Imaging nanobubble nucleation and hydrogen spillover during electrocatalytic water splitting

Imaging electrochemically regulated water-air nanointerfaces with single-molecule fluorescence

Water-air nanointerfaces are essential components of multiphase electrochemical processes in various energy-related applications, including water electrolysis, hydrogen fuel cells, and CO2 electrochemical reduction. Deep insights into the critical properties of the interfaces are much sought after but very challenging to obtain due to their highly dynamic, transparent, and nanoscopic nature. A new approach has been proposed for constructing stable water-air nanointerfaces using FIB-fabricated Janus nanopore electrodes. The curvature of the nanointerfaces can be controlled electrochemically, ranging from positive (nanodroplets) to negative (nanoconcaves/nanobubbles) ones. The morphologies of different nanointerfaces were fully characterized with AFM. Single-molecule collision events of charged dye molecules, recorded with fluorescence imaging, were used to probe the intrinsic properties of the nanointerfaces. A unique phenomenon of charged dye rejection was discovered for isoelectric nanointerfaces. The role of surface curvature in the collision frequency was also elucidated. We believe that using this platform could be highly beneficial for deepening our understanding of the interfaces, thus guiding the rational design of various energy-related systems.

Guided electrocatalyst design through in-situ techniques and data mining approaches

Intuitive design strategies, primarily based on literature research and trial-and-error efforts, have significantly contributed to advancements in the electrocatalyst field. However, the inherently time-consuming and inconsistent nature of these methods presents substantial challenges in accelerating the discovery of high-performance electrocatalysts. To this end, guided design approaches, including in-situ experimental techniques and data mining, have emerged as powerful catalyst design and optimization tools. The former offers valuable insights into the reaction mechanisms, while the latter identifies patterns within large catalyst databases. In this review, we first present the examples using in-situ experimental techniques, emphasizing a detailed analysis of their strengths and limitations. Then, we explore advancements in data-mining-driven catalyst development, highlighting how data-driven approaches complement experimental methods to accelerate the discovery and optimization of high-performance catalysts. Finally, we discuss the current challenges and possible solutions for guided catalyst design. This review aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of current methodologies and inspire future innovations in electrocatalytic research.

Critical Role of Molecular Adsorption on Electrocatalysis at Single Nanoparticles

We report a mechanistic study of the electrocatalytic response of single Pt nanoparticles (NPs) on a carbon ultramicroelectrode (UME) in a hydrazine (N2H4) solution. Using a NP collision approach, our study shows their catalytic response is characterized by a sharp, <50 μs-long current spike followed by a steady step-current signal. Our results suggest that the current spike is due to the quick oxidation of N2H4 molecules preadsorbed onto the NP surface, while the step current reflects the continuous catalytic oxidation of protonated hydrazine (N2H5+), which goes through a deprotonation and adsorption step on Pt. Since each N2H5+ molecule releases five H+ upon complete oxidation, a drastic decrease in local pH can be expected in the vicinity of the NP. This pH shift in turn limits the rate of adsorption and the steady-state oxidation current one can observe from each colliding particle. Our study reveals the key importance of molecular adsorption and the changing local chemical environment (e.g., pH) to the observed catalytic response of single NPs and highlights that steady-state currents in their measurement may be chemically or mass-transport limited.

Transforming Adsorbate Surface Dynamics in Aqueous Electrocatalysis: Pathways to Unconstrained Performance

Developing highly efficient catalysts to accelerate sluggish electrode reactions is critical for the deployment of sustainable aqueous electrochemical technologies, yet remains a great challenge. Rationally integrating functional components to tailor surface adsorption behaviors and adsorbate dynamics would divert reaction pathways and alleviate energy barriers, eliminating conventional thermodynamic constraints and ultimately optimizing energy flow within electrochemical systems. This approach has, therefore, garnered significant interest, presenting substantial potential for developing highly efficient catalysts that simultaneously enhance activity, selectivity, and stability. The immense promise and rapid evolution of this design strategy, however, do not overshadow the substantial challenges and ambiguities that persist, impeding the realization of significant breakthroughs in electrocatalyst development. This review explores the latest insights into the principles guiding the design of catalytic surfaces that enable favorable adsorbate dynamics within the contexts of hydrogen and oxygen electrochemistry. Innovative approaches for tailoring adsorbate-surface interactions are discussed, delving into underlying principles that govern these dynamics. Additionally, perspectives on the prevailing challenges are presented and future research directions are proposed. By evaluating the core principles and identifying critical research gaps, this review seeks to inspire rational electrocatalyst design, the discovery of novel reaction mechanisms and concepts, and ultimately, advance the large-scale implementation of electroconversion technologies.

Separating nanobubble nucleation for transfer-resistance-free electrocatalysis

Electrocatalytic gas-evolving reactions often result in bubble-covered surfaces, impeding the mass transfer to active sites. Such an issue will be worsened in practical high-current-density conditions and can cause sudden cell failure. Herein, we develop an on-chip microcell-based total-internal-reflection-fluorescence-microscopy to enable operando imaging of bubbles at sub-50 nm and dynamic probing of their nucleation during hydrogen evolution reaction. Using platinum-interfacial metal layer-graphene as model systems, we demonstrate that the strong binding energy between interfacial metal layer and graphene-evidenced by a reduced metal-support distance and enhanced charge transfer-facilitates hydrogen spillover from platinum to the graphene support due to lower energy barriers compared to the platinum-graphene system. This results in the spatial separation of bubble nucleation from the platinum surface, notably enhancing catalytic activity, as demonstrated in both microcell and polymer electrolyte membrane cell experiments. Our findings offer insights into bubble nucleation control and the design of electrocatalytic interfaces with minimized transfer resistance.

Removal of Nanoparticles by Surface Nanobubbles Generated via Solvent-Water Exchange: A Critical Perspective

The swift progression of technology in electronic fabrication is adhering to a trend of miniaturization, descending to the nanoscale. Surface contaminants, such as nanoparticles, can influence the performance of silicon wafers, thereby necessitating the evolution of novel cleaning methodologies. Surface nanobubbles (SNs) are phenomena that have attracted considerable attention over the past decade. A salient feature of SNs is their capacity to eliminate nanoparticles from silicon wafers. In this Perspective, our objective is to scrutinize whether this capability can be unequivocally ascribed to SNs. Initially, we offer a succinct elucidation of the nature of SNs; subsequently, we evaluate the claims regarding the cleaning efficacy of SNs; finally, we present our interpretation of the operative forces and propose potential scenarios of the interaction between SNs and nanoparticles. Consequently, the aim of this Perspective is to emphasize the significance of comprehending the interaction between SNs and nanoparticles with the intent to delineate new research trajectories bearing both fundamental and industrial ramifications.

Nanoscale Identification of Local Strain Effect on TMD Catalysis

Strain engineering plays a crucial role in activating the basal plane of the TMD catalysts. However, experimental evidence linking strain strength to activity and distinguishing effects of compressive and tensile strain remains elusive due to the absence of high-resolution in situ correlation techniques. Here, we utilize nanobubble imaging by on-chip total-internal reflection microscopy to visualize active sites on the basal plane of strained MoS2 during hydrogen evolution reaction and atomic force microscopy to correlatively capture the nanoscale morphology and strain maps. By integrating the activity, morphology, and strain maps into comprehensive statistical analyses, we elucidate the strain effect on local activity at both multiprotrusion and (sub)single-protrusion levels. Our findings demonstrate that strain effectively activates sulfur vacancies on the basal plane, with tensile strain significantly enhancing local activity compared to compressive strain. Furthermore, we observe a time-dependent propagation of activity from high-activity to low-activity regions within single protrusions. This work clarifies the interplay between structural morphology and catalytic activity and provides new guidelines for the rational design of optimal TMD catalysts.

Nanobubble Formation and Coverage during High Current Density Alkaline Water Electrolysis

Gas bubbles are a necessary byproduct of water electrolysis whereby hydrogen and oxygen are produced from water. These attached gases reduce the electrode's active area, which necessitates a deep understanding of the bubble life cycle starting from nanobubbles. Synchronized with the electrochemistry, the time evolution of the surface nanobubble size and coverage is resolved using grazing incidence small-angle X-ray scattering (GISAXS) and correlated with optical microscopy and theoretical calculations to show that a significant portion of the surface is covered in nanobubbles after larger micron-sized bubbles are observed. These nanobubbles increase in number and decrease in size, toward 2 nm diameter, with the charge passed. The trend in size and number is consistent with an increase in supersaturation, which reduces the nascent bubble size. Altogether, this study suggests a significant portion of the surface contains nanobubbles and that strategies to reduce the dissolved hydrogen would be effective at reducing the nanobubble surface coverage.

Revealing the heterogeneous catalytic kinetics of PtRu nanocatalysts at the single particle level

Comparison of the structural features and catalytic performance of bimetallic nanocatalysts will help to develop a unified understanding of structure-reaction relationships. The single-molecule fluorescence technique was utilized to reveal the differences in catalytic kinetics among PtRu bimetallic nanocatalysts and Pt and Ru monometallic nanocatalysts at the single particle level. The results show that bimetallic nanocatalysts have higher apparent rate constants and desorption rate constants relative to monometallic nanocatalysts, which leads to their higher catalytic activity. At the single particle level, bimetallic nanocatalysts have a wider distribution of apparent rate constants, suggesting that bimetallic nanocatalysts have higher activity heterogeneity relative to monometallic nanocatalysts. By investigating the relationship between the reaction rate and the rate of dynamic activity fluctuations, it was found that spontaneous surface restructuring and reaction-induced surface restructuring of nanoparticles occurred. The surface of bimetallic nanoparticles restructured faster, which made the bimetallic nanocatalysts more active. These findings provide new insights into the design of highly active bimetallic nanocatalysts.

Gas Evolution in Water Electrolysis

Gas bubbles generated by the hydrogen evolution reaction and oxygen evolution reaction during water electrolysis influence the energy conversion efficiency of hydrogen production. Here, we survey what is known about the interaction of gas bubbles and electrode surfaces and the influence of gas evolution on practicable devices used for water electrolysis. We outline the physical processes occurring during the life cycle of a bubble, summarize techniques used to characterize gas evolution phenomena in situ and in practical device environments, and discuss ways that electrodes can be tailored to facilitate gas removal at high current densities. Lastly, we review efforts to model the behavior of individual gas bubbles and multiphase flows produced at gas-evolving electrodes. We conclude our review with a short summary of outstanding questions that could be answered by future efforts to characterize gas evolution in electrochemical device environments or by improved simulations of multiphase flows.

Wide-field imaging of active site distribution on semiconducting transition metal dichalcogenide nanosheets in electrocatalytic and photoelectrocatalytic processes

Semiconducting transition metal dichalcogenide (TMD) nanosheets are promising materials for electrocatalysis and photoelectrocatalysis. However, the existing analytical approaches are inadequate at comprehensively describing the operation of narrow-bandgap semiconductors in these two processes. Furthermore, the distribution of the reactive sites on the electrode surface and the dynamic movement of carriers within these semiconductors during the reactions remain ambiguous. To plug these knowledge gaps, an in situ widefield imaging technique was devised in this study to investigate the electron distribution in different types of TMDs; notably, the method permits high-spatiotemporal-resolution analyses of electron-induced metal-ion reduction reactions in both electrocatalysis and photoelectrocatalysis. The findings revealed a unique complementary distribution of the active sites on WSe2 nanosheets during the two different cathodic processes. Our facile imaging approach can provide insightful information on the heterogeneous structure-property relationship at the electrochemical interfaces, facilitating the rational design of high-performance electrocatalytic/photoelectrocatalytic materials.

Bridging Innovations of Phase Change Heat Transfer to Electrochemical Gas Evolution Reactions

Bubbles play a ubiquitous role in electrochemical gas evolution reactions. However, a mechanistic understanding of how bubbles affect the energy efficiency of electrochemical processes remains limited to date, impeding effective approaches to further boost the performance of gas evolution systems. From a perspective of the analogy between heat and mass transfer, bubbles in electrochemical gas evolution reactions exhibit highly similar dynamic behaviors to them in the liquid-vapor phase change. Recent developments of liquid-vapor phase change systems have substantially advanced the fundamental knowledge of bubbles, leading to unprecedented enhancement of heat transfer performance. In this Review, we aim to elucidate a promising opportunity of understanding bubble dynamics in electrochemical gas evolution reactions through a lens of phase change heat transfer. We first provide a background about key parallels between electrochemical gas evolution reactions and phase change heat transfer. Then, we discuss bubble dynamics in gas evolution systems across multiple length scales, with an emphasis on exciting research problems inspired by new insights gained from liquid-vapor phase change systems. Lastly, we review advances in engineered surfaces for manipulating bubbles to enhance heat and mass transfer, providing an outlook on the design of high-performance gas evolving electrodes.

Single Entity Electrocatalysis

Making a measurement over millions of nanoparticles or exposed crystal facets seldom reports on reactivity of a single nanoparticle or facet, which may depart drastically from ensemble measurements. Within the past 30 years, science has moved toward studying the reactivity of single atoms, molecules, and nanoparticles, one at a time. This shift has been fueled by the realization that everything changes at the nanoscale, especially important industrially relevant properties like those important to electrocatalysis. Studying single nanoscale entities, however, is not trivial and has required the development of new measurement tools. This review explores a tale of the clever use of old and new measurement tools to study electrocatalysis at the single entity level. We explore in detail the complex interrelationship between measurement method, electrocatalytic material, and reaction of interest (e.g., carbon dioxide reduction, oxygen reduction, hydrazine oxidation, etc.). We end with our perspective on the future of single entity electrocatalysis with a key focus on what types of measurements present the greatest opportunity for fundamental discovery.

Dual-Mode Imaging of Dynamic Interaction between Bubbles and Single Nanoplates during the Electrocatalytic Hydrogen Evolution Process

Gas bubble formation at electrochemical interfaces can significantly affect the efficiency and durability of electrocatalysts. However, obtaining comprehensive details on bubble evolution dynamics, particularly their dynamic interaction with high-performance structured electrocatalysts, poses a considerable challenge. Herein, dual-mode interference/total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy is introduced, which allows for the simultaneous capture of the evolution pathway of bubbles and the 3D motion of nanoplate electrocatalysts, providing high-resolution and accurate spatiotemporal information. During the hydrogen evolution reaction, the dynamics of hydrogen bubble generation and their interactions with single nanoplate electrocatalysts at the electrochemical interface are observed. The results unveiled that, under constant potential, bubbles initially manifest as fast-moving nanobubbles, transforming into stationary microbubbles subsequently. The morphology of stationary nanoplates regulates the trajectories of these moving nanobubbles while the pinned microbubbles induce the motion of the electrocatalysts. The dual-mode microscopy can be employed to scrutinize numerous multiphase electrochemical interactions with high spatiotemporal resolution, which can facilitate the rational design of high-performance electrocatalysts.

Flexible and Dynamic Light-Guided Electrochemiluminescence for Spatiotemporal Imaging of Photoelectrochemical Processes on Hematite

Here, we report an electrochemiluminescence (ECL)-based approach for imaging of local photoelectrochemical processes on hematite in a spatially and temporally controlled manner. The local processes were guided by flexible and dynamic light illumination, not requiring any prepatterned conductive features or photomasks, with a digital micromirror device (DMD). The imaging approach was based on light-addressable electrochemical reactions on hematite, resulting in photoinduced ECL emission for spatiotemporally resolved imaging of photoelectrochemical processes selectively guided by light illumination. After clarifying the capability of hematite as a photosensitive electrode, we validated that the illuminated hematite exhibited stable light-guided ECL emission in correspondence with the illuminated area, with a spatial resolution of 0.8 μm and a temporal resolution of 1 μs, even over a long period of 6 h. More importantly, this study exemplified the simple yet effective ECL-based approach for electrochemical visualization of local photoelectrochemical processes guided by flexible and dynamic adjustment of light illumination in a spatiotemporally controlled way.

Quantifying the interfacial tension of adsorbed droplets on electrified interfaces

HYPOTHESIS

This paper develops a new measurement method to answer the question: How does one measure the interfacial tension of adsorbed droplets?

EXPERIMENTS

This measurement is based on the placement of a bubble at a water|organic interface. To prove the concept, a bubble was formed by pipetting gas below the water|1,2-dichloroethane interface. Our values agree well with previous reports. We then extended the measurement modality to a more difficult system: quantifying interfacial tension of 1,2-dichloroethane droplets adsorbed onto conductors. Carbon dioxide was generated in the aqueous phase from the electro-oxidation of oxalate. Given carbon dioxide's solubility in 1,2-dichloroethane, it partitions, a bubble nucleates, and the bubble can be seen by microscopy when driving the simultaneous oxidation of tris(bipyridine)ruthenium (II), a molecule that will interact with CO2.-. and provide light through electrochemiluminescence. We can quantify the interfacial tension of adsorbed droplets, a measurement very difficult performed with more usual techniques, by tracking the growth of the bubble and quantifying the bubble size at the time the bubble breaks through the aqueous|1,2-dichloroethane interface.

FINDINGS

We found that the interfacial tension of nanoliter 1,2-dichloroethane droplets adsorbed to an electrified interface in water, which was previously immeasurable with current techniques, was one order of magnitude less than the bulk system.

Near-infrared visualisation of single microparticle electrochemistry for batteries

While optical microscopy of single particle electrochemistry has proven insightful for future nanoparticle-based batteries, little is explored for micron-sized particles of more practical interest. This is largely hindered by the currently limited methodology. Accordingly, we report transmission optical microscopy using near-infrared light for accessing intra-particle electrochemistry in virtue of strong light penetration as compared to visible light. Using near-infrared (λ > 730 nm) bright-field microscopy, the redox electrochemistry of single LiCoO2 microparticles can be readily measured based on the measurements of optical contrast changes during electrochemical cycling. Further using the established methodology, we discover that the solid-state diffusion inside most single microparticles is distinctly directional, instead of in an isotropic manner from outer to inner as observed for the other particles. This phenomenon is also observed using dark field scattering microscopy with near-infrared light, suggesting non-uniform crystal inner structures responsible for the geometrically asymmetric heterogeneity of charge transfer kinetics within each single particle. These results indicate potential opportunities offered by the near-infrared optical methodology for operando studying practical battery materials.

Threshold current density for diffusion-controlled stability of electrolytic surface nanobubbles

Understanding the stability mechanism of surface micro/nanobubbles adhered to gas-evolving electrodes is essential for improving the efficiency of water electrolysis, which is known to be hindered by the bubble coverage on electrodes. Using molecular simulations, the diffusion-controlled evolution of single electrolytic nanobubbles on wettability-patterned nanoelectrodes is investigated. These nanoelectrodes feature hydrophobic islands as preferential nucleation sites and allow the growth of nanobubbles in the pinning mode. In these simulations, a threshold current density distinguishing stable nanobubbles from unstable nanobubbles is found. When the current density remains below the threshold value, nucleated nanobubbles grow to their equilibrium states, maintaining their nanoscopic size. However, for the current density above the threshold value, nanobubbles undergo unlimited growth and can eventually detach due to buoyancy. Increasing the pinning length of nanobubbles increases the degree of nanobubble instability. By connecting the current density with the local gas oversaturation, an extension of the stability theory for surface nanobubbles [Lohse and Zhang, Phys. Rev. E 91, 031003(R) (2015)] accurately predicts the nanobubble behavior found in molecular simulations, including equilibrium contact angles and the threshold current density. For larger systems that are not accessible to molecular simulations, continuum numerical simulations with the finite difference method combined with the immersed boundary method are performed, again demonstrating good agreement between numerics and theories.

Hydrogen Spillover Phenomenon at the Interface of Metal-Supported Electrocatalysts for Hydrogen Evolution

ConspectusHydrogen spillover, as a well-known phenomenon for thermal hydrogenation, generally involves the migration of active hydrogen on the surface of metal-supported catalysts. For thermocatalytic hydrogenation, hydrogen spillover generally takes place from metals with superiority for dissociating hydrogen molecules to supports with strong hydrogen adsorption under a H2 environment with high pressures. The former can bring high hydrogen chemical potential to largely reduce the kinetic barrier of the migration of active hydrogen species from metals to supports. At the same time, the latter can make H* migration thermodynamically spontaneous. For these reasons, hydrogen spillover is a common interfacial phenomenon occurring on metal-supported catalysts during thermocatalysis. Recently, this phenomenon has been observed for the exceptionally enhanced electrocatalytic performance for hydrogen evolution and other electrocatalytic organic synthesis. Different from hydrogen spillover for thermocatalysis under high H2 pressure, hydrogen spillover for electrocatalysis involves the migration of active hydrogen species (H*) from metals with strong hydrogen adsorption to supports with weak hydrogen adsorption, thereby suffering from a thermodynamically unfavorable process accompanied by a high kinetic barrier. Thus, the occurrence of hydrogen spillover at the electrocatalytic interface is not easy, and successful cases are rare. Understanding the underlying nature of hydrogen spillover at the electrocatalytic interface of metal-supported catalysts is critical to the rational design of advanced electrocatalysts.In this Account, we provide in-depth insights into recent advances in hydrogen spillover at the electrocatalytic interface for a significantly enhanced hydrogen evolution performance. Electron accumulation at the metal-support interface induces severe interfacial H* trapping and is recognized as the main factor in the failed hydrogen spillover. Given this, we developed two novel strategies to promote the occurrence of hydrogen spillover at the electrocatalytic interface. These strategies include (i) the introduction of ligand environments to enrich the local hydrogen coverage on metals and lower the barrier for interfacial hydrogen spillover and (ii) the minimization of work function difference between metals and supports (ΔΦ) to relieve electron accumulation and lower the kinetic barrier for hydrogen spillover. Also, we summarize the previously reported strategy of shortening the metal-support interface distance to lower the kinetic barrier for interfacial hydrogen spillover. Afterward, some criteria and methodologies are proposed to identify the hydrogen spillover phenomenon at the electrocatalytic interface. Finally, the remaining challenges and future perspectives are also discussed. Based on this Account, we aim to provide new insights into electrocatalysis, particularly the targeted control of hydrogen spillover at the electrocatalytic interface, and then to offer guidelines for the rational design of advanced electrocatalysts.

Direct imaging of dynamic heterogeneous lithium-gold interaction at the electrochemical interface during the charging/discharging processes

Lithium can smoothly plate on certain lithium alloys in theory, such as the Li-Au alloy, making the alloy/metal films promising current collectors for high energy density anode-free batteries. However, the actual performance of the batteries with alloy film electrodes often rapidly deteriorates. It remains challenging for current imaging approaches to provide sufficient details for fully understanding the process. Here, a "see-through" operando optical microscopic approach that allows direct imaging of Li-Au interaction with high spatiotemporal and chemical resolution has been developed. Through this approach, a two-step Li-Au alloying process that exhibits interesting complementary spatiotemporal evolution paths has been discovered. The alloying process regulates the nucleation of further Li deposition, while the Li nucleation sites generate pores on the electrode film. After several cycles, film rupture occurs due to the generation of an increased number of pores, thus explaining the previously unclear mechanism of poor cycling stability. We have also elucidated the deterioration mechanism of silver electrodes: the growth of defect pores in size, independent of the alloying process. Overall, this new imaging approach opens up an effective and simple way to monitor the dynamic heterogeneity of metal-metal interaction at the electrochemical interface, which could provide helpful insight for designing high-performance batteries.

Revealing the Heterogeneous Bubble Nucleation at Individual Silica Nanoparticles

Deep understanding of the bubble nucleation process is universally important in systems, from chemical engineering to materials. However, due to its nanoscale and transient nature, effective probing of nucleation behavior with a high spatiotemporal resolution is prohibitively challenging. We previously reported the measurement of a single nanobubble nucleation at a nanoparticle using scanning electrochemical cell microscopy, where the bubble nucleation and formation were inferred from the voltammetric responses. Here, we continue the study of heterogeneous bubble nucleation at interfaces by regulating the local nanostructures using silica nanoparticles with a distinct surface morphology. It is demonstrated that, compared to the smooth spherical silica nanoparticles, the raspberry-like nanoparticles can further significantly reduce the nucleation energy barrier, with a critical peak current about 23% of the bare carbon surfaces. This study advances our understanding of how surface nanostructures direct the heterogeneous nucleation process and may offer a new strategy for surface engineering in gas involved energy conversion systems.

Optically Imaging In Situ Effects of Electrochemical Cycling on Single Nanoparticle Electrocatalysis

Single-nanoparticle studies often need one or a series of nanoparticle populations that are designed with differences in a nominally particular structural parameter to clarify the structure-activity relationship (SAR). However, the heterogeneity of various properties within any population would make it rather difficult to approach an ideal one-parameter control. In situ modification ensures the same nanoparticle to be investigated and also avoids complicating effects from the otherwise often needed ex situ operations. Herein, we apply electrochemical cycling to single platinum nanoparticles and optically examine their SAR. An electrocatalytic fluorescent microscopic method is established to evaluate the apparent catalytic activity of a number of single nanoparticles toward the oxygen reduction reaction. Meanwhile, dark-field microscopy with the substrate electrode under a cyclic potential control is found to be able to assess the electrochemically active surface area (ECSA) of single nanoparticles via induced chloride redox electrochemistry. Consequently, nanoparticles with drastically increased catalytic activity are discovered to have larger ECSAs upon potential regulation, and interestingly, there are also a few particles with decreased activity, as opposed to the overall trend, that all develop a smaller ECSA in the process. The deactivated nanoparticles against the overall enhancement effects of potential cycling are revealed for the first time. As such, the SAR of single nanoparticles when subjected to an in situ structural control is optically demonstrated.

Exploring the Theranostic Applications and Prospects of Nanobubbles

Anticancer medications as well as additional therapeutic compounds, have poor clinical effectiveness due to their diverse distribution, non-selectivity for malignant cells, and undesirable off-target side effects. As a result, ultrasound-based targeted delivery of therapeutic compounds carried in sophisticated nanocarriers has grown in favor of cancer therapy and control. Nanobubbles are nanoscale bubbles that exhibit unique physiochemical properties in both their inner core and outer shell. Manufacturing nanobubbles primarily aims to enhance therapeutic agents' bioavailability, stability, and targeted delivery. The small size of nanobubbles allows for their extravasation from blood vessels into surrounding tissues and site-specific release through ultrasound targeting. Ultrasound technology is widely utilized for therapy due to its speed, safety, and cost-effectiveness, and micro/nanobubbles, as ultrasound contrast agents, have numerous potential applications in disease treatment. Thus, combining ultrasound applications with NBs has recently demonstrated increased localization of anticancer molecules in tumor tissues with triggered release behavior. Consequently, an effective therapeutic concentration of drugs/genes is achieved in target tumor tissues with ultimately increased therapeutic efficacy and minimal side effects on other non-cancerous tissues. This paper provides a brief overview of the production processes for nanobubbles, along with their key characteristics and potential therapeutic uses.

Label-Free Imaging of Catalytic H2O2 Decomposition on Single Colloidal Pt Nanoparticles Using Nanofluidic Scattering Microscopy

Single-particle catalysis aims at determining factors that dictate the nanoparticle activity and selectivity. Existing methods often use fluorescent model reactions at low reactant concentrations, operate at low pressures, or rely on plasmonic enhancement effects. Hence, methods to measure single-nanoparticle activity under technically relevant conditions and without fluorescence or other enhancement mechanisms are still lacking. Here, we introduce nanofluidic scattering microscopy of catalytic reactions on single colloidal nanoparticles trapped inside nanofluidic channels to fill this gap. By detecting minuscule refractive index changes in a liquid flushed trough a nanochannel, we demonstrate that local H2O2 concentration changes in water can be accurately measured. Applying this principle, we analyze the H2O2 concentration profiles adjacent to single colloidal Pt nanoparticles during catalytic H2O2 decomposition into O2 and H2O and derive the particles' individual turnover frequencies from the growth rate of the O2 gas bubbles formed in their respective nanochannel during reaction.

Imaging Single H2 Nanobubbles Using Off-Axis Dark-Field Microscopy

A robust and detailed physicochemical description of electrochemically generated surface nanobubbles and their effects on electrochemical systems remains at large. Herein, we report the development and utilization of an off-axis, dark-field microscopy imaging tool for probing the dynamic process of generating single H2 nanobubbles at the surface of a carbon nanoelectrode. A change in the direction of the incident light is made to significantly reduce the intensity of the background light, which enables us to image both the nanoelectrode and nanobubble on the electrode surface or the metal nanoparticles in the vicinity of the electrode. The correlated electrochemical and optical response provides novel insights regarding bubble nucleation and dissolution on a nanoelectrode previously unattainable solely from its current-voltage response.

The Effect of Nanobubbles on Transdermal Applications

In the present work, a new method for dermal delivery using nanobubbles (NBs) is investigated. Oxygen NBs are generated in deionized water and used to produce cosmetic formulations with hyaluronic acid as an active ingredient. Nanobubbles result in the improvement of the effect and penetration of the active ingredient through Strat-M, a synthetic membrane that resembles human skin. Experiments conducted with the Franz Cell device confirm the greater penetration of the active ingredient into Strat-M due to NBs, compared to cosmetic formulations that do not contain NBs. The effect of NBs was further examined by measuring UV-Vis and FTIR spectra. A possible mechanism was outlined, too. It was also found that NBs do not change the pH or the FTIR spectrum of the cosmetic serum indicating non-toxicity.

Shaping Copper Oxide Layers on Gold Nanoparticle Ensembles by Controlled Electrodeposition with Single Particle Scatterometry

Electrodeposition of copper on gold nanoelectrode ensembles result in the formation of uniform copper oxide layers on individual nanoparticles. A linear sweep of voltammetric change induces three distinct morphologies dependent upon particle density. Ex situ imaging and in situ scatterometry at a single-particle level identifies multi-step electrochemical growth sequences that deviated from classical nucleation and growth pathways. In addition, the study demonstrated the possibility of synthesizing sophisticated structures based on the symmetry of nanoelectrodes. This result guides the nanoscale morphology control of electrode ensembles with potential application in electrocatalysis and sensing.

Transient Adsorption Behavior of Single Fluorophores on an Electrode-Supported Nanobubble

Here we report the use of a Langmuir isotherm model to analyze and better understand the dynamic adsorption and desorption behavior of single fluorophore molecules at the surface of a hydrogen nanobubble supported on an indium tin oxide (ITO) electrode. Three rhodamine dyes, rhodamine 110 (R110, positively charged), rhodamine 6G (R6G, positively charged), and sulforhodamine G (SRG, negatively charged) were chosen for this study. The use of the Langmuir isotherm model allows us to determine the equilibrium constant and the rate constants for the adsorption and desorption processes. Of the three fluorophores used in this study, SRG was found to have the greatest equilibrium constant. No significant potential dependence was observed on the adsorption characteristics, which suggests the nanobubble size, geometry, and surface properties are relatively constant within the range of potentials used in this study. Our results suggest that the use of the Langmuir isotherm model is a valid and useful means for probing and better understanding the unique adsorption behavior of fluorophores at surface-supported nanobubbles.

Confined Electrochemical Behaviors of Single Platinum Nanoparticles Revealing Ultrahigh Density of Gas Molecules inside a Nanobubble

Understanding the basic physicochemical properties of gas molecules confined within nanobubbles is of fundamental importance for chemical and biological processes. Here, we successfully monitored the nanobubble-confined electrochemical behaviors of single platinum nanoparticles (PtNPs) at a carbon fiber ultramicroelectrode in HClO₄ and H₂O₂ solution. Due to the catalytic decomposition of H₂O₂, a single oxygen nanobubble was formed on individual PtNPs to block the active surface of particles for proton reduction and to suppress their stochastic motion, resulting in significantly distinguished current traces. Furthermore, the combination of theoretical calculations and high-resolution electrochemical measurements allowed the nanobubble size and the oxygen gas density inside a single nanobubble to be quantified. Moreover, the ultrahigh oxygen density inside (1046 kg/m³) was revealed, indicating that gas molecules in a nanosized space existed with a high state of aggregation. Our approach sheds light on the gas aggregation behaviors of nanoscale bubbles using single-entity electrochemical measurements.

Effects of Nanobubbles in Dermal Delivery of Drugs and Cosmetics

Dermal delivery, which delivers drugs and cosmetics through the skin, has attracted significant attention due to its non-invasive and simple administration compared with oral or injectable administration. However, delivery of the ingredients through the skin barrier is difficult because the primary function of the skin is to protect the human body by preventing the invasion of contaminants. Although various techniques have been developed to overcome skin barriers, chemical toxicity, complicated processes, and expensive equipment still remain as obstacles. Moreover, green chemistry, which minimizes or eliminates the use of toxic chemicals, is required in the cosmetic industry. Thus, the development of a new method for dermal delivery is required. In this study, we provide a new method for dermal delivery using nanobubbles (NBs). NBs generated in oil improve the delivery effect of the active ingredients through the high Brownian motion and charge-balancing effect. Franz cell experiments and depigmentation experiments using the B16F10 melanoma cells were conducted to confirm the enhanced delivery effects. The system using NBs will contribute to the advancement of the dermal delivery of drugs and cosmetics.

Tailoring 3D-Printed Electrodes for Enhanced Water Splitting

Alkaline water electrolysis, a promising technology for clean energy storage, is constrained by extrinsic factors in addition to intrinsic electrocatalytic activity. To begin to compare between catalytic materials for electrolysis applications, these extrinsic factors must first be understood and controlled. Here, we modify extrinsic electrode properties and study the effects of bubble release to examine how the electrode and surface design impact the performance of water electrolysis. We fabricate robust and cost-effective electrodes through a sequential three-dimensional (3D) printing and metal deposition procedure. Through a systematic assessment of the deposition procedure, we confirm the close relationship between extrinsic electrode properties (i.e., wettability, surface roughness, and electrochemically active surface area) and electrochemical performance. Modifying the electrode geometry, size, and electrolyte flow rate results in an overpotential decrease and different bubble diameters and lifetimes for the hydrogen (HER) and oxygen evolution reactions (OER). Hence, we demonstrate the essential role of the electrode architecture and forced electrolyte convection on bubble release. Additionally, we confirm the suitability of ordered, Ni-coated 3D porous structures by evaluating the HER/OER performance, bubble dissipation, and long-term stability. Finally, we utilize the 3D porous electrode as a support for studying a benchmark NiFe electrocatalyst, confirming the robustness and effectiveness of 3D-printed electrodes for testing electrocatalytic materials while extrinsic properties are precisely controlled. Overall, we demonstrate that tailoring electrode architectures and surface properties result in precise tuning of extrinsic electrode properties, providing more reproducible and comparable conditions for testing the efficiency of electrode materials for water electrolysis.

Bridging the Gap between Single Nanoparticle Imaging and Global Electrochemical Response by Correlative Microscopy Assisted By Machine Vision

The nanostructuration of an electrochemical interface dictates its micro- and macroscopic behavior. It is generally highly complex and often evolves under operating conditions. Electrochemistry at these nanostructurations can be imaged both operando and/or ex situ at the single nanoobject or nanoparticle (NP) level by diverse optical, electron, and local probe microscopy techniques. However, they only probe a tiny random fraction of interfaces that are by essence highly heterogeneous. Given the above background, correlative multimicroscopy strategy coupled to electrochemistry in a droplet cell provides a unique solution to gain mechanistic insights in electrocatalysis. To do so, a general machine-vision methodology is depicted enabling the automated local identification of various physical and chemical descriptors of NPs (size, composition, activity) obtained from multiple complementary operando and ex situ microscopy imaging of the electrode. These multifarious microscopically probed descriptors for each and all individual NPs are used to reconstruct the global electrochemical response. Herein the methodology unveils the competing processes involved in the electrocatalysis of hydrogen evolution reaction at nickel based NPs, showing that Ni metal activity is comparable to that of platinum.

Direct measuring of single-heterogeneous bubble nucleation mediated by surface topology

Heterogeneous bubble nucleation is one of the most fundamental interfacial processes ranging from nature to technology. There is excellent evidence that surface topology is important in directing heterogeneous nucleation; however, deep understanding of the energetics by which nanoscale architectures promote nucleation is still challenging. Herein, we report a direct and quantitative measurement of single-bubble nucleation on a single silica nanoparticle within a microsized droplet using scanning electrochemical cell microscopy. Local gas concentration at nucleation is determined from finite element simulation at the corresponding faradaic current of the peak-featured voltammogram. It is demonstrated that the criteria gas concentration for nucleation first drops and then rises with increasing nanoparticle radius. An optimum nanoparticle radius around 10 nm prominently expedites the nucleation by facilitating the special topological nanoconfinements that consequently catalyze the nucleation. Moreover, the experimental result is corroborated by our theoretical calculations of free energy change based on the classic nucleation theory. This study offers insights into the impact of surface topology on heterogenous nucleation that have not been previously observed.

Single Particle Hopping as an Indicator for Evaluating Electrocatalysts

The design and screening of electrocatalysts for gas evolution reactions suffer from little understanding of multiphase processes at the electrode-electrolyte interface. Due to the complexity of the multiphase interface, it is still a great challenge to capture gas evolution dynamics under operando conditions to precisely portray the intrinsic catalytic performance of the interface. Here, we establish a single particle imaging method to real-time monitor a potential-dependent vertical motion or hopping of electrocatalysts induced by electrogenerated gas nanobubbles. The hopping feature of a single particle is closely correlated with intrinsic activities of electrocatalysts and thus is developed as an indicator to evaluate gas evolution performance of various electrocatalysts. This optical indicator diminishes interference from heterogeneous morphologies, non-Faradaic processes, and parasitic side reactions that are unavoidable in conventional electrochemical measurements, therefore enabling precise evaluation and high-throughput screening of catalysts for gas evolution systems.

Single-Entity Electrochemistry of Nano- and Microbubbles in Electrolytic Gas Evolution

Gas bubbles are found in diverse electrochemical processes, ranging from electrolytic water splitting to chlor-alkali electrolysis, as well as photoelectrochemical processes. Understanding the intricate influence of bubble evolution on the electrode processes and mass transport is key to the rational design of efficient devices for electrolytic energy conversion and thus requires precise measurement and analysis of individual gas bubbles. In this Perspective, we review the latest advances in single-entity measurement of gas bubbles on electrodes, covering the approaches of voltammetric and galvanostatic studies based on nanoelectrodes, probing bubble evolution using scanning probe electrochemistry with spatial information, and monitoring the transient nature of nanobubble formation and dynamics with opto-electrochemical imaging. We emphasize the intrinsic and quantitative physicochemical interpretation of single gas bubbles from electrochemical data, highlighting the fundamental understanding of the heterogeneous nucleation, dynamic state of the three-phase boundary, and the correlation between electrolytic bubble dynamics and nanocatalyst activities. In addition, a brief discussion of future perspectives is presented.

Emerging Optical Microscopy Techniques for Electrochemistry

An optical microscope is probably the most intuitive, simple, and commonly used instrument to observe objects and discuss behaviors through images. Although the idea of imaging electrochemical processes operando by optical microscopy was initiated 40 years ago, it was not until significant progress was made in the last two decades in advanced optical microscopy or plasmonics that it could become a mainstream electroanalytical strategy. This review illustrates the potential of different optical microscopies to visualize and quantify local electrochemical processes with unprecedented temporal and spatial resolution (below the diffraction limit), up to the single object level with subnanoparticle or single-molecule sensitivity. Developed through optically and electrochemically active model systems, optical microscopy is now shifting to materials and configurations focused on real-world electrochemical applications.

Determining the depth of surface charging layer of single Prussian blue nanoparticles with pseudocapacitive behaviors

Understanding the hybrid charge-storage mechanisms of pseudocapacitive nanomaterials holds promising keys to further improve the performance of energy storage devices. Based on the dependence of the light scattering intensity of single Prussian blue nanoparticles (PBNPs) on their oxidation state during sinusoidal potential modulation at varying frequencies, we present an electro-optical microscopic imaging approach to optically acquire the Faradaic electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (oEIS) of single PBNPs. Here we reveal typical pseudocapacitive behavior with hybrid charge-storage mechanisms depending on the modulation frequency. In the low-frequency range, the optical amplitude is inversely proportional to the square root of the frequency (∆I ∝ f^−0.5; diffusion-limited process), while in the high-frequency range, it is inversely proportional to the frequency (∆I ∝ f⁻¹; surface charging process). Because the geometry of single cuboid-shaped PBNPs can be precisely determined by scanning electron microscopy and atomic force microscopy, oEIS of single PBNPs allows the determination of the depth of the surface charging layer, revealing it to be ~2 unit cells regardless of the nanoparticle size.

The surface charging layer in nanomaterials, which determines their pseudocapacitive behavior, is challenging to characterize. Here the authors perform Faradic electrochemical impedance spectroscopy measurements of single cuboid Prussian blue nanoparticles, displaying a hybrid charge storage mechanism, and determine the depth of the surface charging layer.

Nanoscale Visualization of Electrochemical Activity at Indium Tin Oxide Electrodes

Indium tin oxide (ITO) is a popular electrode choice, with diverse applications in (photo)electrocatalysis, organic photovoltaics, spectroelectrochemistry and sensing, and as a support for cell biology studies. Although ITO surfaces exhibit heterogeneous local electrical conductivity, little is known as to how this translates to electrochemistry at the same scale. This work investigates nanoscale electrochemistry at ITO electrodes using high-resolution scanning electrochemical cell microscopy (SECCM). The nominally fast outer-sphere one-electron oxidation of 1,1'-ferrocenedimethanol (FcDM) is used as an electron transfer (ET) kinetic marker to reveal the charge transfer properties of the ITO/electrolyte interface. SECCM measures spatially resolved linear sweep voltammetry at an array of points across the ITO surface, with the topography measured synchronously. Presentation of SECCM data as current maps as a function of potential reveals that, while the entire surface of ITO is electroactive, the ET activity is highly spatially heterogeneous. Kinetic parameters (standard rate constant, k0, and transfer coefficient, α) for FcDM0/+ are assigned from 7200 measurements at sites across the ITO surface using finite element method modeling. Differences of 3 orders of magnitude in k0 are revealed, and the average k0 is about 20 times larger than that measured at the macroscale. This is attributed to macroscale ET being largely limited by lateral conductivity of the ITO electrode under electrochemical operation, rather than ET kinetics at the ITO/electrolyte interface, as measured by SECCM. This study further demonstrates the considerable power of SECCM for direct nanoscale characterization of electrochemical processes at complex electrode surfaces.

Hydrogen Spillover-Bridged Volmer/Tafel Processes Enabling Ampere-Level Current Density Alkaline Hydrogen Evolution Reaction under Low Overpotential

Water-alkaline electrolysis holds a great promise for industry-scale hydrogen production but is hindered by the lack of enabling hydrogen evolution reaction electrocatalysts to operate at ampere-level current densities under low overpotentials. Here, we report the use of hydrogen spillover-bridged water dissociation/hydrogen formation processes occurring at the synergistically hybridized Ni₃S₂/Cr₂S₃ sites to incapacitate the inhibition effect of high-current-density-induced high hydrogen coverage at the water dissociation site and concurrently promote Volmer/Tafel processes. The mechanistic insights critically important to enable ampere-level current density operation are depicted from the experimental and theoretical studies. The Volmer process is drastically boosted by the strong H₂O adsorption at Cr_5c sites of Cr₂S₃, the efficient H₂O* dissociation via a heterolytic cleavage process (Cr_5c-H₂O* + S_3c(#) → Cr_5c-OH* + S_3c-H^#) on the Cr_5c/S_3c sites in Cr₂S₃, and the rapid desorption of OH* from Cr_5c sites of Cr₂S₃ via a new water-assisted desorption mechanism (Cr_5c-OH* + H₂O(aq) → Cr_5c-H₂O* + OH^-(aq)), while the efficient Tafel process is achieved through hydrogen spillover to rapidly transfer H^# from the synergistically located H-rich site (Cr₂S₃) to the H-deficient site (Ni₃S₂) with excellent hydrogen formation activity. As a result, the hybridized Ni₃S₂/Cr₂S₃ electrocatalyst can readily achieve a current density of 3.5 A cm^-2 under an overpotential of 251 ± 3 mV in 1.0 M KOH electrolyte. The concept exemplified in this work provides a useful means to address the shortfalls of ampere-level current-density-tolerant Hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) electrocatalysts.

Single-Molecule Interactions at a Surfactant-Modified H2 Surface Nanobubble

In schematics and cartoons, the gas-liquid interface is often drawn as solid lines that aid in distinguishing the separation of the two phases. However, on the molecular level, the structure, shape, and size of the gas-liquid interface remain elusive. Furthermore, the interactions of molecules at gas-liquid interfaces must be considered in various contexts, including atmospheric chemical reactions, wettability of surfaces, and numerous other relevant phenomena. Hence, understanding the structure and interactions of molecules at the gas-liquid interface is critical for further improving technologies that operate between the two phases. Electrochemically generated surface nanobubbles provide a stable, reproducible, and high-throughput platform for the generation of a nanoscale gas-liquid boundary. We use total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy to image single-fluorophore labeling of surface nanobubbles in the presence of a surfactant. The accumulation of a surfactant on the nanobubble surface changes the interfacial properties of the gas-liquid interface. The single-molecule approach reveals that the fluorophore adsorption and residence lifetime at the interface is greatly impacted by the charge of the surfactant layer at the bubble surface. We demonstrate that the fluorescence readout is either short- or long-lived depending on the repulsive or attractive environment, respectively, between fluorophores and surfactants. Additionally, we investigated the effect of surfactant chain length and salt type and concentration on the fluorophore lifetime at the nanobubble surface.

Nanobubble Labeling and Imaging with a Solvatochromic Fluorophore Nile Red

Herein, we report the use of a polarity-sensitive, solvatochromic fluorophore Nile red to label and probe individual hydrogen nanobubbles on the surface of an indium-tin oxide (ITO) electrode. Nanobubbles are generated from the reduction of water on ITO and fluorescently imaged from the transient adsorption and desorption process of single Nile red molecules at the nanobubble surface. The ability to label and fluorescently image individual nanobubbles with Nile red suggests that the gas/solution interface is hydrophobic in nature. Compared to the short labeling events using rhodamine fluorophores, Nile red-labeled events appear to be longer in duration, suggesting that Nile red has a higher affinity to the bubble surface. The stronger fluorophore-bubble interaction also leads to certain nanobubbles being co-labeled by multiple Nile red molecules, resulting in the observation of super-bright and long-lasting labeling events. Based on these interesting observations, we hypothesize that Nile red molecules may start clustering and form some kind of molecular aggregates when they are co-adsorbed on the same nanobubble surface. The ability to observe super-bright and long-lasting multifluorophore labeling events also allows us to verify the high stability and long lifetime of electrochemically generated surface nanobubbles.

Characterizing the Onset Potential Distribution of Pt/C Catalyst Deposition by a Total Internal Reflection Imaging Method

A catalytic electrode with extraordinary performances for hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) should achieve a low onset potential of the bulk electrode, as well as its uniform distribution. Herein, a total internal reflection imaging (TIRi) method to characterize the onset potential distribution of the catalytic electrode surface is presented. When the potential scans toward negative in a linear sweep voltammetry, the equivalent refractive index of the electrolyte on the electrode surface will decrease due to H₂ microbubbles generation, leading to the increase in optical intensity. Analysis of the relationship between the optical intensity and potential in each region results in the onset potential distribution. The TIRi method reveals poor uniformity and repeatability in the catalytic electrodes which are fabricated by depositing Pt/C catalysts on a porous carbon support with polymer binders (e.g., Nafion). Further electrochemical stability test also shows poor durability, whose HER onset potential deteriorates from the edge to the middle of these catalytic electrodes. The present TIRi method realizes direct visualization of the activity distribution on the bulk electrode surface, which provides a powerful tool for better fabrication and evaluation of large-area HER electrodes in industrial energy devices.