCST. This study provides significant new insights into the interplay of a hydrophilic, multi-responsive IDP and a highly hydrophilic protein, shaping the thermoresponsive and stable properties of the co-assembled entity.

Zwitterionic polymers with high serum tolerance for intracellular protein delivery

Cationic polymers have been widely developed as carriers for intracellular protein delivery, but face tough challenges such as poor serum tolerance and inevitable material toxicity. Here, we present a type of phase-separating polymer with an anionic surface to address the above issues. A cationic dendrimer is first modified with a hydrophobic moiety to obtain a pH-responsive amphiphilic polymer, which is further conjugated with anionic benzenesulphonate at different grafting degrees. The benzenesulphonate modification facilely changes the hydrophobicity of the polymer and reduces the material cytotoxicity. Interestingly, the polymer can co-assemble with cargo proteins to form nanovesicles for intracellular protein delivery. The benzenesulphonate on the polymer surface bolsters the resistance of polymers to serum proteins, allowing the materials to maintain high delivery efficacy in culture media containing abundant serum proteins. This study provides a facile strategy to design materials with high serum tolerance for intracellular protein delivery.

Safer and efficient base editing and prime editing via ribonucleoproteins delivered through optimized lipid-nanoparticle formulations

Delivering ribonucleoproteins (RNPs) for in vivo genome editing is safer than using viruses encoding for Cas9 and its respective guide RNA. However, transient RNP activity does not typically lead to optimal editing outcomes. Here we show that the efficiency of delivering RNPs can be enhanced by cell-penetrating peptides (covalently fused to the protein or as excipients) and that lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) encapsulating RNPs can be optimized for enhanced RNP stability, delivery efficiency and editing potency. Specifically, after screening for suitable ionizable cationic lipids and by optimizing the concentration of the synthetic lipid DMG-PEG 2000, we show that the encapsulation, via microfluidic mixing, of adenine base editor and prime editor RNPs within LNPs using the ionizable lipid SM102 can result in in vivo editing-efficiency enhancements larger than 300-fold (with respect to the delivery of the naked RNP) without detectable off-target edits. We believe that chemically defined LNP formulations optimized for RNP-encapsulation stability and delivery efficiency will lead to safer genome editing.

Synthetic Nanocapsules with Tailored Surface Chemistry for Lung-Specific Protein Delivery and Cancer Immunotherapy

Efficient delivery of therapeutic proteins remains a major challenge in developing effective immunotherapies and treatments for genetic disorders due to the limited tissue targeting capability of native proteins. In this study, the design and synthesis of protein nanocapsules (NCs) that achieve lung-specific delivery of therapeutic proteins are reported. These NCs are synthesized through a surface modification process that involves coating protein with functional monomers and cross-linkers, followed by in situ polymerization to create a protective shell on the protein surface with tailored surface chemistry. This approach preserves protein integrity and significantly enhances delivery efficiency and tissue specificity. Notably, it is shown that protein@NC with guanidine-rich surfaces exhibit exceptional lung-targeting capabilities. This is likely attributed to the formation of a vitronectin-rich protein corona, which facilitates receptor-mediated endocytosis by lung cells. The platform effectively delivers various proteins, such as ovalbumin, to antigen-presenting cells (APCs) in the lung, thereby enhancing antigen presentation and offering a promising strategy for cancer immunotherapy. These findings provide a significant advancement in tissue-specific protein delivery and hold the potential for targeted cancer immunotherapy.

Bioengineered Nanomaterials for siRNA Therapy of Chemoresistant Cancers

Chemoresistance remains a long-standing challenge after cancer treatment. Over the last two decades, RNA interference (RNAi) has emerged as a gene therapy modality to sensitize cancer cells to chemotherapy. However, the use of RNAi, specifically small-interfering RNA (siRNA), is hindered by biological barriers that limit its intracellular delivery. Nanoparticles can overcome these barriers by protecting siRNA in physiological environments and facilitating its delivery to cancer cells. In this review, we discuss the development of nanomaterials for siRNA delivery in cancer therapy, current challenges, and future perspectives for their implementation to overcome cancer chemoresistance.

In Vivo Delivery Processes and Development Strategies of Lipid Nanoparticles

Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) represent an advanced and highly efficient delivery system for RNA molecules, demonstrating exceptional biocompatibility and remarkable delivery efficiency. This is evidenced by the clinical authorization of three LNP formulations: Patisiran, BNT162b2, and mRNA-1273. To further maximize the efficacy of RNA-based therapy, it is imperative to develop more potent LNP delivery systems that can effectively protect inherently unstable and negatively charged RNA molecules from degradation by nucleases, while facilitating their cellular uptake into target cells. Therefore, this review presents feasible strategies commonly employed for the development of efficient LNP delivery systems. The strategies encompass combinatorial chemistry for large-scale synthesis of ionizable lipids, rational design strategy of ionizable lipids, functional molecules-derived lipid molecules, the optimization of LNP formulations, and the adjustment of particle size and charge property of LNPs. Prior to introducing these developing strategies, in vivo delivery processes of LNPs, a crucial determinant influencing the clinical translation of LNP formulations, is described to better understand how to develop LNP delivery systems.

Photoactivable CRISPR for Biosensing and Cancer Therapy

Photoactivable CRISPR technology represents a transformative approach in the field of genome editing, offering unprecedented control over gene editing with high spatial and temporal precision. By harnessing the power of light to modulate the activity of CRISPR components, this innovative strategy enables precise regulation of Cas proteins, guide RNAs, and ribonucleoprotein complexes. Recent advancements in optical control methodologies, including the development of photoactivable nanocarriers, have significantly expanded the potential applications of CRISPR in biomedical fields. This Concept highlights the latest developments in designing photoactivable CRISPR systems and their promising applications in biosensing and cancer therapy. Additionally, the remaining challenges and future trends are also discussed. It is expected that the photoactivable CRISPR would facilitate translating more precise gene therapies into clinical use.

Lipopeptide-mediated Cas9 RNP delivery: A promising broad therapeutic strategy for safely removing deep-intronic variants in ABCA4

Deep-intronic (DI) variants represent approximately 10%-12% of disease-causing genetic defects in ABCA4-associated Stargardt disease (STGD1). Although many of these DI variants are amenable to antisense oligonucleotide-based splicing-modulation therapy, no treatment is currently available. These molecules are mostly variant specific, limiting their applicability to a broader patient population. In this study, we investigated the therapeutic potential of the CRISPR-Cas9 system combined with the amphipathic lipopeptide C18:1-LAH5 for intracellular delivery to correct splicing defects caused by different DI variants within the same intron. The combination of these components facilitated efficient editing of two target introns (introns 30 and 36) of ABCA4 in which several recurrent DI variants are found. The partial removal of these introns did not affect ABCA4 splicing or its expression levels when assessed in two different human cellular models: fibroblasts and induced pluripotent stem cell-derived photoreceptor precursor cells (PPCs). Furthermore, the DNA editing in STGD1 patient-derived PPCs led to a ∼50% reduction of the pseudoexon-containing transcripts resulting from the c.4539+2001G>A variant in intron 30. Overall, we provide proof-of-concept evidence of the use of C18:1-LAH5 as a delivery system for therapeutic genome editing for ABCA4-associated DI variants, offering new opportunities for clinical translation.

CO-DELIVERY of glutamic acid-extended peptide antigen and imidazoquinoline TLR7/8 agonist via ionizable lipid nanoparticles induces protective anti-tumor immunity

Cancer vaccines aim at generating cytotoxic CD8+ T cells that kill cancer cells and confer durable tumor regression. Hereto, CD8+ peptide epitopes should be presented by antigen presenting cells to CD8+ T cells in lymphoid tissue. Unfortunately, in unformulated soluble form, peptide antigens are poorly taken up by antigen presenting cells and do not efficiently reach lymph nodes. Hence, the lack of efficient delivery remains a major limitation for successful clinical translation of cancer vaccination using peptide antigens. Here we propose a generic peptide nanoformulation strategy by extending the amino acid sequence of the peptide antigen epitope with 10 glutamic acid residues. The resulting overall anionic charge of the peptide allows encapsulation into lipid nanoparticles (peptide-LNP) by electrostatic interaction with an ionizable cationic lipid. We demonstrate that intravenous injection of peptide-LNP efficiently delivers the peptide to immune cells in the spleen. Peptide-LNP that co-encapsulate an imidazoquinoline TLR7/8 agonist (IMDQ) induce robust innate immune activation in a broad range of immune cell subsets in the spleen. Peptide-LNP containing the minimal CD8+ T cell epitope of the HPV type 16 E7 oncoprotein and IMDQ induces high levels of antigen-specific CD8+ T cells in the blood, and can confer protective immunity against E7-expressing tumors in both prophylactic and therapeutic settings.

A Noncationic Biocatalytic Nanobiohybrid Platform for Cytosolic Protein Delivery Through Controlled Perturbation of Intracellular Redox Homeostasis

Intracellular delivery of proteins has largely been relying on cationic nanoparticles to induce efficient endosome escape, which, however, poses serious concerns on the inflammatory and cytotoxic effects. Herein, a versatile noncationic nano biohybrid platform is introduced for efficient cytosolic protein delivery by utilizing a nano-confined biocatalytic reaction. This platform is constructed by co-immobilizing glucose oxidase (GOx) and the target protein into nanoscale hydrogen-bonded organic frameworks (HOFs). The biocatalytic reaction of nano-confined GOx is leveraged to induce controlled perturbation of intracellular redox homeostasis by sustained hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) production and diminishing the flux of the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP). This in turn induces the endosome escape of nanobiohybrids. Concomitantly, GOx-mediated hypoxia leads to overexpression of azo reductase that initiated the materials' self-destruction for releasing target proteins. These biological effects collectively induce highly efficient cytosolic protein delivery. The versatility of this delivery platform is further demonstrated for various types of proteins, different protein loading approaches (in situ immobilization or post-adsorption), and in multiple cell lines. Finally, the protein delivery efficiency and biosafety are demonstrated in a tumor-bearing mouse model. This nanohybrid system opens up new avenues for intracellular protein delivery and is expected to be extensively applicable for a broad range of biomolecuels.

Applications of CRISPR Technologies in Forestry and Molecular Wood Biotechnology

Forests worldwide are under increasing pressure from climate change and emerging diseases, threatening their vital ecological and economic roles. Traditional breeding approaches, while valuable, are inherently slow and limited by the long generation times and existing genetic variation of trees. CRISPR technologies offer a transformative solution, enabling precise and efficient genome editing to accelerate the development of climate-resilient and productive forests. This review provides a comprehensive overview of CRISPR applications in forestry, exploring its potential for enhancing disease resistance, improving abiotic stress tolerance, modifying wood properties, and accelerating growth. We discuss the mechanisms and applications of various CRISPR systems, including base editing, prime editing, and multiplexing strategies. Additionally, we highlight recent advances in overcoming key challenges such as reagent delivery and plant regeneration, which are crucial for successful implementation of CRISPR in trees. We also delve into the potential and ethical considerations of using CRISPR gene drive for population-level genetic alterations, as well as the importance of genetic containment strategies for mitigating risks. This review emphasizes the need for continued research, technological advancements, extensive long-term field trials, public engagement, and responsible innovation to fully harness the power of CRISPR for shaping a sustainable future for forests.

Develop Targeted Protein Drug Carriers through a High-Throughput Screening Platform and Rational Design

Protein-based drugs offer advantages, such as high specificity, low toxicity, and minimal side effects compared to small molecule drugs. However, delivery of proteins to target tissues or cells remains challenging due to the instability, diverse structures, charges, and molecular weights of proteins. Polymers have emerged as a leading choice for designing effective protein delivery systems, but identifying a suitable polymer for a given protein is complicated by the complexity of both proteins and polymers. To address this challenge, a fluorescence-based high-throughput screening platform called ProMatch to efficiently collect data on protein-polymer interactions, followed by in vivo and in vitro experiments with rational design is developed. Using this approach to streamline polymer selection for targeted protein delivery, candidate polymers from commercially available options are identified and a polyhexamethylene biguanide (PHMB)-based system for delivering proteins to white adipose tissue as a treatment for obesity is developed. A branched polyethylenimine (bPEI)-based system for neuron-specific protein delivery to stimulate optic nerve regeneration is also developed. The high-throughput screening methodology expedites identification of promising polymer candidates for tissue-specific protein delivery systems, thereby providing a platform to develop innovative protein-based therapeutics.

Breaking the final barrier: Evolution of cationic and ionizable lipid structure in lipid nanoparticles to escape the endosome

In the past decade, nucleic acid therapies have seen a boon in development and clinical translation largely due to advances in nanotechnology that have enabled their safe and targeted delivery. Nanoparticles can protect nucleic acids from degradation by serum enzymes and can facilitate entry into cells. Still, achieving endosomal escape to allow nucleic acids to enter the cytoplasm has remained a significant barrier, where less than 5% of nanoparticles within the endo-lysosomal pathway are able to transfer their cargo to the cytosol. Lipid-based drug delivery vehicles, particularly lipid nanoparticles (LNPs), have been optimized to achieve potent endosomal escape, and thus have been the vector of choice in the clinic as demonstrated by their utilization in the COVID-19 mRNA vaccines. The success of LNPs is in large part due to the rational design of lipids that can specifically overcome endosomal barriers. In this review, we chart the evolution of lipid structure from cationic lipids to ionizable lipids, focusing on structure-function relationships, with a focus on how they relate to endosomal escape. Additionally, we examine recent advancements in ionizable lipid structure as well as discuss the future of lipid design.

Enhancing RNA-lipid nanoparticle delivery: Organ- and cell-specificity and barcoding strategies

Recent advancements in RNA therapeutics highlight the critical need for precision gene delivery systems that target specific organs and cells. Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) have emerged as key vectors in delivering mRNA and siRNA, offering protection against enzymatic degradation, enabling targeted delivery and cellular uptake, and facilitating RNA cargo release into the cytosol. This review discusses the development and optimization of organ- and cell-specific LNPs, focusing on their design, mechanisms of action, and therapeutic applications. We explore innovations such as DNA/RNA barcoding, which facilitates high-throughput screening and precise adjustments in formulations. We address major challenges, including improving endosomal escape, minimizing off-target effects, and enhancing delivery efficiencies. Notable clinical trials and recent FDA approvals illustrate the practical applications and future potential of LNP-based RNA therapies. Our findings suggest that while considerable progress has been made, continued research is essential to resolve existing limitations and bridge the gap between preclinical and clinical evaluation of the safety and efficacy of RNA therapeutics. This review highlights the dynamic progress in LNP research. It outlines a roadmap for future advancements in RNA-based precision medicine.

Unlocking Genome Editing: Advances and Obstacles in CRISPR/Cas Delivery Technologies

CRISPR/Cas9 (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats associated with protein 9) was first identified as a component of the bacterial adaptive immune system and subsequently engineered into a genome-editing tool. The key breakthrough in this field came with the realization that CRISPR/Cas9 could be used in mammalian cells to enable transformative genetic editing. This technology has since become a vital tool for various genetic manipulations, including gene knockouts, knock-in point mutations, and gene regulation at both transcriptional and post-transcriptional levels. CRISPR/Cas9 holds great potential in human medicine, particularly for curing genetic disorders. However, despite significant innovation and advancement in genome editing, the technology still possesses critical limitations, such as off-target effects, immunogenicity issues, ethical considerations, regulatory hurdles, and the need for efficient delivery methods. To overcome these obstacles, efforts have focused on creating more accurate and reliable Cas9 nucleases and exploring innovative delivery methods. Recently, functional biomaterials and synthetic carriers have shown great potential as effective delivery vehicles for CRISPR/Cas9 components. In this review, we attempt to provide a comprehensive survey of the existing CRISPR-Cas9 delivery strategies, including viral delivery, biomaterials-based delivery, synthetic carriers, and physical delivery techniques. We underscore the urgent need for effective delivery systems to fully unlock the power of CRISPR/Cas9 technology and realize a seamless transition from benchtop research to clinical applications.

Lung and liver editing by lipid nanoparticle delivery of a stable CRISPR-Cas9 ribonucleoprotein

Lipid nanoparticle (LNP) delivery of clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat (CRISPR) ribonucleoproteins (RNPs) could enable high-efficiency, low-toxicity and scalable in vivo genome editing if efficacious RNP-LNP complexes can be reliably produced. Here we engineer a thermostable Cas9 from Geobacillus stearothermophilus (GeoCas9) to generate iGeoCas9 variants capable of >100× more genome editing of cells and organs compared with the native GeoCas9 enzyme. Furthermore, iGeoCas9 RNP-LNP complexes edit a variety of cell types and induce homology-directed repair in cells receiving codelivered single-stranded DNA templates. Using tissue-selective LNP formulations, we observe genome-editing levels of 16‒37% in the liver and lungs of reporter mice that receive single intravenous injections of iGeoCas9 RNP-LNPs. In addition, iGeoCas9 RNPs complexed to biodegradable LNPs edit the disease-causing SFTPC gene in lung tissue with 19% average efficiency, representing a major improvement over genome-editing levels observed previously using viral or nonviral delivery strategies. These results show that thermostable Cas9 RNP-LNP complexes can expand the therapeutic potential of genome editing.

A platform to deliver single and bi-specific Cas9/guide RNA to perturb genes in vitro and in vivo

Although CRISPR-Cas9 technology is poised to revolutionize the treatment of diseases with underlying genetic mutations, it faces some significant issues limiting clinical entry. They include low-efficiency in vivo systemic delivery and undesired off-target effects. Here, we demonstrate, by modifying Cas9 with phosphorothioate-DNA oligos (PSs), that one can efficiently deliver single and bi-specific CRISPR-Cas9/guide RNA (gRNA) dimers in vitro and in vivo with reduced off-target effects. We show that PS-Cas9/gRNA-mediated gene knockout preserves chimeric antigen receptor T cell viability and expansion in vitro and in vivo. PS-Cas9/gRNA mediates gene perturbation in patient-derived tumor organoids and mouse xenograft tumors, leading to potent tumor antitumor effects. Further, HER2 antibody-PS-Cas9/gRNA conjugate selectively perturbs targeted genes in HER2+ ovarian cancer xenografts in vivo. Moreover, we created bi-specific PS-Cas9 with two gRNAs to target two adjacent sequences of the same gene, leading to efficient targeted gene disruption ex vivo and in vivo with markedly reduced unintended gene perturbation. Thus, the cell-penetrating PS-Cas9/gRNA can achieve efficient systemic delivery and precision in gene disruption.

Cell-Penetrating Peptides and CRISPR-Cas9: A Combined Strategy for Human Genetic Disease Therapy

The advent of clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)-CRISPR-associated nuclease 9 (Cas9) technology has revolutionized the field of genetic engineering, offering unprecedented potential for the targeted manipulation of DNA sequences. Advances in the mechanism of action of the CRISPR-Cas9 system allowed potential applicability for the treatment of genetic diseases. CRISPR-Cas9's mechanism of action involves the use of an RNA guide molecule to target-specific DNA sequences and the Cas9 enzyme to induce precise DNA cleavage. In the context of the CRISPR-Cas9 system, this review covers nonviral delivery methods for gene editing based on peptide internalization. Here, we describe critical areas of discussion such as immunogenicity, emphasizing the importance of safety, efficiency, and cost-effectiveness, particularly in the context of treating single-mutation genetic diseases using advanced editing techniques genetics as prime editor and base editor. The text discusses the versatility of cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) in forming complexes for delivering biomolecules, particularly ribonucleoprotein for genome editing with CRISPR-Cas9 in human cells. In addition, it emphasizes the promise of combining CPPs with DNA base editing and prime editing systems. These systems, known for their simplicity and precision, hold great potential for correcting point mutations in human genetic diseases. In summary, the text provides a clear overview of the advantages of using CPPs for genome editing with CRISPR-Cas9, particularly in conjunction with advanced editing systems, highlighting their potential impact on clinical applications in the treatment of single-mutation genetic diseases. [Figure: see text].

Next-generation CRISPR technology for genome, epigenome and mitochondrial editing

The application of rapidly growing CRISPR toolboxes and methods has great potential to transform biomedical research. Here, we provide a snapshot of up-to-date CRISPR toolboxes, then critically discuss the promises and hurdles associated with CRISPR-based nuclear genome editing, epigenome editing, and mitochondrial editing. The technical challenges and key solutions to realize epigenome editing in vivo, in vivo base editing and prime editing, mitochondrial editing in complex tissues and animals, and CRISPR-associated transposases and integrases in targeted genomic integration of very large DNA payloads are discussed. Lastly, we discuss the latest situation of the CRISPR/Cas9 clinical trials and provide perspectives on CRISPR-based gene therapy. Apart from technical shortcomings, ethical and societal considerations for CRISPR applications in human therapeutics and research are extensively highlighted.

CRISPR/Cas9: an overview of recent developments and applications in cancer research

Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)-CRISPR associated protein 9 (Cas9) has risen as a potent gene editing method with vast potential across numerous domains, including its application in cancer research and therapy. This review article provides an extensive overview of the research that has been done so far on CRISPR-Cas9 with an emphasis on how it could be utilized in the treatment of cancer. The authors go into the underlying ideas behind CRISPR-Cas9, its mechanisms of action, and its application for the study of cancer biology. Furthermore, the authors investigate the various uses of CRISPR-Cas9 in cancer research, spanning from the discovery of genes and the disease to the creation of novel therapeutic approaches. The authors additionally discuss the challenges and limitations posed by CRISPR-Cas9 technology and offer insights into the potential applications and future directions of this cutting-edge field of research. The article intends to consolidate the present understanding and stimulate more research into CRISPR-Cas9's promise as a game-changing tool for cancer research and therapy.

Advanced nanomedicines for the treatment of age-related macular degeneration

The critical and unmet medical need for novel therapeutic advancements in the treatment of age-related macular degeneration (AMD) cannot be overstated, particularly given the aging global population and the increasing prevalence of this condition. Current AMD therapy involves intravitreal treatments that require monthly or bimonthly injections to maintain optimal efficacy. This underscores the necessity for improved approaches, prompting recent research into developing advanced drug delivery systems to prolong the intervals between treatments. Nanoparticle-based therapeutic approaches have enabled the controlled release of drugs, targeted delivery of therapeutic materials, and development of smart solutions for the harsh microenvironment of diseased tissues, offering a new perspective on ocular disease treatment. This review emphasizes the latest pre-clinical treatment options in ocular drug delivery to the retina and explores the advantages of nanoparticle-based therapeutic approaches, with a focus on AMD, the leading cause of irreversible blindness in the elderly.

Current landscape of mRNA technologies and delivery systems for new modality therapeutics

Realizing the immense clinical potential of mRNA-based drugs will require continued development of methods to safely deliver the bioactive agents with high efficiency and without triggering side effects. In this regard, lipid nanoparticles have been successfully utilized to improve mRNA delivery and protect the cargo from extracellular degradation. Encapsulation in lipid nanoparticles was an essential factor in the successful clinical application of mRNA vaccines, which conclusively demonstrated the technology's potential to yield approved medicines. In this review, we begin by describing current advances in mRNA modifications, design of novel lipids and development of lipid nanoparticle components for mRNA-based drugs. Then, we summarize key points pertaining to preclinical and clinical development of mRNA therapeutics. Finally, we cover topics related to targeted delivery systems, including endosomal escape and targeting of immune cells, tumors and organs for use with mRNA vaccines and new treatment modalities for human diseases.

Recent progress in CRISPR/Cas9 system for eye disorders

Ocular disorders encompass a broad spectrum of phenotypic and clinical symptoms resulting from several genetic variants and environmental factors. The unique anatomy and physiology of the eye facilitate validation of cutting-edge gene editing treatments. Genome editing developments have allowed researchers to treat a variety of diseases, including ocular disorders. The clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR/Cas9) system holds considerable promise for therapeutic applications in the field of ophthalmology, including repair of aberrant genes and treatment of retinal illnesses related to the genome or epigenome. Application of CRISPR/Cas9 systems to the study of ocular disease and visual sciences have yielded innovations including correction of harmful mutations in patient-derived cells and gene modifications in several mammalian models of eye development and disease. In this study, we discuss the generation of several ocular disease models in mammalian cell lines and in vivo systems using a CRISPR/Cas9 system. We also provide an overview of current uses of CRISPR/Cas9 technologies for the treatment of ocular pathologies, as well as future challenges.

Lung-specific supramolecular nanoparticles for efficient delivery of therapeutic proteins and genome editing nucleases

Protein therapeutics play a critical role in treating a large variety of diseases, ranging from infections to genetic disorders. However, their delivery to target tissues beyond the liver, such as the lungs, remains a great challenge. Here, we report a universally applicable strategy for lung-targeted protein delivery by engineering Lung-Specific Supramolecular Nanoparticles (LSNPs). These nanoparticles are designed through the hierarchical self-assembly of metal-organic polyhedra (MOP), featuring a customized surface chemistry that enables protein encapsulation and specific lung affinity after intravenous administration. Our design of LSNPs not only addresses the hurdles of cell membrane impermeability of protein and nonspecific tissue distribution of protein delivery, but also shows exceptional versatility in delivering various proteins, including those vital for anti-inflammatory and CRISPR-based genome editing to the lung, and across multiple animal species, including mice, rabbits, and dogs. Notably, the delivery of antimicrobial proteins using LSNPs effectively alleviates acute bacterial pneumonia, demonstrating a significant therapeutic potential. Our strategy not only surmounts the obstacles of tissue-specific protein delivery but also paves the way for targeted treatments in genetic disorders and combating antibiotic resistance, offering a versatile solution for precision protein therapy.

Engineered exosomes with a photoinducible protein delivery system enable CRISPR-Cas-based epigenome editing in Alzheimer's disease

Effective intracellular delivery of therapeutic proteins can potentially treat a wide array of diseases. However, efficient delivery of functional proteins across the cell membrane remains challenging. Exosomes are nanosized vesicles naturally secreted by various types of cells and may serve as promising nanocarriers for therapeutic biomolecules. Here, we engineered exosomes equipped with a photoinducible cargo protein release system, termed mMaple3-mediated protein loading into and release from exosome (MAPLEX), in which cargo proteins can be loaded into the exosomes by fusing them with photocleavable protein (mMaple3)-conjugated exosomal membrane markers and subsequently released from the exosomal membrane by inducing photocleavage with blue light illumination. Using this system, we first induced transcriptional regulation by delivering octamer-binding transcription factor 4 and SRY-box transcription factor 2 to fibroblasts in vitro. Second, we induced in vivo gene recombination in Cre reporter mice by delivering Cre recombinase. Last, we achieved targeted epigenome editing in the brains of 5xFAD and 3xTg-AD mice, two models of Alzheimer's disease. Administration of MAPLEXs loaded with β-site amyloid precursor protein cleaving enzyme 1 (Bace1)-targeting single guide RNA-incorporated dCas9 ribonucleoprotein complexes, coupled with the catalytic domain of DNA methyltransferase 3A, resulted in successful methylation of the targeted CpG sites within the Bace1 promoter. This approach led to a significant reduction in Bace1 expression, improved recognition memory impairment, and reduced amyloid pathology in 5xFAD and 3xTg-AD mice. These results suggest that MAPLEX is an efficient intracellular protein delivery system that can deliver diverse therapeutic proteins for multiple diseases.

Optimized microfluidic formulation and organic excipients for improved lipid nanoparticle mediated genome editing

mRNA-based gene editing platforms have tremendous promise in the treatment of genetic diseases. However, for this potential to be realized in vivo, these nucleic acid cargos must be delivered safely and effectively to cells of interest. Ionizable lipid nanoparticles (LNPs), the most clinically advanced non-viral RNA delivery system, have been well-studied for the delivery of mRNA but have not been systematically optimized for the delivery of mRNA-based CRISPR-Cas9 platforms. In this study, we investigated the effect of microfluidic and lipid excipient parameters on LNP gene editing efficacy. Through in vitro screening in liver cells, we discovered distinct trends in delivery based on phospholipid, cholesterol, and lipid-PEG structure in LNP formulations. Combination of top-performing lipid excipients produced an LNP formulation that resulted in 3-fold greater gene editing in vitro and facilitated 3-fold greater reduction of a therapeutically-relevant protein in vivo relative to the unoptimized LNP formulation. Thus, systematic optimization of LNP formulation parameters revealed a novel LNP formulation that has strong potential for delivery of gene editors to the liver to treat metabolic disease.

Therapeutic Gene Editing in Dyslipidemias

Dyslipidemia, characterized by abnormal lipid levels in the blood, significantly escalates the risk of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease and requires effective treatment strategies. While existing therapies can be effective, long-term adherence is often challenging. There has been an interest in developing enduring and more efficient solutions. In this context, gene editing, particularly clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)/CRISPR-associated protein 9 (Cas9) technology, emerges as a groundbreaking approach, offering potential long-term control of dyslipidemia by directly modifying gene expression. This review delves into the mechanistic insights of various gene-editing tools. We comprehensively analyze various pre-clinical and clinical studies, evaluating the safety, efficacy, and therapeutic implications of gene editing in dyslipidemia management. Key genetic targets, such as low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR), proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9), angiopoietin-like protein 3 (ANGPTL3), apolipoprotein C3 (APOC3), and lipoprotein (a) (Lp(a)), known for their pivotal roles in lipid metabolism, are scrutinized. The paper highlights the promising outcomes of gene editing in achieving sustained lipid homeostasis, discusses the challenges and ethical considerations in genome editing, and envisions the future of gene therapy in revolutionizing dyslipidemia treatment and cardiovascular risk reduction.