Can large-scale tree planting in China compensate for the loss of climate connectivity due to deforestation?

Extensive deforestation has been a major reason for the loss of forest connectivity, impeding species range shifts under current climate change. Over the past decades, the Chinese government launched a series of afforestation and reforestation projects to increase forest cover, yet whether the new forests can compensate for the loss of connectivity due to deforestation-and where future tree planting would be most effective-remains largely unknown. Here, we evaluate changes in climate connectivity across China's forests between 2015 and 2019. We find that China's large-scale tree planting alleviated the negative impacts of forest loss on climate connectivity, improving the extent and probability of climate connectivity by 0-0.2 °C and 0-0.03, respectively. The improvements were particularly obvious for species with short dispersal distances (i.e., 3 km and 10 km). Nevertheless, only ~55 % of the trees planted in this period could serve as stepping stones for species movement. This indicates that focusing solely on the quantitative target of forest coverage without considering the connectivity of forests may miss opportunities in tree planting to facilitate climate-induced range shifts. More attention should be paid to the spatial arrangement of tree plantations and their potential as stepping stones. We then identify priority areas for future tree planting to create effective stepping stones. Our study highlights the potential of large-scale tree planting to facilitate range shifts. Future tree-planting efforts should incorporate the need for species range shifts to achieve more biodiversity conservation benefits under climate change.

Forest carbon storage and sink estimates under different management scenarios in China from 2020 to 2100

Forests play a crucial role in mitigating climate change through carbon storage and sequestration, though environmental change drivers and management scenarios are likely to influence these contributions across multiple spatial and temporal scales. In this study, we employed three tree growth models-the Richard, Hossfeld, and Korf models-that account for the biological characteristics of trees, alongside national forest inventory (NFI) datasets from 1994 to 2018, to evaluate the carbon sink potential of existing forests and afforested regions in China from 2020 to 2100, assuming multiple afforestation and forest management scenarios. Our results indicate that the Richard, Hossfeld, and Korf models provided a good fit for 26 types of vegetation biomass in both natural and planted Chinese forests. These models estimate that in 2020, carbon stocks in existing Chinese forests are 7.62 ± 0.05 Pg C, equivalent to an average of 44.32 ± 0.32 Mg C/ ha. Our predictions then indicate this total forest carbon stock is expected to increase to 15.51 ± 0.99 Pg C (or 72.26 ± 4.6 Mg C/ha) in 2060, and further to 19.59 ± 1.36 Pg C (or 91.31 ± 6.33 Mg C/ha) in 2100. We also show that plantation management measures, namely tree species replacement, would increase carbon sinks to 0.09 Pg C/ year (contributing 38.9 %) in 2030 and 0.06 Pg C/ year (contributing 32.4 %) in 2060. Afforestation using tree species with strong carbon sink capacity in existing plantations would further significantly increase carbon sinks from 0.02 Pg C/year (contributing 10.3 %) in 2030 to 0.06 Pg C/year (contributing 28.2 %) in 2060. Our results quantify the role plantation management plays in providing a strong increase in forest carbon sequestration at national scales, pointing to afforestation with native tree species with high carbon sequestration as key in achieving China's 2060 carbon neutrality target.

Adaptive monitoring in action-what drives arthropod diversity and composition in central European beech forests?

Recent studies suggest that arthropod diversity in German forests is declining. Currently, different national programs are being developed to monitor arthropod trends and to unravel the effects of forest management on biodiversity in forests. To establish effective long-term monitoring programs, a set of drivers of arthropod diversity and composition as well as suitable species groups have to be identified. To aid in answering these questions, we investigated arthropod data collected in four Hessian forest reserves (FR) in the 1990s. To fully utilize this data set, we combined it with results from a retrospective structural sampling design applied at the original trap locations in central European beech (Fagus sylvatica) forests. As expected, the importance of the different forest structural, vegetation, and site attributes differed largely between the investigated arthropod groups: beetles, spiders, Aculeata, and true bugs. Measures related to light availability and temperature such as canopy cover or potential radiation were important to all groups affecting either richness, composition, or both. Spiders and true bugs were affected by the broadest range of explanatory variables, which makes them a good choice for monitoring general trends. For targeted monitoring focused on forestry-related effects on biodiversity, rove and ground beetles seem more suitable. Both groups were driven by a narrower, more management-related set of variables. Most importantly, our study approach shows that it is possible to utilize older biodiversity survey data. Although, in our case, there are strong restrictions due to the long time between species and structural attribute sampling.

FSC-certified forest management benefits large mammals compared to non-FSC

More than a quarter of the world's tropical forests are exploited for timber1. Logging impacts biodiversity in these ecosystems, primarily through the creation of forest roads that facilitate hunting for wildlife over extensive areas. Forest management certification schemes such as the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) are expected to mitigate impacts on biodiversity, but so far very little is known about the effectiveness of FSC certification because of research design challenges, predominantly limited sample sizes2,3. Here we provide this evidence by using 1.3 million camera-trap photos of 55 mammal species in 14 logging concessions in western equatorial Africa. We observed higher mammal encounter rates in FSC-certified than in non-FSC logging concessions. The effect was most pronounced for species weighing more than 10 kg and for species of high conservation priority such as the critically endangered forest elephant and western lowland gorilla. Across the whole mammal community, non-FSC concessions contained proportionally more rodents and other small species than did FSC-certified concessions. The first priority for species protection should be to maintain unlogged forests with effective law enforcement, but for logged forests our findings provide convincing data that FSC-certified forest management is less damaging to the mammal community than is non-FSC forest management. This study provides strong evidence that FSC-certified forest management or equivalently stringent requirements and controlling mechanisms should become the norm for timber extraction to avoid half-empty forests dominated by rodents and other small species.

A scoping review of human health co-benefits of forest-based climate change mitigation in Europe

Climate change is a pressing global challenge with profound implications for human health. Forest-based climate change mitigation strategies, such as afforestation, reforestation, and sustainable forest management, offer promising solutions to mitigate climate change and simultaneously yield substantial co-benefits for human health. The objective of this scoping review was to examine research trends related to the interdisciplinary nexus between forests as carbon sinks and human health co-benefits. We developed a conceptual framework model, supporting the inclusion of exposure pathways, such as recreational opportunities or aesthetic experiences, in the co-benefit context. We used a scoping review methodology to identify the proportion of European research on forest-based mitigation strategies that acknowledge the interconnection between mitigation strategies and human impacts. We also aimed to assess whether synergies and trade-offs between forest-based carbon sink capacity and human co-benefits has been analysed and quantified. From the initial 4,062 records retrieved, 349 reports analysed European forest management principles and factors related to climate change mitigation capacity. Of those, 97 studies acknowledged human co-benefits and 13 studies quantified the impacts on exposure pathways or health co-benefits and were included for full review. Our analysis demonstrates that there is potential for synergies related to optimising carbon sink capacity together with human co-benefits, but there is currently a lack of holistic research approaches assessing these interrelationships. We suggest enhanced interdisciplinary efforts, using for example multideterminant modelling approaches, to advance evidence and understanding of the forest and health nexus in the context of climate change mitigation.

Forest management positively reshapes the phyllosphere bacterial community and improves community stability

Research has shown that forest management can improve the post-drought growth and resilience of Qinghai spruce in the eastern Qilian Mountains, located on the northeastern Tibetan Plateau. However, the impact of such management on the tree-associated phyllosphere microbiome is not yet fully understood. This study provides new evidence of positive forest management effects on the phyllosphere microbiome after extreme drought, from the perspectives of community diversity, structure, network inference, keystone species, and assembly processes. In managed Qinghai spruce forest, the α-diversity of the phyllosphere bacterial communities increased, whereas the β-diversity decreased. In addition, the phyllosphere bacterial community became more stable and resistant, yet less complex, following forest management. Keystone species inferred from a bacterial network also changed under forest management. Furthermore, forest management mediated changes in community assembly processes, intensifying the influence of determinacy, while diminishing that of stochasticity. These findings support the hypothesis that management can re-assemble the phyllosphere bacterial community, enhance community stability, and ultimately improve tree growth. Overall, the study highlights the importance of forest management on the phyllosphere microbiome and furnishes new insights into forest conservation from the perspective of managing microbial processes and effects.

Quo vadis, smallholder forest landscape? An introduction to the LPB-RAP model

The impacts of the Anthropocene on climate and biodiversity pose societal and ecological problems that may only be solved by ecosystem restoration. Local to regional actions are required, which need to consider the prevailing present and future conditions of a certain landscape extent. Modeling approaches can be of help to support management efforts and to provide advice to policy making. We present stage one of the LaForeT-PLUC-BE model (Landscape Forestry in the Tropics-PCRaster Land Use Change-Biogeographic & Economic model; in short: LPB) and its thematic expansion module RAP (Restoration Areas Potentials). LPB-RAP is a high-resolution pixel-based scenario tool that relies on a range of explicit land use types (LUTs) to describe various forest types and the environment. It simulates and analyzes future landscape configurations under consideration of climate, population and land use change long-term. Simulated Land Use Land Cover Change (LULCC) builds on dynamic, probabilistic modeling incorporating climatic and anthropogenic determinants as well as restriction parameters to depict a sub-national regional smallholder-dominated forest landscape. The model delivers results for contrasting scenario settings by simulating without and with potential Forest and Landscape Restoration (FLR) measures. FLR potentials are depicted by up to five RAP-LUTs. The model builds on user-defined scenario inputs, such as the Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSP) and Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP). Model application is here exemplified for the SSP2-RCP4.5 scenario in the time frame 2018-2100 on the hectare scale in annual resolution using Esmeraldas province, Ecuador, as a case study area. The LPB-RAP model is a novel, heuristic Spatial Decision Support System (SDSS) tool for smallholder-dominated forest landscapes, supporting near-time top-down planning measures with long-term bottom-up modeling. Its application should be followed up by FLR on-site investigations and stakeholder participation across all involved scales.

Tree parameter extraction in Fokienia hodginsii plantation based on airborne LiDAR data

Accurate and efficient extraction of tree parameters from plantations lay foundation for estimating individual wood volume and stand stocking. In this study, we proposed a method of extracting high-precision tree parameters based on airborne LiDAR data. The main process included data pre-processing, ground filtering, individual tree segmentation, and parameter extraction. We collected high-density airborne point cloud data from the large-diameter timber of Fokienia hodginsii plantation in Guanzhuang State Forestry Farm, Shaxian County, Fujian Province, and pre-processed the point cloud data by denoising, resampling and normalization. The vegetation point clouds and ground point clouds were separated by the Cloth Simulation Filter (CSF). The former data were interpolated using the Delaunay triangulation mesh method to generate a digital surface model (DSM), while the latter data were interpolated using the Inverse Distance Weighted to generate a digital elevation model (DEM). After that, we obtained the canopy height model (CHM) through the difference operation between the two, and analyzed the CHM with varying resolutions by the watershed algorithm on the accuracy of individual tree segmentation and parameter extraction. We used the point cloud distance clustering algorithm to segment the normalized vegetation point cloud into individual trees, and analyzed the effects of different distance thresholds on the accuracy of indivi-dual tree segmentation and parameter extraction. The results showed that the watershed algorithm for extracting tree height of 0.3 m resolution CHM had highest comprehensive evaluation index of 91.1% for individual tree segmentation and superior accuracy with R2 of 0.967 and RMSE of 0.890 m. When the spacing threshold of the point cloud segmentation algorithm was the average crown diameter, the highest comprehensive evaluation index of 91.3% for individual tree segmentation, the extraction accuracy of the crown diameter was superior, with R2 of 0.937 and RMSE of 0.418 m. Tree height, crown diameter, tree density, and spatial distribution of trees were estimated. There were 5994 F. hodginsii, with an average tree height of 16.63 m and crown diameter of 3.98 m. Trees with height of 15-20 m were the most numerous (a total of 2661), followed by those between 10-15 m. This method of forest parameter extraction was useful for monitoring and managing plantations.

Country-specific net-zero strategies of the pulp and paper industry

The pulp and paper industry is an important contributor to global greenhouse gas emissions1,2. Country-specific strategies are essential for the industry to achieve net-zero emissions by 2050, given its vast heterogeneities across countries3,4. Here we develop a comprehensive bottom-up assessment of net greenhouse gas emissions of the domestic paper-related sectors for 30 major countries from 1961 to 2019-about 3.2% of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions from the same period5-and explore mitigation strategies through 2,160 scenarios covering key factors. Our results show substantial differences across countries in terms of historical emissions evolution trends and structure. All countries can achieve net-zero emissions for their pulp and paper industry by 2050, with a single measure for most developed countries and several measures for most developing countries. Except for energy-efficiency improvement and energy-system decarbonization, tropical developing countries with abundant forest resources should give priority to sustainable forest management, whereas other developing countries should pay more attention to enhancing methane capture rate and reducing recycling. These insights are crucial for developing net-zero strategies tailored to each country and achieving net-zero emissions by 2050 for the pulp and paper industry.

Sensors for Digital Transformation in Smart Forestry

Smart forestry, an innovative approach leveraging artificial intelligence (AI), aims to enhance forest management while minimizing the environmental impact. The efficacy of AI in this domain is contingent upon the availability of extensive, high-quality data, underscoring the pivotal role of sensor-based data acquisition in the digital transformation of forestry. However, the complexity and challenging conditions of forest environments often impede data collection efforts. Achieving the full potential of smart forestry necessitates a comprehensive integration of sensor technologies throughout the process chain, ensuring the production of standardized, high-quality data essential for AI applications. This paper highlights the symbiotic relationship between human expertise and the digital transformation in forestry, particularly under challenging conditions. We emphasize the human-in-the-loop approach, which allows experts to directly influence data generation, enhancing adaptability and effectiveness in diverse scenarios. A critical aspect of this integration is the deployment of autonomous robotic systems in forests, functioning both as data collectors and processing hubs. These systems are instrumental in facilitating sensor integration and generating substantial volumes of quality data. We present our universal sensor platform, detailing our experiences and the critical importance of the initial phase in digital transformation-the generation of comprehensive, high-quality data. The selection of appropriate sensors is a key factor in this process, and our findings underscore its significance in advancing smart forestry.

Optimizing functional zoning for Dalingshan Forest Park in China through microcosmic human disturbance evaluation

Human disturbance stands as a prominent factor influencing the ecological environment within natural protected areas. Presently, the issue of balancing human activities and ecological preservation has emerged as a critical concern in the construction of China's natural protected area system. Functional zoning serves as the cornerstone of natural protected area management and represents a pivotal tool in achieving this equilibrium. This study endeavors to introduce a set of functional zoning methods for natural protected areas based on human disturbance assessments. Utilizing Dalingshan Forest Park in Dongguan city which is known for its significant human disturbances as a case study, field surveys were conducted to identify various types of small-scale and understory-hidden human disturbances, such as residential areas, roads, tourist areas, forestry areas, and energy facilities. Subsequently, a microcosmic human disturbance model tailored to forested areas was developed using the analytic hierarchy process. By integrating the findings of macrocosmic human disturbance assessments conducted concurrently by the research group, a functional zoning plan for Dalingshan Forest Park was proposed. The results show that ecological conservation zones within the park should be established in three specific areas, primarily in regions with low-level microcosmic human disturbance (levels 1 and 2) and terrain fluctuations ≥110 m. In contrast, the rational use zone is notably influenced by tourist infrastructure and road networks, predominantly located in regions with high human activity, such as popular tourist destinations and areas with road classifications and vehicular traffic. The microcosmic human disturbance assessment method proposed in this study enhances the rationality and accuracy of natural protected area functional zoning. It provides a more scientifically grounded research approach for similar studies concerning natural protected area functional zoning and contributes valuable insights for the further advancement of China's efforts in the integration and optimization of natural protected areas.

Designing a conceptual framework for strategic selection of Bushfire mitigation approaches

Fires are an important aspect of environmental ecology; however, they are also one of the most widespread destructive forces impacting natural ecosystems as well as property, human health, water and other resources. Urban sprawl is driving the construction of new homes and facilities into fire-vulnerable areas. This growth, combined with a warmer climate, is likely to make the consequences of wildfires more severe. To reduce wildfires and associated risks, a variety of hazard reduction practices are implemented, such as prescribed burning (PB) and mechanical fuel load reduction (MFLR). PB can reduce forest fuel load; however, it has adverse effects on air quality and human health, and should not be applied close to residential areas due to risks of fire escape. On the other hand, MFLR releases less greenhouse gasses and does not impose risks to residential areas. However, it is more expensive to implement. We suggest that environmental, economic and social costs of various mitigation tools should be taken into account when choosing the most appropriate fire mitigation approach and propose a conceptual framework, which can do it. We show that applying GIS methods and life cycle assessment we can produce a more reasonable comparison that can, for example, include the benefits that can be generated by using collected biomass for bioenergy or in timber industries. This framework can assist decision makers to find the optimal combinations of hazard reduction practices for various specific conditions and locations.

Landscape-scale benefits of protected areas for tropical biodiversity

The United Nations recently agreed to major expansions of global protected areas (PAs) to slow biodiversity declines1. However, although reserves often reduce habitat loss, their efficacy at preserving animal diversity and their influence on biodiversity in surrounding unprotected areas remain unclear2-5. Unregulated hunting can empty PAs of large animals6, illegal tree felling can degrade habitat quality7, and parks can simply displace disturbances such as logging and hunting to unprotected areas of the landscape8 (a phenomenon called leakage). Alternatively, well-functioning PAs could enhance animal diversity within reserves as well as in nearby unprotected sites9 (an effect called spillover). Here we test whether PAs across mega-diverse Southeast Asia contribute to vertebrate conservation inside and outside their boundaries. Reserves increased all facets of bird diversity. Large reserves were also associated with substantially enhanced mammal diversity in the adjacent unprotected landscape. Rather than PAs generating leakage that deteriorated ecological conditions elsewhere, our results are consistent with PAs inducing spillover that benefits biodiversity in surrounding areas. These findings support the United Nations goal of achieving 30% PA coverage by 2030 by demonstrating that PAs are associated with higher vertebrate diversity both inside their boundaries and in the broader landscape.

The carbon costs of global wood harvests

After agriculture, wood harvest is the human activity that has most reduced the storage of carbon in vegetation and soils1,2. Although felled wood releases carbon to the atmosphere in various steps, the fact that growing trees absorb carbon has led to different carbon-accounting approaches for wood use, producing widely varying estimates of carbon costs. Many approaches give the impression of low, zero or even negative greenhouse gas emissions from wood harvests because, in different ways, they offset carbon losses from new harvests with carbon sequestration from growth of broad forest areas3,4. Attributing this sequestration to new harvests is inappropriate because this other forest growth would occur regardless of new harvests and typically results from agricultural abandonment, recovery from previous harvests and climate change itself. Nevertheless some papers count gross emissions annually, which assigns no value to the capacity of newly harvested forests to regrow and approach the carbon stocks of unharvested forests. Here we present results of a new model that uses time discounting to estimate the present and future carbon costs of global wood harvests under different scenarios. We find that forest harvests between 2010 and 2050 will probably have annualized carbon costs of 3.5-4.2 Gt CO2e yr-1, which approach common estimates of annual emissions from land-use change due to agricultural expansion. Our study suggests an underappreciated option to address climate change by reducing these costs.

A high spatial resolution dataset of China's biomass resource potential

Assessing biomass resource potential is essential for China's ambitious goals of carbon neutrality, rural revitalization, and poverty eradication. To fill the data gap of high spatial resolution biomass resources in China, this study estimates the biomass resource potential for all types of lignocellulosic biomass feedstock at 1 km resolution in 2018, including 9 types of agricultural residues, 11 types of forestry residues, and 5 types of energy crops. By combining the statistical accounting method and the GIS-based method, this study develops a transparent and comprehensive assessment framework, which is in accordance with the principle of food security, forest land and pasture protection, and biodiversity protection. In the end, we organize and store the data in different formats (GeoTIFF, NetCDF, and Excel) for GIS users, integrated modelers, and policymakers. The reliability of this high spatial resolution dataset has been proved by comparing the aggregated data at the subnational and national levels with the existing literature. This dataset has numerous potential uses and is a crucial input to many bioenergy-related studies.

Quantitative and qualitative workload assessment in steep terrain forest operations: fostering a safer work environment through yarder automation

Many forestry roles have changed from being manual tasks with a high physical workload to being a machine operator task with a high mental workload. Automation can support a decrease in mental fatigue by removing tasks that are repetitive and monotonous for the operators. Cable yarding presents an ideal opportunity for early adoption of automation technology; specifically the carriage movement along a defined corridor. A Valentini V-850 cable yarder was used in an Italian harvesting setting, in order to gauge the ergonomic benefit of carriage control automation. The study showed that automating yarder carriage movements improved the ergonomic situation of the workers directly involved in the related primary tasks. However, the caveat is that improving one work task may negatively affect the other work tasks, and therefore introducing automation to a worksite must be done after considering all impacts on the whole system. Practitioner summary: Automation decreased the winch operator's mental workload while improving overall productivity. At the same time, the mental and physiological workload of the operator tasked with bucking were slightly increased. Ideally, winch automation should be coupled with bucking mechanisation to balance the intervention and boost both operator well-being and productivity.

Long-term game species dynamic as indicator for changing landscape quality

Urban sprawl, increased traffic and modern forestry, as well as the globalisation of agriculture, have increasingly been affecting the landscape and its quality as habitat for species especially since the middle of the last century. Still, there are hardly any methods nor indicators which can measure the quality of the landscape for species over a long period. In this study, we investigated the influence of landscape structure and landscape quality on harvest data of 28 game species in South Tyrol, Italy, over the last 150 years. The harvest data were used to assess the population dynamics of individual species and habitat guilds since 1870. As a first result, we could show, on the examples of six species, that count population data were highly correlated with harvest data and are therefore well suited to estimate their population size. Second, the populations of ungulates consistently increased during the study period. The numbers of mesocarnivores as well as smaller forest and alpine game species increased strongly until the 1970s/80s of the last century, followed by a decline. The populations of farmland species and some synanthropic species have decreased substantially, and some species have even disappeared completely. Based on these results, we were able to show, in a third step, that the landscape quality for game species in South Tyrol has developed differently: In particular, the agriculturally used habitats have lost quality, whereas forests and alpine regions have initially gained quality due to the extensification of use; during the last five decades, the quality decreases again, at least for small game species. Our results thus provide concrete implications for the active improvement of the landscape quality for farmland and forest species, as well as indications for future priorities in funding support of alpine pasture management.

European forests under global climate change: Review of tree growth processes, crises and management strategies

The ongoing global climate change is challenging all sectors, forestry notwithstanding. On the one hand, forest ecosystems are exposed to and threatened by climate change, but on the other hand, forests can influence the course of climate change by regulating the water regime, air quality, carbon sequestration, and even reduce climate extremes. Therefore, it is crucial to see climate change not only as a risk causing forest disturbances and economic consequences but also as an opportunity for innovative approaches to forest management, conservation, and silviculture based on the results of long-term research. We reviewed 365 studies evaluating the impact of climate change on European forest ecosystems, all published during the last 30 years (1993-2022). The most significant consequences of climate change include more frequent and destructive large-scale forest disturbances (wildfire, windstorm, drought, flood, bark beetle, root rot), and tree species migration. Species distribution shifts and changes in tree growth rate have substantial effects on ecosystem carbon storage. Diameter/volume increment changed from -1 to +99% in Central and Northern Europe, while it decreased from -12 to -49% in Southern Europe across tree species over the last ca. 50 years. However, it is important to sharply focus on the causes of climate change and subsequently, on adaptive strategies, which can successfully include the creation of species-diverse, spatially and age-wise structured stands (decrease drought stress and increase production), prolongation of the regenerative period, or the use of suitable introduced tree species (e.g., Douglas fir, black pine, and Mediterranean oaks). But the desired changes are based on increasing diversity and the mitigation of climate change, and will require significantly higher initial costs for silviculture practices. In conclusion, the scope and complexity of the topic require further comprehensive and long-term studies focusing on international cooperation. We see a critical gap in the transfer of research results into actual forest practice, which will be the key factor influencing afforestation of forest stands and forest growth in the following decades. What our forests will look like for future generations and what the resulting impact of climate change will be on forestry is in the hands of forest managers, depending on supportive forestry research and climate change policy, including adaptive and mitigation strategies.

Decision Support Framework for Evaluating The Barriers To Salvage Logging: A Case Study on Private Forest Management in Slovenia

Natural disturbances have increased the extent of forest damage in recent decades and influenced the share of salvage logging and forest management practices in many European countries. These challenges have a significant impact on private forest owners, as 56% of all forestland in Europe is privately owned. The current study researched barriers to salvage logging in private forests in a three-phase framework. First, barriers were identified by conducting a literature review, and they were critically reviewed by experts. In the second phase, stakeholders were selected, and in the third phase, they evaluated barriers using the multicriteria decision-making, best-worst method. The developed framework was applied in the case of Slovenian private forest management. According to the stakeholders, the most important group of barriers consists of organizational and logistical factors, while the most important individual barrier is the organization of logging and skidding. It is expected that this framework can contribute to finding appropriate solutions that meet stakeholders' expectations and that are very helpful and important in removing barriers to the efficiency of salvage logging in private forests.

A comparative assessment of forest/green cover and the awareness of forestry district managers

Urban forests are becoming more critical as climate-induced disasters and disturbances tend to increase and affect cities. Forest managers are the responsible technical people on the ground to implement forestry-related climate policies. There is limited knowledge on the capacities of forest managers related to climate change issues. In this study, we surveyed 69 forest district managers of 28 provinces and compared their responses with actual data to understand their perceptions of urban green areas and climate change issues. We used a set of digital maps of the 1990-2015 period to identify land cover changes. To calculate the urban forest cover in the city centers, we used the city limit delineation shapefiles produced by the EU Copernicus program. We also employed the land consumption rate/population growth rate metric and a principle component analysis (PCA) to identify and discuss the provinces' land and forest cover changes. The results showed that forest district managers were aware of the general condition of the forests in their provinces. Still, there was a considerable inconsistency between actual land use changes (i.e., deforestation) and their responses. The study also revealed that the forest managers were aware of the increasing influence of climate change issues but were not knowledgeable enough to establish the connection between their tasks and climate change. We concluded that the national forestry policy should prioritize the urban-forest interaction and develop the capacities of district forest managers to improve the efficiency of climate policies on a regional scale.

Spatial trade-offs between ecological and economical sustainability in the boreal production forest

Economically-oriented forestry aims to sustain timber harvest revenues, while ecologically-oriented management supplies suitable habitat for species using deadwood as primary habitat. As these objectives are conflicting, planning for economic and ecological sustainability involves compromise and trade-offs. We analyze the spatial trade-offs between the economic value from timber harvesting and the volume of deadwood in the boreal forest. We assess these trade-offs from three perspectives: (1) landscape characteristics, affected by conservation strategies; (2) forest management promoting either economic or ecological values; (3) uncertainty in inventory errors undermining the estimate of the two sustainability objectives. To reveal the tradeoffs between the forest economic and ecological values we simulated and optimized a production landscape in Finland 30 years into the future accounting for uncertainty in biomass and deadwood inventories. We found that, with a limited reduction in timber harvesting (7%), (i) the amount of deadwood increased more in non-aggregated (45%) than in aggregated (16%) stands, (ii) constraining stands in adjacent areas further increased deadwood (21%) respect to the matrix and (iii) 7% of connected stand area harbored ≥20 m³/ha deadwood supporting survival of near-threatened species. Our results demonstrate that the structure of the landscape for biodiversity can be improved with limited economic losses. However, improving habitat configuration requires larger economic losses than only increasing habitat amount, but its ecological benefits are larger both for common and red-listed species. We found that management oriented towards stand aggregation not only creates connected areas with high deadwood of high value biodiversity but also improves the value of the whole matrix by decreasing intensive timber harvesting and energy wood collection. Finally, we found that uncertainties alter the estimate of the potential of the forest landscape to supply deadwood, and this can affect the choice of management actions to allocate over the landscape. To conclude, our results demonstrate the trade-offs between economic forest use and conservation are affected differently by landscape characteristics, forest management and uncertainty in inventory errors. As such these drivers should be considered when optimizing the forest for multiple uses.

Growth performance of different forestry species irrigated with moderately saline wastewater

A seven month, pot study was conducted to evaluate the impact of moderately saline wastewater on the growth potential of six forestry plant species viz., Eucalyptus calmaldulensis, Dendrocalamus strictus, Casurina equisetfolia, Cassia fistula, Melia dubia, and Bambusa arundinacea under different drainage conditions namely, well-drained saline (WDS) condition and poor-drained saline condition (PDS) and the control with well-drained non-saline condition. WDS treatment resulted in no mortality whereas PDS treatment resulted in mortality in the range of 33-66%. The plant height and root dry biomass increased in the range of 145% to 221.6% and 4.3-37.1 g respectively in WDS treatment, however, 23.60% to 173.4% and 4.1-10.1 g in PDS treatment. Among all, Eucalyptus camaldulensis and Dendrocalamus strictus showed high Na+ accumulation in roots (2.16 ± 0.02% and 1.13 ± 0.01%), shoots (1.98 ± 0.01% and 0.74 ± 0.01%) and leaves (1.27 ± 0.02% and 0.86 ± 0.01%) in WDS treatment and in case of PDS treatment root (1.01 ± 0.01% and 0.23 ± 0.01%), shoot (1.12 ± 0.02% and 0.11 ± 0.01%), and leaf (0.07 ± 0.01% and 0.1 ± 0.02). The overall performance of both Eucalyptus camaldulensis and Dendrocalamus strictus was highest in WDS treatment. Therefore, it was concluded, that both plants had better performance than other plant species, a proper drainage system defines the overall productivity and treatment efficiency.

Evaluating Mechanisms of Short-term Woodland Salamander Response to Forest Management

Contemporary forest management often requires meeting diverse ecological objectives including maintaining ecosystem function and promoting biodiversity through timber harvesting. Wildlife are essential in this process by providing ecological services that can facilitate forest resiliency in response to timber harvesting. However, the mechanisms driving species' responses remain ambiguous. The goal of this study was to assess mechanisms influencing eastern red-backed salamander (RBS; Plethodon cinereus) response to overstory cover removal. We evaluated two mitigation strategies for the RBS in response to overstory removal. We used a before-after-control-impact design to study how (1) retaining residual trees or (2) eliminating soil compaction affected RBS surface counts and body condition index (BCI) up to two-years post-treatment. Additionally, we assessed how surface counts of RBS were influenced by overstory tree cover. Surface counts of RBS were not strongly influenced by overstory removal when tree residuals were retained. Body condition index increased in treatments where harvest residuals were retained. In treatments where soil compaction was eliminated, surface counts and BCI were inversely related. Finally, surface counts from both mitigation strategies were not strongly influenced by overstory cover. Overall, both mitigation techniques appeared to ameliorate impacts of overstory removal on RBS. These results highlight the importance of understanding mechanisms driving species' responses to forest management. To reduce the perceived negative effects of overstory removal on RBS, incorporating these mitigation measures may contribute to the viability and stability of RBS populations. Incorporating species' life history traits into management strategies could increase continuity of ecological function and integrity through harvesting.

Effects of EU illegal logging policy on timber-supplying countries: A systematic review

The EU's Forest Law Enforcement, Governance and Trade Action Plan (FLEGT) adopted in 2003 includes bilateral trade agreements known as Voluntary Partnership Agreements (VPAs) signed between the EU and timber-supplying countries. The EU has invested more than 1.5 billion euros in VPAs; however, only one of the seven concerned countries has managed to complete all the necessary requirements to expire FLEGT licences. Since there is no research that comprehensively integrates the scientific evidence regarding the effects of this policy, this study systematically reviews all empirical scientific studies on the effects of VPAs. We found that almost all relevant studies are case reports that use qualitative data and focus on only one country at a time, mainly Ghana, Cameroon, or Indonesia. The evidence suggests that while VPAs have contributed to the establishment of governance structures, tools, and procedures they have not been able to solve social problems (i.e., inequality and injustice) and have potentially harmed the economies of EU timber suppliers. Evidence on the effects of VPAs on illegal logging and trade and the environment remains limited. Thus, future research should focus on more countries; use a greater range of methods, including comparative experimental designs; explore possible intended effects on under-researched categories; and systematically investigate unintended effects on other categories within and outside the forestry sector.

Welfare Implications of Border Carbon Adjustments on the Trade of Harvested Wood Products

Border carbon adjustments (BCAs) are designed to regulate carbon emissions and reduce carbon leakage. Thus far, BCAs are mainly applied to imported carbon-intensive products. On the other hand, harvested wood products (HWPs) are the extension of forest carbon stocks, whose changes affect a country's carbon stock level. Nonetheless, the trade of HWPs also raises the problem of carbon leakage when their carbon stocks are exported, which can be partially solved by applying export BCAs. We construct a two-stage game model to analyze the strategy changes of the government and forestry companies under BCAs: the first stage is output competition in a Cournot game similar to the trade of HWPs between New Zealand and China; the second stage is the setting of the tax rate of BCAs by the country. We use the inverse solution method to derive the results of the game. Our results find that the government imposes BCAs on exports of HWPs when the carbon stock value exceeds a threshold. Moreover, the export BCAs on HWPs can effectively reduce the amount of HWPs exported. The results also show that BCAs diminish forestry exporters' revenues and consumer surplus while having no significant detrimental impact on a country's welfare. BCAs help include carbon stock values into HWPs' prices and reduce carbon leakage, which is beneficial for climate change. Thus, exporting countries can maintain their welfare by implementing BCAs, and the forestry companies can respond by improving product quality, enhancing product uniqueness, and reducing production costs.

Evaluation of mushroom production potential by combining spatial optimization and LiDAR-based forest mapping data

High-resolution forest mapping technology is a powerful data source to assess the production capacity of forests regarding wood and non-wood ecosystem services. The study shows how to evaluate the potential benefits from forest management treatments devoted to increase mushroom supply. The study was developed in Central Spain, over a forest with important cultural and economic values attached to mushrooms. Airborne laser scanning (ALS), mushroom production models and mathematical programming as spatial optimization method are used to sequence, spatially and temporally, silviculture-oriented actions to enlarge mushroom provisioning. We present a tactical forest planning solution to incentivize mushroom yield driven by clustered silvicultural treatments applied to fine-grained segments derived from ALS data, and along a 5-year plan while embedding temporal and spatial dependencies. Mushroom yield can increase up to 18 % from current conditions if all area is treated. Our model integrates constraints to optimize the selection of segments yielding the highest benefits in terms of mushroom yield and timber removals during the treatments. The temporal sequencing was successful, so the annual interventions are scheduled aligned in space and in time to ease the actionability and realism of model outputs. The assessment of production potential is an informative, spatially and temporally explicit exercise to inform decision-makers on investment opportunities to enhance the supply of non-wood ecosystem services, tested with mushroom in this study but extendable to more non-wood ecosystem services.

Decadal forest dynamics in logged and unlogged sites at Uppangala, Western Ghats, India

Selective logging disrupts forests, changing their structure and species composition. Long-term monitoring helps in identifying the factors influencing it and aids in designing management plans. We conducted a quantitative re-assessment of trees ≥ 30 cm girth at breast height in four 1 ha plots in logged and two 1 ha plots in adjacent unlogged compartments of Uppangala forest continuum in the Western Ghats, India to compare the structural and compositional changes after a decade (2010-2021). Altogether, four species disappeared and three species were newly recruited. Mean species richness and stem density of both the forest sites decreased. Logged plots showed a slight increase in basal area (2.5%) and biomass (5.1%), whereas unlogged plots showed a decline in basal area (3.92%) and biomass (2.9%). As compared to unlogged plots, all the demographic rates were higher for logged forest sites. Across the six individual plots, the growth rates varied significantly owing to wood density and forest strata categories. Non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) identified three groups with significant difference in species composition, where logged and unlogged plots have a distinct composition except for one plot. Although species richness and stem diversity remained stable, the species composition is different 37 years after logging, and the impacts of logging are still evident in the forest.

AHP-based multi-criteria decision-making for forest sustainability of lower Himalayan foothills in northern circle, India-a case study

Forest degradation is a major issue worldwide. The study area, situated in the lower Himalayan foothills of northern India, is also witnessing the same. A ground survey of the area revealed that socio-economic factors are a major cause of forest degradation. Therefore, sustainable forest management is required to maintain forest resources and health. This study aims to develop the most suitable and agreeable alternatives for ensuring the sustainability of forest use, increase economic benefits, and improve the living conditions of the people surrounding the forest area. This study uses the analytical hierarchy process (AHP) as a decision-making method. A pre-test was conducted prior to the main survey, which helped validate the questionnaires and deliver more reliable survey responses. The authors identified three criteria (C) and nine indicators (I).The pre-tested criteria and indicators arranged in hierarchical order were prioritized by applying the AHP. A list of 36 alternatives (A) was prepared in ascending order to select the best alternatives and was used to make suitable judgments for enhancing forest management efficiency. C, I, and A were developed based on a literature review, pre-test, and questionnaire-based field survey that recorded the preferences of different stakeholders. The survey was conducted in 77 fringe villages surrounding the forest and responses were collected from 302 respondents. The overall AHP implementation was simplified using "Super Decisions." The results advocate adopting valid options such as afforestation, agro-forestry, plantation, forest boundary demarcation, capital investment, and others to strengthen the sustainable development of the region. Furthermore, some of the major findings were shared with decision-making authorities (forest officials and village representatives). The stakeholders realized the need to accelerate participatory forest management practices, capacity building, and training of the local populations, together with other options to improve their livelihoods.

Short-term responses of small mammal diversity to varying stand-scale patterns of retention tree patches

Retention forestry is a common practice for biodiversity conservation in forests managed for wood production. Retention forestry often leaves unharvested patches of trees that vary in size and spatial pattern but experiments evaluating the effects of different retention patch configurations at a constant level of retention are lacking for many regions and taxonomic groups. We implemented an experimental study in clearcut conifer stands with retention across the U.S. Pacific Northwest region. The study consisted of five stand-level (11-55 ha) experimental treatments each replicated 10 times within a randomized complete block design, resulting in 50 treated stands. Retained tree density was comparable across treatments but size, number, and location (upland or riparian) of patches within stands varied among the five treatments. Within experimental treatments, we measured small mammal (<1kg) species and functional trait (i.e., body size, diet, activity stratum) richness in retention patches, surrounding harvested portions of stands, and nearby unharvested stands. We evaluated species and functional trait richness by treatment using generalized linear mixed-effects models and species-specific responses to retention placement using a community occupancy model. We obtained repeat captures of 21 species of small mammals but found limited evidence of a treatment effect on species richness, and no differences in functional trait richness. Species richness was highest where all retained trees were aggregated into one patch placed adjacent to a forested riparian buffer (mean = 6.6 species, 95% CI = 5.7-7.5), and lowest in the treatment containing one retention patch in the upland portion of a harvested stand (mean = 4.7 species, 95% CI = 3.8-5.6). Furthermore, estimates of species richness within retention patches of harvested stands (i.e., not considering species in harvested areas) did not differ among treatments, indicating that the slightly elevated species richness in riparian-associated retention results from 1-2 species in these patches that do not occur in adjacent harvested portions of each treated stand. Patch occupancy of several species was higher in riparian patches than harvested portions of the treated stands, and fewer species had higher occupancy in upland patches compared to harvested portions of treated stands. Our results indicated that at retention densities currently required in Oregon and Washington, the location of retention patches had a small influence on stand-scale measures of small mammal diversity, but local increases in species richness may be obtained by retaining trees adjacent to riparian buffers.

Lower alpha, higher beta, and similar gamma diversity of saproxylic beetles in unmanaged compared to managed Norway spruce stands

Strong anthropogenic pressures on global forests necessitate that managed forests be evaluated as habitat for biodiversity. The complex pattern of habitat types created in forestry systems is ideal for analyses through the theoretical framework of alpha (local), gamma (total) and beta (compositional) diversity. Here I use saproxylic beetles, a species-rich threatened group, to compare four Norway spruce-dominated habitats representative of the boreal forest landscape of northern Europe: unmanaged semi-natural stands, nature reserves, unthinned middle-aged production stands and commercially thinned production stands. The beetles (in total 38 085 individuals of 312 species), including red-listed ones and three feeding guilds (wood consumers, fungivores and predators) were studied in 53 stands in central-southern Sweden, in two regions with differing amounts of conservation forest. Alpha diversity of saproxylic, but not red-listed, beetles was higher in the thinned stands than in the semi-natural stands, and did not differ for the other forest types. Beta diversity of saproxylic beetles was higher in unmanaged semi-natural stands than in the other forest types, but species composition did not differ noticeably. Furthermore, red-listed saproxylic beetles had higher gamma diversity in unmanaged semi-natural stands in the region with more conservation forest, but not in the one with less such forest. The local factors dead wood volume and dead wood diversity did not influence alpha diversity of beetles, but increasing canopy openness had a minor negative influence on saproxylic and red-listed beetles. While the local scale (alpha diversity) indicates the potential for managed forests to house many saproxylic beetle species associated with spruce forests in this boreal landscape, the larger scales (beta and gamma diversity) indicate the value of unmanaged forests for the conservation of the entire saproxylic beetle fauna. These results show the importance of analyses at multiple levels of diversity (alpha, beta, gamma) for identifying patterns relevant to conservation.

Natural disturbance regimes as a guide for sustainable forest management in Europe

In Europe, forest management has controlled forest dynamics to sustain commodity production over multiple centuries. Yet over-regulation for growth and yield diminishes resilience to environmental stress as well as threatens biodiversity, leading to increasing forest susceptibility to an array of disturbances. These trends have stimulated interest in alternative management systems, including natural dynamics silviculture (NDS). NDS aims to emulate natural disturbance dynamics at stand and landscape scales through silvicultural manipulations of forest structure and landscape patterns. We adapted a "Comparability Index" (CI) to assess convergence/divergence between natural disturbances and forest management effects. We extended the original CI concept based on disturbance size and frequency by adding the residual structure of canopy trees after a disturbance as a third dimension. We populated the model by compiling data on natural disturbance dynamics and management from 13 countries in Europe, covering four major forest types (i.e., spruce, beech, oak, and pine-dominated forests). We found that natural disturbances are highly variable in size, frequency, and residual structure, but European forest management fails to encompass this complexity. Silviculture in Europe is skewed toward even-aged systems, used predominately (72.9% of management) across the countries assessed. The residual structure proved crucial in the comparison of natural disturbances and silvicultural systems. CI indicated the highest congruence between uneven-aged silvicultural systems and key natural disturbance attributes. Even so, uneven-aged practices emulated only a portion of the complexity associated with natural disturbance effects. The remaining silvicultural systems perform poorly in terms of retention compared to tree survivorship after natural disturbances. We suggest that NDS can enrich Europe's portfolio of management systems, for example where wood production is not the primary objective. NDS is especially relevant to forests managed for habitat quality, risk reduction, and a variety of ecosystem services. We suggest a holistic approach integrating NDS with more conventional practices.

The Use of Simple Language in Informal Forest Education as a Key to the Correct Interpretation of Sustainable Forest Management—The Experience of Poland

In view of the increasing conflict between society and forest management and a significant increase in the social functions of the forest, informal forest education is becoming increasingly important. In Poland, it is carried out mainly based on the field educational infrastructure, which consists, among other things, of forest educational paths equipped with educational boards. The paper presents the results of research on the assessment of the availability of texts presented on educational boards. The study was conducted on the basis of photographs of educational boards located on six educational paths in the forests of the Regional Directorate of State Forests in Lublin. Using the Google Lans application, the main text from each board was read and then analyzed in the Promovolt software program to determine the level of text accessibility using the Fog Index. The results were then compared with the opinion of respondents using an online survey, which indicated that most of the boards are written in language that is either simple, understandable to middle/high school students, or quite difficult but understandable to first-degree students. On the other hand, the respondents generally indicated the level of accessibility of the text to be easier because, in their opinion, it is enough to have a primary education to understand the content of the boards. This observation leads to the conclusion that in order for education to be more effective, simple language should be used, which can be understood by the less educated members of the population.

Developing fine-grained nationwide predictions of valuable forests using biodiversity indicator bird species

The use of indicator species in forest conservation and management planning can facilitate enhanced preservation of biodiversity from the negative effects of forestry and other uses of land. However, this requires detailed and spatially comprehensive knowledge of the habitat preferences and distributions of selected focal indicator species. Unfortunately, due to limited resources for field surveys, only a small proportion of the occurrences of focal species is usually known. This shortcoming can be circumvented by using modeling techniques to predict the spatial distribution of suitable sites for the target species. Airborne laser scanning (ALS) and other remote sensing (RS) techniques have the potential to provide useful environmental data covering systematically large areas for these purposes. Here, we focused on six bird of prey and woodpecker species known to be good indicators of boreal forest biodiversity values. We used known nest sites of the six indicator species based on nestling ringing records. Thus, the most suitable nesting sites of these species provide important information for biodiversity-friendly forest management and conservation planning. We developed fine-grained, that is, 96 × 96 m grid cell resolution, predictive maps across the whole of Finland of the suitable nesting habitats based on ALS and other RS data and spatial information on the distribution of important forest stands for the six studied biodiversity indicator bird species based on nesting-habitat suitability modeling, that is, the MaxEnt model. Habitat preferences of the study species, as determined by MaxEnt, were in line with the previous knowledge of species-habitat relations. The proportion of suitable habitats of these species in protected areas (PAs) was considerable, but our analysis also revealed many potentially high-quality forest stands outside PAs. However, many of these sites are increasingly threatened by logging because of increased pressures for using forests for bioeconomy and forest industry based on National Forest Strategy. Predicting habitat suitability based on information on the nest sites of indicator species provides a new tool for systematic conservation planning over large areas in boreal forests in Europe, and a corresponding approach would also be feasible and recommendable elsewhere where similar data are available.

The theoretical modeling of the dynamic compaction process of forest soil

Due to the growing demand for timber, forest soils are increasingly exposed to mechanical disturbances, caused by forestry equipment. Even though using skidding machines to transport wood is detrimental to the physical state of the soil, this method remains the most common. Hence, there is a need to model the impact of skidding systems on the upper (fertile) layer of the soil. This study aims to develop such a model using the D'Alembert principle, the method of Laplace transforms, and a modified Kelvin-Voigt model. The work shows that subdividing the tractor-bundle-soil system makes it possible to consider the dynamic effect of the vibrating tractor on the soil and soil's ability to undergo deformation separately. In addition, the study developed individual models for the first subsystem that determine vibration effects on soil caused by an unloaded tractor and two loaded skidding systems using different methods of semi-suspended skidding. The present findings can be used to predict the degree of dynamic soil compaction without conducting direct on-site experiments and thus minimize the negative impact of forestry operations on the local ecosystem. The current data also allow simplifying design models for complex forwarders.

Ontogenetic niche shifts in a locally endangered tree species (Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata) in a disturbed forest in Northern Ethiopia: Implications for conservation

Understanding the responses of different ontogenetic stages to environmental and human disturbance factors is essential for developing efficient conservation strategies for endangered plant species. We examined how three ontogenetic stages of a locally endangered tree species, Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata, responded to environmental factors and human disturbance in Hugumburda dry Afromontane forest in Ethiopia. We counted individual seedlings, saplings and adults of O. europaea in 70 20 × 20 m quadrats over ca. 2.8 ha, and measured biotic (woody species richness, canopy cover, aboveground tree biomass, herbaceous cover), abiotic (soil and topographic variables), and human disturbance factors (logging and tracks). To detect ontogenetic niche shifts, we compared observed vs. simulated locations of trees in the three life stages and how they related to the environmental and human disturbance factors. We found that the population structure of O. europaea showed generally low recruitment, with few seedlings per hectare compared with the abundance of saplings and adults. The probability of finding O. europaea individuals was influenced by biotic (woody species richness) and abiotic (soil depth, slope) environmental conditions and human disturbance (logging intensity), but the direction, strength and shape of the relationships differed between seedling, sapling and adult life stages, indicating ontogenetic niche shifts. All life stages showed a positive relationship with elevation. The observed environmental niches of the different lifestages of O. europaea, and their association with human disturbance levels, should be considered when conservation strategies are developed for this species. Human disturbance in terms of logging decreases the abundance of saplings, but may facilitate emerging seedlings through creation of gaps with improved light conditions. Recruitment is, however, very low in the study area, and seedlings should be protected from browsing to enhance survival. Woody species richness in general should be conserved to optimize conditions also for O. europaea saplings.

Increased hydraulic constraints in Eucalyptus plantations fertilized with potassium

Fertilization is commonly used to increase growth in forest plantations, but it may also affect tree water relations and responses to drought. Here, we measured changes in biomass, transpiration, sapwood-to-leaf area ratio (A_s :A_l ) and sap flow driving force (ΔΨ) during the 6-year rotation of tropical plantations of Eucalyptus grandis under controlled conditions for throughfall and potassium (K) fertilization. K fertilization increased final tree height by 8 m. Throughfall exclusion scarcely affected tree functioning because of deep soil water uptake. Tree growth increased in K-supplied plots and remained stable in K-depleted plots as tree height increased, while growth per unit leaf area increased in all plots. Stand transpiration and hydraulic conductance standardized per leaf area increased with height in K-depleted plots, but remained stable or decreased in K-supplied plots. Greater A_l in K-supplied plots increased the hydraulic constraints on water use. This involved a direct mechanism through halved A_s :A_l in K-supplied plots relative to K-depleted plots, and an indirect mechanism through deteriorated water status in K-supplied plots, which prevented the increase in ΔΨ with tree height. K fertilization in tropical plantations reduces the hydraulic compensation to growth, which could increase the risk of drought-induced dieback under climate change.

Climate change may induce connectivity loss and mountaintop extinction in Central American forests

The tropical forests of Central America serve a pivotal role as biodiversity hotspots and provide ecosystem services securing human livelihood. However, climate change is expected to affect the species composition of forest ecosystems, lead to forest type transitions and trigger irrecoverable losses of habitat and biodiversity. Here, we investigate potential impacts of climate change on the environmental suitability of main plant functional types (PFTs) across Central America. Using a large database of occurrence records and physiological data, we classify tree species into trait-based groups and project their suitability under three representative concentration pathways (RCPs 2.6, 4.5 and 8.5) with an ensemble of state-of-the-art correlative modelling methods. Our results forecast transitions from wet towards generalist or dry forest PFTs for large parts of the study region. Moreover, suitable area for wet-adapted PFTs is projected to latitudinally diverge and lose connectivity, while expected upslope shifts of montane species point to high risks of mountaintop extinction. These findings underline the urgent need to safeguard the connectivity of habitats through biological corridors and extend protected areas in the identified transition hotspots.

Development and validation of smartwatch-based activity recognition models for rigging crew workers on cable logging operations

Analysis of high-resolution inertial sensor and global navigation satellite system (GNSS) data collected by mobile and wearable devices is a relatively new methodology in forestry and safety research that provides opportunities for modeling work activities in greater detail than traditional time study analysis. The objective of this study was to evaluate whether smartwatch-based activity recognition models could quantify the activities of rigging crew workers setting and disconnecting log chokers on cable logging operations. Four productive cycle elements (travel to log, set choker, travel away, clear) were timed for choker setters and four productive cycle elements (travel to log, unhook, travel away, clear) were timed for chasers working at five logging sites in North Idaho. Each worker wore a smartwatch that recorded accelerometer data at 25 Hz. Random forest machine learning was used to develop predictive models that classified the different cycle elements based on features extracted from the smartwatch acceleration data using 15 sliding window sizes (1 to 15 s) and five window overlap levels (0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 90%). Models were compared using multiclass area under the Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) curve, or AUC. The best choker setter model was created using a 3-s window with 90% overlap and had sensitivity values ranging from 76.95% to 83.59% and precision values ranging from 41.42% to 97.08%. The best chaser model was created using a 1-s window with 90% overlap and had sensitivity values ranging from 71.95% to 82.75% and precision values ranging from 14.74% to 99.16%. These results have demonstrated the feasibility of quantifying forestry work activities using smartwatch-based activity recognition models, a basic step needed to develop real-time safety notifications associated with high-risk job functions and to advance subsequent, comparative analysis of health and safety metrics across stand, site, and work conditions.

Co-producing uncertainty in public science: The case of genomic selection in forestry

Co-production can inform analysis and communication of the uncertainties associated with novel forms of science and technology. Genomic selection-a relatively novel management tool consisting of predictive modeling based on associations between genetic and phenotypic data-holds many unknowns, particularly when used as a climate adaptation strategy. Approaching genomic selection as an example of public science, we examined beliefs about uncertainty and public engagement in a community of forest research professionals. Findings show broad-ranging approaches to uncertainty, alongside a prevalence of deficit accounts of public engagement. Even with broad acknowledgment of a range of uncertainties, forestry experts nonetheless relied on statistical, quantitative methods to manage uncertainties, in ways that overshadowed discussions about ignorance, indeterminacy, and ambiguity. Social scientists can enhance the communication of uncertainty in public science by making apparent expert-based assumptions about knowledge and intended audiences.

Drainage ditches enhance forest succession in a raised bog but do not affect the spatial pattern of tree encroachment

The study was conducted in the raised bog Kusowo (Baltic region, West Pomerania, Poland). Along a transect line crossing two open mires affected by forest succession we analysed tree age distribution. One of those mires had been drained in the past years and still retained some open ditches, while the other one was located far from the ditches. Every 10 meters along the transect line one tree was drilled at the root collar in order to determine its age. We also conducted phytosociological analyses and short-term water level measurements in the sample plots. We expected faster tree encroachment in the undisturbed part of the open mire. The results showed, that there were no significant differences in water table level and in soil moisture indicator values between the formerly drained and undisturbed open mire. There were also no statistically significant differences in tree encroachment between the disturbed and undisturbed mires. Location and the age distribution of the trees suggest that changes in the tree growth conditions cannot be directly explained by the general decreasing of water level in the bog, although periods following drainage works were associated with more numerous establishment of young trees, in the drained part of the bog as well as in the part not directly affected by drainage ditches.

Tree rows in temperate agroforestry croplands alter the composition of soil bacterial communities

BACKGROUND

Tree-based intercropping (agroforestry) has been advocated to reduce adverse environmental impacts of conventional arable cropping. Modern agroforestry systems in the temperate zone are alley-cropping systems that combine rows of fast-growing trees with rows of arable crops. Soil microbial communities in these systems have been investigated intensively; however, molecular studies with high taxonomical resolution are scarce.

METHODS

Here, we assessed the effect of temperate agroforestry on the abundance, diversity and composition of soil bacterial communities at three paired poplar-based alley cropping and conventional monoculture cropland systems using real-time PCR and Illumina sequencing of bacterial 16S rRNA genes. Two of the three systems grew summer barley (Hordeum vulgare); one system grew maize (Zea mays) in the sampling year. To capture the spatial heterogeneity induced by the tree rows, soil samples in the agroforestry systems were collected along transects spanning from the centre of the tree rows to the centre of the agroforestry crop rows.

RESULTS

Tree rows of temperate agroforestry systems increased the abundance of soil bacteria while their alpha diversity remained largely unaffected. The composition of the bacterial communities in tree rows differed from those in arable land (crop rows of the agroforestry systems and conventional monoculture croplands). Several bacterial groups in soil showed strong association with either tree rows or arable land, revealing that the introduction of trees into arable land through agroforestry is accompanied by the introduction of a tree row-associated microbiome.

CONCLUSION

The presence of tree row-associated bacteria in agroforestry increases the overall microbial diversity of the system. We speculate that the increase in biodiversity is accompanied by functional diversification. Differences in plant-derived nutrients (root exudates and tree litter) and management practices (fertilization and tillage) likely account for the differences between bacterial communities of tree rows and arable land in agroforestry systems.

HeProMo: A decision support tool to estimate wood harvesting productivities

In the field of forestry, one of the most economically important ecosystem service is the provision of timber. The need to calculate the economic effects of forest management in the short, medium, and long term is increasing. Forest operations or timber harvesting, which comprises felling, processing, and transport of trees or timber, are responsible for a large part of the costs and environmental impacts associated to forest management or enterprises. From a decision maker’s perspective, it is essential to estimate working productivity and production costs under given operating conditions before any operation is conducted. This work addresses the lack of a valid collection of models that allows estimating time, productivities, and costs of labor and machinery for the most important forest operations in forest stands under Central European conditions. To create such models, we used data from forest enterprises, manual time studies, and the literature. This work presents a decision support tool that estimates the wood harvesting productivities of 12 different kinds of forest operations under Central European conditions. It includes forest operations using chainsaws, harvesters, skidders, forwarders, chippers, cable and tower yarders, and helicopters. In addition, the tool covers three models for wood volume estimation. The tool is written in Java and available open-source under the Apache License. This work shows how the tool can be used by describing its graphical user interface (GUI) and its application programming interface (API) that facilitates bulk processing of scientific data. Carefully selected default values allow estimations without knowing all input variables in detail. Each model is accompanied by an in-depth documentation where the forest operation, input variables, formulas, and statistical background are given. We conclude that HeProMo is a very useful tool for applications in forest practice, research, and teaching.

Structural and functional shifts of soil prokaryotic community due to Eucalyptus plantation and rotation phase

Agriculture, forestry and other land uses are currently the second highest source of anthropogenic greenhouse gases (GHGs) emissions. In soil, these gases derive from microbial activity, during carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) cycling. To investigate how Eucalyptus land use and growth period impact the microbial community, GHG fluxes and inorganic N levels, and if there is a link among these variables, we monitored three adjacent areas for 9 months: a recently planted Eucalyptus area, fully developed Eucalyptus forest (final of rotation) and native forest. We assessed the microbial community using 16S rRNA gene sequencing and qPCR of key genes involved in C and N cycles. No considerable differences in GHG flux were evident among the areas, but logging considerably increased inorganic N levels. Eucalyptus areas displayed richer and more diverse communities, with selection for specific groups. Land use influenced communities more extensively than the time of sampling or growth phase, although all were significant modulators. Several microbial groups and genes shifted temporally, and inorganic N levels shaped several of these changes. No correlations among microbial groups or genes and GHG were found, suggesting no link among these variables in this short-rotation Eucalyptus study.

Wildfire and prescribed burning impacts on air quality in the United States

Air quality impacts from wildfires have been dramatic in recent years, with millions of people exposed to elevated and sometimes hazardous fine particulate matter (PM _2.5 ) concentrations for extended periods. Fires emit particulate matter (PM) and gaseous compounds that can negatively impact human health and reduce visibility. While the overall trend in U.S. air quality has been improving for decades, largely due to implementation of the Clean Air Act, seasonal wildfires threaten to undo this in some regions of the United States. Our understanding of the health effects of smoke is growing with regard to respiratory and cardiovascular consequences and mortality. The costs of these health outcomes can exceed the billions already spent on wildfire suppression. In this critical review, we examine each of the processes that influence wildland fires and the effects of fires, including the natural role of wildland fire, forest management, ignitions, emissions, transport, chemistry, and human health impacts. We highlight key data gaps and examine the complexity and scope and scale of fire occurrence, estimated emissions, and resulting effects on regional air quality across the United States. The goal is to clarify which areas are well understood and which need more study. We conclude with a set of recommendations for future research.

IMPLICATIONS

In the recent decade the area of wildfires in the United States has increased dramatically and the resulting smoke has exposed millions of people to unhealthy air quality. In this critical review we examine the key factors and impacts from fires including natural role of wildland fire, forest management, ignitions, emissions, transport, chemistry and human health.

Predicting Kudzu (Pueraria montana) spread and its economic impacts in timber industry: A case study from Oklahoma

Quantifying the economic impacts of invasive species is an essential step in developing and prioritizing invasive species management. In particular, kudzu, Pueraria montana (Lour.) Merr. is an aggressive and non-native vine that not only causes ecological damage and reduces biodiversity, but can have multiple economic consequences such as loss of timber value and volume. Using current infestation locations in Oklahoma, southcentral USA, a Monte Carlo simulation was run to estimate the natural as well as anthropogenic spread rate of kudzu in the next five years. Simulations were supplemented with an economic impact analysis within the Impact Analysis for PLANing (IMPLAN) platform. To account for economic loss in the forest product industry, a replacement cost approach with a sensitivity analysis was conducted. Occurrence data collections revealed that current kudzu populations are already established in Oklahoma forests. The results demonstrate that by year five, total industry output could be reduced by $167.9 million, which will influence 780 jobs in the most extreme case scenario. The predicted economic loss due to kudzu expansion could act as an incentive for appropriate management practices and plans to be implemented.

Can management of 'thirsty' alien trees improve water security in semi-arid India?

Arid and semi-arid regions of central India receive scarce and episodic precipitation during the short monsoon season, and also experience substantial evaporation. Traditional and innovative water harvesting and governance practices improve water stewardship, or abate some impacts of intensive mechanised water extraction. However, significant numbers of alien trees, in particular Eucalyptus species with high water demands, populate some regions practicing progressive water stewardship. The water demands of these trees can potentially undermine efforts to achieve water security. Through interviews with community leaders in Indian villages with differing eucalyptus tree densities, water loss through evapotranspiration compared with livelihood demands was approximated. Literature review of the water demands and ecosystem services provided respectively by alien eucalypts and native, culturally valued neem trees supports assessment of the likely benefits and acceptability of a replacement programme favouring native trees. Although data limitations mean that the findings of this study are necessarily uncertain, they nonetheless illustrate the likely scale of impact, substantiating the case for alien tree management as an important contribution to water security. Alien vegetation management practices as a contribution to water security are already firmly established in South Africa, and are likely to yield equivalent benefits if translated to dryland India.

Occurrence patterns of black water and its impact on fish in cutover areas of Eucalyptus plantations

Black runoff occasionally flows from cutover areas of Eucalyptus plantations, polluting rivers and ponds, and resulting in fish death in severe cases. However, the occurrence patterns and environmental impacts of this black water remain unclear. Herein, we analyzed the major characteristics of black water at the occurrence sites, tested the complexation reaction of ground eucalyptus leaves with a solution of Fe³⁺, and determined the color and absorbance of the complex solution. The results showed that the water was dark blue, with weak acidity and strong light absorbance. The water contained a high level of dissolved organic matter content, while its chemical oxygen demand, total N, total P, NO₃^--N, and NH₄⁺-N concentrations were significantly higher than those in the stream water from Eucalyptus, Pinus massoniana Lamb., and Cunninghamia lanceolata stands during the growth period. Additionally, the tannic acid concentration in the black water was 1.0 mg L^-1 higher than that in the stream water from the Eucalyptus stand. The input of black water increases the concentration of tannic acid and NH⁴⁺-N, and the degradation of organic matter consumes dissolved oxygen in downstream ponds, leading to fish deaths. The presence of fresh logging residues and hot, humid weather also enable black water formation. Field investigations and simulation experiments revealed fresh Eucalyptus residues decompose rapidly under high-temperature and rainfall conditions, releasing large amounts of tannic acid, which reacts with Fe³⁺ to form a dark blue tannic acid‑iron complex and results in black water. These results indicate that the rich Fe³⁺ in runoff may be a key factor in the occurrence of black water. The logging of Eucalyptus plantations during the dry season or on non-rainy days and a reduction in the logging area could prevent the occurrence of black water or mitigate the extent of its environmental hazards.

Effects of forest management and roe deer impact on a mountain forest development in the Italian Apennines: A modelling approach using LANDIS-II

Forest development is a complex phenomenon which, for the number of actors involved and the response time expressed by forests, is difficult to understand and explore. Forests in Italy, as in several areas of Europe, are experiencing intensive management and recently, an increasing impact by ungulates. The effects on forest development of these two disturbances combined are difficult to predict, and consequently to be properly managed. We used a forest landscape change model, LANDIS-II, to simulate forest development as driven by forestry practices and roe deer impact for 200 years in a mountain forest of the Italian Apennines. We found that each disturbance alters forest tree species richness, forest type abundance and distribution, and forest structure. When considered combined, the two disturbances show additive behavior, enhancing or moderating each other’s effects. Forest management has a negative effect on tree species richness. We expected roe deer to have a negative effect on harvest yields, but this result was significant only for two of seven harvesting treatments. On the other hand, roe deer presence had a positive effect on tree species richness. All the simulation scenarios returned some extent of forest loss. The amount of the forest loss is lowest in the scenario without disturbances, and greatest when both disturbances are considered. However, the two disturbances combined, with the magnitude modelled in our simulations, have relatively low effects on the forest dynamics we analyzed in our study area. LANDIS-II was an effective approach for simulating combined management and ungulate driven trends of forest development, and to help understand the dynamics that lay behind it.