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Delmer D, Dixon RA, Keegstra K, Mohnen D. The plant cell wall-dynamic, strong, and adaptable-is a natural shapeshifter. THE PLANT CELL 2024; 36:1257-1311. [PMID: 38301734 PMCID: PMC11062476 DOI: 10.1093/plcell/koad325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2023] [Accepted: 12/19/2023] [Indexed: 02/03/2024]
Abstract
Mythology is replete with good and evil shapeshifters, who, by definition, display great adaptability and assume many different forms-with several even turning themselves into trees. Cell walls certainly fit this definition as they can undergo subtle or dramatic changes in structure, assume many shapes, and perform many functions. In this review, we cover the evolution of knowledge of the structures, biosynthesis, and functions of the 5 major cell wall polymer types that range from deceptively simple to fiendishly complex. Along the way, we recognize some of the colorful historical figures who shaped cell wall research over the past 100 years. The shapeshifter analogy emerges more clearly as we examine the evolving proposals for how cell walls are constructed to allow growth while remaining strong, the complex signaling involved in maintaining cell wall integrity and defense against disease, and the ways cell walls adapt as they progress from birth, through growth to maturation, and in the end, often function long after cell death. We predict the next century of progress will include deciphering cell type-specific wall polymers; regulation at all levels of polymer production, crosslinks, and architecture; and how walls respond to developmental and environmental signals to drive plant success in diverse environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deborah Delmer
- Section of Plant Biology, University of California Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Richard A Dixon
- BioDiscovery Institute and Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Texas, Denton, TX 76203, USA
| | - Kenneth Keegstra
- MSU-DOE Plant Research Laboratory, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48823, USA
| | - Debra Mohnen
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
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2
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Ogden M, Whitcomb SJ, Khan GA, Roessner U, Hoefgen R, Persson S. Cellulose biosynthesis inhibitor isoxaben causes nutrient-dependent and tissue-specific Arabidopsis phenotypes. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2024; 194:612-617. [PMID: 37823413 PMCID: PMC10828196 DOI: 10.1093/plphys/kiad538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2023] [Revised: 08/07/2023] [Accepted: 09/24/2023] [Indexed: 10/13/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Michael Ogden
- Copenhagen Plant Science Center, Department of Plant & Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg C 1871, Denmark
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, Potsdam-Golm 14476, Germany
| | - Sarah J Whitcomb
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, Potsdam-Golm 14476, Germany
- Cereal Crops Research Unit, USDA-ARS, Madison, WI 53726, USA
| | - Ghazanfar Abbas Khan
- Department of Animal, Plant and Soil Sciences, School of Agriculture, Biomedicine and Environment, La Trobe University, Bundoora, VIC 3086, Australia
| | - Ute Roessner
- Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Acton, Australian Capital Territory 2600, Australia
| | - Rainer Hoefgen
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, Potsdam-Golm 14476, Germany
| | - Staffan Persson
- Copenhagen Plant Science Center, Department of Plant & Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg C 1871, Denmark
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Metabolic & Developmental Sciences, State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, SJTU-University of Adelaide Joint Centre for Agriculture and Health, School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
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3
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Uy ALT, Yamamoto A, Matsuda M, Arae T, Hasunuma T, Demura T, Ohtani M. The Carbon Flow Shifts from Primary to Secondary Metabolism during Xylem Vessel Cell Differentiation in Arabidopsis thaliana. PLANT & CELL PHYSIOLOGY 2023; 64:1563-1575. [PMID: 37875012 PMCID: PMC10734892 DOI: 10.1093/pcp/pcad130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2023] [Revised: 10/12/2023] [Accepted: 10/23/2023] [Indexed: 10/26/2023]
Abstract
Xylem vessel cell differentiation is characterized by the deposition of a secondary cell wall (SCW) containing cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. VASCULAR-RELATED NAC-DOMAIN7 (VND7), a plant-specific NAC (NAM, ATAF1/2, and CUC2) transcription factor, is a master regulator of xylem vessel cell differentiation in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana). Previous metabolome analysis using the VND7-inducible system in tobacco BY-2 cells successfully revealed significant quantitative changes in primary metabolites during xylem vessel cell differentiation. However, the flow of primary metabolites is not yet well understood. Here, we performed a metabolomic analysis of VND7-inducible Arabidopsis T87 suspension cells. Capillary electrophoresis-time-of-flight mass spectrometry quantified 57 metabolites, and subsequent data analysis highlighted active changes in the levels of UDP-glucose and phenylalanine, which are building blocks of cellulose and lignin, respectively. In a metabolic flow analysis using stable carbon 13 (13C) isotope, the 13C-labeling ratio specifically increased in 3-phosphoglycerate after 12 h of VND7 induction, followed by an increase in shikimate after 24 h of induction, while the inflow of 13C into lactate from pyruvate was significantly inhibited, indicating an active shift of carbon flow from glycolysis to the shikimate pathway during xylem vessel cell differentiation. In support of this notion, most glycolytic genes involved in the downstream of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate were downregulated following the induction of xylem vessel cell differentiation, whereas genes for the shikimate pathway and phenylalanine biosynthesis were upregulated. These findings provide evidence for the active shift of carbon flow from primary metabolic pathways to the SCW polymer biosynthetic pathway at specific points during xylem vessel cell differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Atsushi Yamamoto
- Department of Integrated Biosciences, Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 5-1-5, Kashiwanoha, Kashiwa, Chiba, 277-8562 Japan
| | - Mami Matsuda
- Graduate School of Science, Technology and Innovation, Kobe University, 1-1 Rokkodai, Nada, Kobe, Hyogo, 657-8501 Japan
| | - Toshihiro Arae
- Department of Integrated Biosciences, Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 5-1-5, Kashiwanoha, Kashiwa, Chiba, 277-8562 Japan
| | - Tomohisa Hasunuma
- Graduate School of Science, Technology and Innovation, Kobe University, 1-1 Rokkodai, Nada, Kobe, Hyogo, 657-8501 Japan
- Engineering Biology Research Center, Kobe University, 1-1 Rokkodai, Nada, Kobe, Hyogo, 657-8501 Japan
| | - Taku Demura
- Division of Biological Science, Graduate School of Science and Technology, Nara Institute of Science and Technology, 8916-5, Takayama-cho, Ikoma, Nara, 630-0192 Japan
- RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource Science, 1-7-22, Suehiro-Cho, Tsurumi-Ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa, 230-0045 Japan
| | - Misato Ohtani
- Division of Biological Science, Graduate School of Science and Technology, Nara Institute of Science and Technology, 8916-5, Takayama-cho, Ikoma, Nara, 630-0192 Japan
- Department of Integrated Biosciences, Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 5-1-5, Kashiwanoha, Kashiwa, Chiba, 277-8562 Japan
- RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource Science, 1-7-22, Suehiro-Cho, Tsurumi-Ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa, 230-0045 Japan
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4
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Choi J, Makarem M, Lee C, Lee J, Kiemle S, Cosgrove DJ, Kim SH. Tissue-specific directionality of cellulose synthase complex movement inferred from cellulose microfibril polarity in secondary cell walls of Arabidopsis. Sci Rep 2023; 13:22007. [PMID: 38086837 PMCID: PMC10716418 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-48545-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2023] [Accepted: 11/28/2023] [Indexed: 12/18/2023] Open
Abstract
In plant cells, cellulose synthase complexes (CSCs) are nanoscale machines that synthesize and extrude crystalline cellulose microfibrils (CMFs) into the apoplast where CMFs are assembled with other matrix polymers into specific structures. We report the tissue-specific directionality of CSC movements of the xylem and interfascicular fiber walls of Arabidopsis stems, inferred from the polarity of CMFs determined using vibrational sum frequency generation spectroscopy. CMFs in xylems are deposited in an unidirectionally biased pattern with their alignment axes tilted about 25° off the stem axis, while interfascicular fibers are bidirectional and highly aligned along the longitudinal axis of the stem. These structures are compatible with the design of fiber-reinforced composites for tubular conduit and support pillar, respectively, suggesting that during cell development, CSC movement is regulated to produce wall structures optimized for cell-specific functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juseok Choi
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Materials Research Institute, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Mohamadamin Makarem
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Materials Research Institute, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Chonghan Lee
- Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Jongcheol Lee
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Materials Research Institute, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Sarah Kiemle
- Materials Characterization Laboratory, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Daniel J Cosgrove
- Department of Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Seong H Kim
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Materials Research Institute, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA.
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5
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McFarlane HE. Open questions in plant cell wall synthesis. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2023:erad110. [PMID: 36961357 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erad110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Plant cells are surrounded by strong yet flexible polysaccharide-based cell walls that support the cell while also allowing growth by cell expansion. Plant cell wall research has advanced tremendously in recent years. Sequenced genomes of many model and crop plants have facilitated cataloging and characterization of many enzymes involved in cell wall synthesis. Structural information has been generated for several important cell wall synthesizing enzymes. Important tools have been developed including antibodies raised against a variety of cell wall polysaccharides and glycoproteins, collections of enzyme clones and synthetic glycan arrays for characterizing enzymes, herbicides that specifically affect cell wall synthesis, live-cell imaging probes to track cell wall synthesis, and an inducible secondary cell wall synthesis system. Despite these advances, and often because of the new information they provide, many open questions about plant cell wall polysaccharide synthesis persist. This article highlights some of the key questions that remain open, reviews the data supporting different hypotheses that address these questions, and discusses technological developments that may answer these questions in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heather E McFarlane
- Department of Cell & Systems Biology, University of Toronto, 25 Harbord St., Toronto, ON, M5S 3G5, Canada
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6
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Noninvasive Long-Term Imaging of the Cytoskeleton in Arabidopsis Seedlings. Methods Mol Biol 2023; 2604:297-309. [PMID: 36773244 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-2867-6_24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/12/2023]
Abstract
The preparation of biological samples, especially for live-cell microscopy, remains a major experimental challenge in the lab despite technological advances. In addition, high-resolution microscopy techniques require higher sample quality and uniformity, which is difficult to ensure during manual preparation while maintaining "ideal" growth conditions. In this protocol, we provide a way out by growing Arabidopsis thaliana seedlings directly in an imaging chamber, which eliminates invasive sample preparation directly before imaging. This method hinges on the precise placement of seeds into imaging chambers, which can be grown in conventional climate chambers. We detail three methods to grow hypocotyls, cotyledons, leaves, and roots for high-resolution and long-term imaging of the plant cytoskeleton. Furthermore, we show that the growth and development of seedlings inside the chambers can be externally manipulated by the addition of chemicals.
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7
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Pedersen GB, Blaschek L, Frandsen KEH, Noack LC, Persson S. Cellulose synthesis in land plants. MOLECULAR PLANT 2023; 16:206-231. [PMID: 36564945 DOI: 10.1016/j.molp.2022.12.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2022] [Revised: 12/19/2022] [Accepted: 12/21/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
All plant cells are surrounded by a cell wall that provides cohesion, protection, and a means of directional growth to plants. Cellulose microfibrils contribute the main biomechanical scaffold for most of these walls. The biosynthesis of cellulose, which typically is the most prominent constituent of the cell wall and therefore Earth's most abundant biopolymer, is finely attuned to developmental and environmental cues. Our understanding of the machinery that catalyzes and regulates cellulose biosynthesis has substantially improved due to recent technological advances in, for example, structural biology and microscopy. Here, we provide a comprehensive overview of the structure, function, and regulation of the cellulose synthesis machinery and its regulatory interactors. We aim to highlight important knowledge gaps in the field, and outline emerging approaches that promise a means to close those gaps.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gustav B Pedersen
- Copenhagen Plant Science Center (CPSC), Department of Plant & Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871, Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - Leonard Blaschek
- Copenhagen Plant Science Center (CPSC), Department of Plant & Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871, Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - Kristian E H Frandsen
- Copenhagen Plant Science Center (CPSC), Department of Plant & Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871, Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - Lise C Noack
- Copenhagen Plant Science Center (CPSC), Department of Plant & Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871, Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - Staffan Persson
- Copenhagen Plant Science Center (CPSC), Department of Plant & Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871, Frederiksberg C, Denmark; Joint International Research Laboratory of Metabolic & Developmental Sciences, State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, SJTU-University of Adelaide Joint Centre for Agriculture and Health, School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China.
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8
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von der Mark C, Cruz TMD, Blanco‐Touriñan N, Rodriguez‐Villalon A. Bipartite phosphoinositide-dependent modulation of auxin signaling during xylem differentiation in Arabidopsis thaliana roots. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2022; 236:1734-1747. [PMID: 36039703 PMCID: PMC9826227 DOI: 10.1111/nph.18448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2022] [Accepted: 08/14/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Efficient root-to-shoot delivery of water and nutrients in plants relies on the correct differentiation of xylem cells into hollow elements. While auxin is integral to the formation of xylem cells, it remains poorly characterized how each subcellular pool of this hormone regulates this process. Combining genetic and cell biological approaches, we investigated the bipartite activity of nucleoplasmic vs plasma membrane-associated phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate kinases PIP5K1 and its homolog PIP5K2 in Arabidopsis thaliana roots and uncovered a novel mechanism by which phosphoinositides integrate distinct aspects of the auxin signaling cascade and, in turn, regulate the onset of xylem differentiation. The appearance of undifferentiated cells in protoxylem strands of pip5k1 pip5k2 is phenomimicked in auxin transport and perception mutants and can be partially restored by the nuclear residence of PIP5K1. By contrast, exclusion of PIP5K1 from the nucleus hinders the auxin-mediated induction of the xylem master regulator VASCULAR RELATED NAC DOMAIN (VND) 7. A xylem-specific increase of auxin levels abolishes pip5k1 pip5k2 vascular defects, indicating that the establishment of auxin maxima is required to activate VND7-mediated xylem differentiation. Our results describe a new mechanism by which distinct subcellular pools of phosphoinositides integrate auxin transport and perception to initiate xylem differentiation in a spatiotemporal manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia von der Mark
- Department of BiologySwiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) ZurichCH‐8092ZurichSwitzerland
| | - Tiago M. D. Cruz
- Department of BiologySwiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) ZurichCH‐8092ZurichSwitzerland
| | - Noel Blanco‐Touriñan
- Department of BiologySwiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) ZurichCH‐8092ZurichSwitzerland
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9
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Xu H, Giannetti A, Sugiyama Y, Zheng W, Schneider R, Watanabe Y, Oda Y, Persson S. Secondary cell wall patterning-connecting the dots, pits and helices. Open Biol 2022; 12:210208. [PMID: 35506204 PMCID: PMC9065968 DOI: 10.1098/rsob.210208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2021] [Accepted: 04/07/2022] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
All plant cells are encased in primary cell walls that determine plant morphology, but also protect the cells against the environment. Certain cells also produce a secondary wall that supports mechanically demanding processes, such as maintaining plant body stature and water transport inside plants. Both these walls are primarily composed of polysaccharides that are arranged in certain patterns to support cell functions. A key requisite for patterned cell walls is the arrangement of cortical microtubules that may direct the delivery of wall polymers and/or cell wall producing enzymes to certain plasma membrane locations. Microtubules also steer the synthesis of cellulose-the load-bearing structure in cell walls-at the plasma membrane. The organization and behaviour of the microtubule array are thus of fundamental importance to cell wall patterns. These aspects are controlled by the coordinated effort of small GTPases that probably coordinate a Turing's reaction-diffusion mechanism to drive microtubule patterns. Here, we give an overview on how wall patterns form in the water-transporting xylem vessels of plants. We discuss systems that have been used to dissect mechanisms that underpin the xylem wall patterns, emphasizing the VND6 and VND7 inducible systems, and outline challenges that lay ahead in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huizhen Xu
- School of Biosciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Alessandro Giannetti
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, 1871 Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - Yuki Sugiyama
- The Sainsbury Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Bateman Street, Cambridge CB2 1LR, UK
| | - Wenna Zheng
- School of Biosciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, 1871 Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - René Schneider
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, Plant Physiology Department, University of Potsdam, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
| | - Yoichiro Watanabe
- Institute for Research Initiatives, Nara Institute of Science and Technology, 8916-5 Takayama, Ikoma, Nara 630-0192, Japan
| | - Yoshihisa Oda
- Department of Gene Function and Phenomics, National Institute of Genetics, 1111 Yata, Mishima, Shizuoka 411-8540, Japan
- Department of Genetics, The Graduate University for Advanced Studies, SOKENDAI, 1111 Yata, Mishima, Shizuoka 411-8540, Japan
| | - Staffan Persson
- School of Biosciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, 1871 Frederiksberg C, Denmark
- Copenhagen Plant Science Center, University of Copenhagen, 1871 Frederiksberg C, Denmark
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Metabolic and Developmental Sciences, State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
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10
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Guo Y, Chen F, Luo J, Qiao M, Zeng W, Li J, Xu W. The DUF288 domain containing proteins GhSTLs participate in cotton fiber cellulose synthesis and impact on fiber elongation. PLANT SCIENCE : AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL PLANT BIOLOGY 2022; 316:111168. [PMID: 35151452 DOI: 10.1016/j.plantsci.2021.111168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2021] [Revised: 12/13/2021] [Accepted: 12/21/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Cotton is one of the most important economic crops in the world, with over 90 % cellulose in the mature fiber. However, the cellulose synthesis mechanism in cotton fibers is poorly understood. Here, we identified four DUF288 domain containing proteins, which we designated GhSTL1-4. These four GhSTL genes are highly expressed in 6 days post anthesis (dpa) and 20 dpa cotton fibers. They are localized to the Golgi apparatus, and can rescue the growth defects in primary cell wall (PCW) and secondary cell wall (SCW) of cellulose synthesis of the Arabidopsis stl1stl2 double mutant at varying degrees. Silencing of GhSTLs resulted in reduced cellulose content and shorter fibers. In addition, split-ubiquitin membrane yeast two-hybrid analysis showed that GhSTL1 and GhSTL4 can interact with PCW-related GhCesA6-1/6-3 and SCW-associated GhCesA7-1/7-2. GhSTL3 can interact with SCW-related GhCesA4-3. These interactions are further confirmed by firefly luciferase complementation imaging assay. Together, we demonstrate that GhSTLs can selectively interact with both the PCW and SCW-associated GhCesAs and impact on cellulose synthesis and fiber development. Our findings provide insights into the mechanism underlying cellulose biosynthesis in cotton fibers, and offer potential candidate genes to coordinate PCW and SCW cellulose synthesis of cotton fibers for developing elite cotton varieties with enhanced fiber quality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanjun Guo
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Genetic Regulation and Integrative Biology, School of Life Sciences, Central China Normal University, Wuhan 430079, China
| | - Feng Chen
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Genetic Regulation and Integrative Biology, School of Life Sciences, Central China Normal University, Wuhan 430079, China
| | - Jingwen Luo
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Genetic Regulation and Integrative Biology, School of Life Sciences, Central China Normal University, Wuhan 430079, China
| | - Mengfei Qiao
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Genetic Regulation and Integrative Biology, School of Life Sciences, Central China Normal University, Wuhan 430079, China
| | - Wei Zeng
- Sino-Australia Plant Cell Wall Research Centre, State Key Laboratory of Subtropical Silviculture, College of Forestry and Biotechnology, Zhejiang A&F University, Hangzhou 311300, China
| | - Juan Li
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Genetic Regulation and Integrative Biology, School of Life Sciences, Central China Normal University, Wuhan 430079, China
| | - Wenliang Xu
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Genetic Regulation and Integrative Biology, School of Life Sciences, Central China Normal University, Wuhan 430079, China.
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11
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Duncombe SG, Chethan SG, Anderson CT. Super-resolution imaging illuminates new dynamic behaviors of cellulose synthase. THE PLANT CELL 2022; 34:273-286. [PMID: 34524465 PMCID: PMC8846172 DOI: 10.1093/plcell/koab227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2021] [Accepted: 09/03/2021] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Confocal imaging has shown that CELLULOSE SYNTHASE (CESA) particles move through the plasma membrane as they synthesize cellulose. However, the resolution limit of confocal microscopy circumscribes what can be discovered about these tiny biosynthetic machines. Here, we applied Structured Illumination Microscopy (SIM), which improves resolution two-fold over confocal or widefield imaging, to explore the dynamic behaviors of CESA particles in living plant cells. SIM imaging reveals that Arabidopsis thaliana CESA particles are more than twice as dense in the plasma membrane as previously estimated, helping explain the dense arrangement of cellulose observed in new wall layers. CESA particles tracked by SIM display minimal variation in velocity, suggesting coordinated control of CESA catalytic activity within single complexes and that CESA complexes might move steadily in tandem to generate larger cellulose fibrils or bundles. SIM data also reveal that CESA particles vary in their overlaps with microtubule tracks and can complete U-turns without changing speed. CESA track patterns can vary widely between neighboring cells of similar shape, implying that cellulose patterning is not the sole determinant of cellular growth anisotropy. Together, these findings highlight SIM as a powerful tool to advance CESA imaging beyond the resolution limit of conventional light microscopy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sydney G Duncombe
- Department of Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, Pennsylvania 16802, USA
| | - Samir G Chethan
- Department of Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, Pennsylvania 16802, USA
| | - Charles T Anderson
- Department of Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, Pennsylvania 16802, USA
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12
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Larson RT, McFarlane HE. Small but Mighty: An Update on Small Molecule Plant Cellulose Biosynthesis Inhibitors. PLANT & CELL PHYSIOLOGY 2021; 62:1828-1838. [PMID: 34245306 DOI: 10.1093/pcp/pcab108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2021] [Revised: 06/14/2021] [Accepted: 07/09/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Cellulose is one of the most abundant biopolymers on Earth. It provides mechanical support to growing plant cells and important raw materials for paper, textiles and biofuel feedstocks. Cellulose biosynthesis inhibitors (CBIs) are invaluable tools for studying cellulose biosynthesis and can be important herbicides for controlling weed growth. Here, we review CBIs with particular focus on the most widely used CBIs and recently discovered CBIs. We discuss the effects of these CBIs on plant growth and development and plant cell biology and summarize what is known about the mode of action of these different CBIs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raegan T Larson
- Department of Cell and Systems Biology, University of Toronto, 25 Harbord Street, Toronto, ON M5S 3G5, Canada
| | - Heather E McFarlane
- Department of Cell and Systems Biology, University of Toronto, 25 Harbord Street, Toronto, ON M5S 3G5, Canada
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13
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Bansal J, Gupta K, Rajkumar MS, Garg R, Jain M. Draft genome and transcriptome analyses of halophyte rice Oryza coarctata provide resources for salinity and submergence stress response factors. PHYSIOLOGIA PLANTARUM 2021; 173:1309-1322. [PMID: 33215706 DOI: 10.1111/ppl.13284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2020] [Revised: 11/05/2020] [Accepted: 11/17/2020] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Oryza coarctata is a wild relative of rice that has adapted to diverse ecological environments, including high salinity and submergence. Thus, it can provide an important resource for discovering candidate genes/factors involved in tolerance to these stresses. Here, we report a draft genome assembly of 573 Mb comprised of 8877 scaffolds with N50 length of 205 kb. We predicted a total of 50,562 protein-coding genes, of which a significant fraction was found to be involved in secondary metabolite biosynthesis and hormone signal transduction pathways. Several salinity and submergence stress-responsive protein-coding and long noncoding RNAs involved in diverse biological processes were identified using RNA-sequencing data. Based on small RNA sequencing, we identified 168 unique miRNAs and 3219 target transcripts (coding and noncoding) involved in several biological processes, including abiotic stress responses. Further, whole genome bisulphite sequencing data analysis revealed at least 19%-48% methylcytosines in different sequence contexts and the influence of methylation status on gene expression. The genome assembly along with other datasets have been made publicly available at http://ccbb.jnu.ac.in/ory-coar. Altogether, we provide a comprehensive genomic resource for understanding the regulation of salinity and submergence stress responses and identification of candidate genes/factors involved for functional genomics studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juhi Bansal
- School of Computational & Integrative Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India
| | - Khushboo Gupta
- Department of Life Sciences, School of Natural Sciences, Shiv Nadar University, Noida, India
| | - Mohan Singh Rajkumar
- School of Computational & Integrative Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India
| | - Rohini Garg
- Department of Life Sciences, School of Natural Sciences, Shiv Nadar University, Noida, India
| | - Mukesh Jain
- School of Computational & Integrative Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India
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14
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Kamon E, Ohtani M. Xylem vessel cell differentiation: A best model for new integrative cell biology? CURRENT OPINION IN PLANT BIOLOGY 2021; 64:102135. [PMID: 34768235 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbi.2021.102135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2021] [Revised: 09/24/2021] [Accepted: 09/29/2021] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Xylem vessels transport water and essential low-molecular-weight compounds throughout vascular plants. To achieve maximum performance as conductive tissues, xylem vessel cells undergo secondary cell wall deposition and programmed cell death to produce a hollow tube-like structure with a rigid outer shell. This unique process has been explored in detail from a cell biology and molecular biology perspective, culminating in the identification of the master transcriptional switches of xylem vessel cell differentiation, the VASCULAR-RELATED NAC-DOMAIN (VND) proteins. High-resolution analyses of xylem vessel cell differentiation have since accelerated and are now moving toward single cell-level dissection from a variety of directions. In this review, we introduce the current model of xylem vessel cell differentiation and discuss possible future directions in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eri Kamon
- Department of Integrated Sciences, Graduate School of Frontier Science, The University of Tokyo, Kashiwa, Chiba 277-8562, Japan
| | - Misato Ohtani
- Department of Integrated Sciences, Graduate School of Frontier Science, The University of Tokyo, Kashiwa, Chiba 277-8562, Japan.
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15
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Nething DB, Sukul A, Mishler‐Elmore JW, Held MA. Posttranscriptional regulation of cellulose synthase genes by small RNAs derived from cellulose synthase antisense transcripts. PLANT DIRECT 2021; 5:e347. [PMID: 34557619 PMCID: PMC8447916 DOI: 10.1002/pld3.347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2020] [Revised: 06/14/2021] [Accepted: 08/24/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Transcriptional regulatory mechanisms governing plant cell wall biosynthesis are incomplete. Expression programs that activate wall biosynthesis are well understood, but mechanisms that control the attenuation of gene expression networks remain elusive. Previous work has shown that small RNAs (sRNAs) derived from the HvCESA6 (Hordeum vulgare, Hv) antisense transcripts are naturally produced and are capable of regulating aspects of wall biosynthesis. Here, we further test the hypothesis that CESA-derived sRNAs generated from CESA antisense transcripts are involved in the regulation of cellulose and broader cell wall biosynthesis. Antisense transcripts were detected for some but not all members of the CESA gene family in both barley and Brachypodium distachyon. Phylogenetic analysis indicates that antisense transcripts are detected for most primary cell wall CESA genes, suggesting a possible role in the transition from primary to secondary cell wall biosynthesis. Focusing on one antisense transcript, HvCESA1 shows dynamic expression throughout development, is correlated with corresponding sRNAs over the same period and is anticorrelated with HvCESA1 mRNA expression. To assess the broader impacts of CESA-derived sRNAs on the regulation of cell wall biosynthesis, transcript profiling was performed on barley tissues overexpressing CESA-derived sRNAs. Together, the data support the hypothesis that CESA antisense transcripts function through an RNA-induced silencing mechanism, to degrade cis transcripts, and may also trigger trans-acting silencing on related genes to alter the expression of cell wall gene networks.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Abhijit Sukul
- Department of Chemistry and BiochemistryOhio UniversityAthensOHUSA
| | | | - Michael A. Held
- Department of Chemistry and BiochemistryOhio UniversityAthensOHUSA
- Molecular and Cellular Biology ProgramOhio UniversityAthensOHUSA
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16
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Burris JN, Makarem M, Slabaugh E, Chaves A, Pierce ET, Lee J, Kiemle SN, Kwansa AL, Singh A, Yingling YG, Roberts AW, Kim SH, Haigler CH. Phenotypic effects of changes in the FTVTxK region of an Arabidopsis secondary wall cellulose synthase compared with results from analogous mutations in other isoforms. PLANT DIRECT 2021; 5:e335. [PMID: 34386691 PMCID: PMC8341023 DOI: 10.1002/pld3.335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2021] [Revised: 05/27/2021] [Accepted: 06/08/2021] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Understanding protein structure and function relationships in cellulose synthase (CesA), including divergent isomers, is an important goal. Here, we report results from mutant complementation assays that tested the ability of sequence variants of AtCesA7, a secondary wall CesA of Arabidopsis thaliana, to rescue the collapsed vessels, short stems, and low cellulose content of the irx3-1 AtCesA7 null mutant. We tested a catalytic null mutation and seven missense or small domain changes in and near the AtCesA7 FTVTSK motif, which lies near the catalytic domain and may, analogously to bacterial CesA, exist within a substrate "gating loop." A low-to-high gradient of rescue occurred, and even inactive AtCesA7 had a small positive effect on stem cellulose content but not stem elongation. Overall, secondary wall cellulose content and stem length were moderately correlated, but the results were consistent with threshold amounts of cellulose supporting particular developmental processes. Vibrational sum frequency generation microscopy allowed tissue-specific analysis of cellulose content in stem xylem and interfascicular fibers, revealing subtle differences between selected genotypes that correlated with the extent of rescue of the collapsing xylem phenotype. Similar tests on PpCesA5 from the moss Physcomitrium (formerly Physcomitrella) patens helped us to synergize the AtCesA7 results with prior results on AtCesA1 and PpCesA5. The cumulative results show that the FTVTxK region is important for the function of an angiosperm secondary wall CesA as well as widely divergent primary wall CesAs, while differences in complementation results between isomers may reflect functional differences that can be explored in further work.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason N. Burris
- Department of Crop and Soil SciencesNorth Carolina State UniversityRaleighNCUSA
| | - Mohamadamin Makarem
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Research InstitutePennsylvania State University, University ParkState CollegePAUSA
| | - Erin Slabaugh
- Department of Crop and Soil SciencesNorth Carolina State UniversityRaleighNCUSA
| | - Arielle Chaves
- Department of Biological SciencesUniversity of Rhode IslandKingstonRIUSA
| | - Ethan T. Pierce
- Department of Crop and Soil SciencesNorth Carolina State UniversityRaleighNCUSA
| | - Jongcheol Lee
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Research InstitutePennsylvania State University, University ParkState CollegePAUSA
| | - Sarah N. Kiemle
- Department of BiologyPennsylvania State University, University ParkState CollegePAUSA
| | - Albert L. Kwansa
- Department of Materials Science and EngineeringNorth Carolina State UniversityRaleighNCUSA
| | - Abhishek Singh
- Department of Materials Science and EngineeringNorth Carolina State UniversityRaleighNCUSA
| | - Yaroslava G. Yingling
- Department of Materials Science and EngineeringNorth Carolina State UniversityRaleighNCUSA
| | - Alison W. Roberts
- Department of Biological SciencesUniversity of Rhode IslandKingstonRIUSA
| | - Seong H. Kim
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Research InstitutePennsylvania State University, University ParkState CollegePAUSA
| | - Candace H. Haigler
- Department of Crop and Soil SciencesNorth Carolina State UniversityRaleighNCUSA
- Department of Plant and Microbial BiologyNorth Carolina State UniversityRaleighNCUSA
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17
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Sørensen M, Møller BL. Metabolic Engineering of Photosynthetic Cells – in Collaboration with Nature. Metab Eng 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/9783527823468.ch21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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18
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Allelign Ashagre H, Zaltzman D, Idan-Molakandov A, Romano H, Tzfadia O, Harpaz-Saad S. FASCICLIN-LIKE 18 Is a New Player Regulating Root Elongation in Arabidopsis thaliana. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2021; 12:645286. [PMID: 33897736 PMCID: PMC8058476 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2021.645286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2020] [Accepted: 02/19/2021] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
The plasticity of root development represents a key trait that enables plants to adapt to diverse environmental cues. The pattern of cell wall deposition, alongside other parameters, affects the extent, and direction of root growth. In this study, we report that FASCICLIN-LIKE ARABINOGALACTAN PROTEIN 18 (FLA18) plays a role during root elongation in Arabidopsis thaliana. Using root-specific co-expression analysis, we identified FLA18 to be co-expressed with a sub-set of genes required for root elongation. FLA18 encodes for a putative extra-cellular arabinogalactan protein from the FLA-gene family. Two independent T-DNA insertion lines, named fla18-1 and fla18-2, display short and swollen lateral roots (LRs) when grown on sensitizing condition of high-sucrose containing medium. Unlike fla4/salt overly sensitive 5 (sos5), previously shown to display short and swollen primary root (PR) and LRs under these conditions, the PR of the fla18 mutants is slightly longer compared to the wild-type. Overexpression of the FLA18 CDS complemented the fla18 root phenotype. Genetic interaction between either of the fla18 alleles and sos5 reveals a more severe perturbation of anisotropic growth in both PR and LRs, as compared to the single mutants and the wild-type under restrictive conditions of high sucrose or high-salt containing medium. Additionally, under salt-stress conditions, fla18sos5 had a small, chlorotic shoot phenotype, that was not observed in any of the single mutants or the wild type. As previously shown for sos5, the fla18-1 and fla18-1sos5 root-elongation phenotype is suppressed by abscisic acid (ABA) and display hypersensitivity to the ABA synthesis inhibitor, Fluridon. Last, similar to other cell wall mutants, fla18 root elongation is hypersensitive to the cellulose synthase inhibitor, Isoxaben. Altogether, the presented data assign a new role for FLA18 in the regulation of root elongation. Future studies of the unique vs. redundant roles of FLA proteins during root elongation is anticipated to shed a new light on the regulation of root architecture during plant adaptation to different growth conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hewot Allelign Ashagre
- The Robert H. Smith Institute of Plant Sciences and Genetics in Agriculture, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - David Zaltzman
- The Robert H. Smith Institute of Plant Sciences and Genetics in Agriculture, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Anat Idan-Molakandov
- The Robert H. Smith Institute of Plant Sciences and Genetics in Agriculture, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Hila Romano
- The Robert H. Smith Institute of Plant Sciences and Genetics in Agriculture, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Oren Tzfadia
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical, Biomedical and Veterinary Sciences, Institute for Tropical Medicine, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Smadar Harpaz-Saad
- The Robert H. Smith Institute of Plant Sciences and Genetics in Agriculture, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
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19
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Subcellular coordination of plant cell wall synthesis. Dev Cell 2021; 56:933-948. [PMID: 33761322 DOI: 10.1016/j.devcel.2021.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2020] [Revised: 01/13/2021] [Accepted: 02/27/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Organelles of the plant cell cooperate to synthesize and secrete a strong yet flexible polysaccharide-based extracellular matrix: the cell wall. Cell wall composition varies among plant species, across cell types within a plant, within different regions of a single cell wall, and in response to intrinsic or extrinsic signals. This diversity in cell wall makeup is underpinned by common cellular mechanisms for cell wall production. Cellulose synthase complexes function at the plasma membrane and deposit their product into the cell wall. Matrix polysaccharides are synthesized by a multitude of glycosyltransferases in hundreds of mobile Golgi stacks, and an extensive set of vesicle trafficking proteins govern secretion to the cell wall. In this review, we discuss the different subcellular locations at which cell wall synthesis occurs, review the molecular mechanisms that control cell wall biosynthesis, and examine how these are regulated in response to different perturbations to maintain cell wall homeostasis.
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20
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Schneider R, Klooster KV, Picard KL, van der Gucht J, Demura T, Janson M, Sampathkumar A, Deinum EE, Ketelaar T, Persson S. Long-term single-cell imaging and simulations of microtubules reveal principles behind wall patterning during proto-xylem development. Nat Commun 2021; 12:669. [PMID: 33510146 PMCID: PMC7843992 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-20894-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2020] [Accepted: 12/22/2020] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Plants are the tallest organisms on Earth; a feature sustained by solute-transporting xylem vessels in the plant vasculature. The xylem vessels are supported by strong cell walls that are assembled in intricate patterns. Cortical microtubules direct wall deposition and need to rapidly re-organize during xylem cell development. Here, we establish long-term live-cell imaging of single Arabidopsis cells undergoing proto-xylem trans-differentiation, resulting in spiral wall patterns, to understand microtubule re-organization. We find that the re-organization requires local microtubule de-stabilization in band-interspersing gaps. Using microtubule simulations, we recapitulate the process in silico and predict that spatio-temporal control of microtubule nucleation is critical for pattern formation, which we confirm in vivo. By combining simulations and live-cell imaging we further explain how the xylem wall-deficient and microtubule-severing KATANIN contributes to microtubule and wall patterning. Hence, by combining quantitative microscopy and modelling we devise a framework to understand how microtubule re-organization supports wall patterning. Plant cell wall formation is directed by cortical microtubules, which produce complex patterns needed to support xylem vessels. Here, the authors perform live-cell imaging and simulations of Arabidopsis cells during proto-xylem differentiation to show how local microtubule dynamics control pattern formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- René Schneider
- School of Biosciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3010, Australia.,Max Planck Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, Am Muehlenberg 1, 14476, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Kris Van't Klooster
- Laboratory of Cell Biology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands.,Physical Chemistry and Soft Matter, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Kelsey L Picard
- School of Biosciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3010, Australia.,School of Natural Sciences, University of Tasmania, Hobart, 7001, TAS, Australia
| | - Jasper van der Gucht
- Physical Chemistry and Soft Matter, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Taku Demura
- Graduate School of Biological Sciences, Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Ikoma, Nara, 630-0192, Japan
| | - Marcel Janson
- Laboratory of Cell Biology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Arun Sampathkumar
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, Am Muehlenberg 1, 14476, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Eva E Deinum
- Mathematical and Statistical Methods (Biometris), Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
| | - Tijs Ketelaar
- Laboratory of Cell Biology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
| | - Staffan Persson
- School of Biosciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3010, Australia. .,Department for Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, 1871, Frederiksberg C, Denmark. .,Copenhagen Plant Science Center, University of Copenhagen, 1871, Frederiksberg C, Denmark. .,Joint International Research Laboratory of Metabolic and Developmental Sciences, State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China.
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21
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Allen H, Wei D, Gu Y, Li S. A historical perspective on the regulation of cellulose biosynthesis. Carbohydr Polym 2021; 252:117022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2020.117022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2020] [Revised: 08/25/2020] [Accepted: 08/25/2020] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
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22
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Zabotina OA, Zhang N, Weerts R. Polysaccharide Biosynthesis: Glycosyltransferases and Their Complexes. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2021; 12:625307. [PMID: 33679837 PMCID: PMC7933479 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2021.625307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2020] [Accepted: 01/14/2021] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Glycosyltransferases (GTs) are enzymes that catalyze reactions attaching an activated sugar to an acceptor substrate, which may be a polysaccharide, peptide, lipid, or small molecule. In the past decade, notable progress has been made in revealing and cloning genes encoding polysaccharide-synthesizing GTs. However, the vast majority of GTs remain structurally and functionally uncharacterized. The mechanism by which they are organized in the Golgi membrane, where they synthesize complex, highly branched polysaccharide structures with high efficiency and fidelity, is also mostly unknown. This review will focus on current knowledge about plant polysaccharide-synthesizing GTs, specifically focusing on protein-protein interactions and the formation of multiprotein complexes.
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23
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Liu E, MacMillan CP, Shafee T, Ma Y, Ratcliffe J, van de Meene A, Bacic A, Humphries J, Johnson KL. Fasciclin-Like Arabinogalactan-Protein 16 (FLA16) Is Required for Stem Development in Arabidopsis. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2020; 11:615392. [PMID: 33362841 PMCID: PMC7758453 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2020.615392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2020] [Accepted: 11/23/2020] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
The predominant Fascilin 1 (FAS1)-containing proteins in plants belong to the Fasciclin-Like Arabinogalactan-protein (FLA) family of extracellular glycoproteins. In addition to FAS1 domains, these multi-domain FLA proteins contain glycomotif regions predicted to direct addition of large arabinogalactan (AG) glycans and many contain signal sequences for addition of a glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchor to tether them to the plasma membrane. FLAs are proposed to play both structural and signaling functions by forming a range of interactions in the plant extracellular matrix, similar to FAS1-containing proteins in animals. FLA group B members contain two FAS1 domains and are not predicted to be GPI-anchored. None of the group B members have been functionally characterized or their sub-cellular location resolved, limiting understanding of their function. We investigated the group B FLA16 in Arabidopsis that is predominantly expressed in inflorescence tissues. FLA16 is the most highly expressed FLA in the stem after Group A members FLA11 and FLA12 that are stem specific. A FLA16-YFP fusion protein driven by the endogenous putative FLA16 promoter in wild type background showed expression in cells with secondary cell walls, and FLA16 displayed characteristics of cell wall glycoproteins with moderate glycosylation. Investigation of a fla16 mutant showed loss of FLA16 leads to reduced stem length and altered biomechanical properties, likely as a result of reduced levels of cellulose. Immuno-labeling indicated support for FLA16 location to the plasma-membrane and (apoplastic) cell wall of interfascicular stem fiber cells. Together these results indicate FLA16, a two-FAS1 domain FLAs, plays a role in plant secondary cell wall synthesis and function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edgar Liu
- School of BioSciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Colleen P. MacMillan
- CSIRO, Agriculture and Food, CSIRO Black Mountain Science and Innovation Park, Canberra, ACT, Australia
| | - Thomas Shafee
- La Trobe Institute for Agriculture and Food, Department of Animal, Plant and Soil Sciences, La Trobe University, Bundoora, VIC, Australia
| | - Yingxuan Ma
- School of BioSciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
- La Trobe Institute for Agriculture and Food, Department of Animal, Plant and Soil Sciences, La Trobe University, Bundoora, VIC, Australia
| | - Julian Ratcliffe
- La Trobe Institute for Agriculture and Food, Department of Animal, Plant and Soil Sciences, La Trobe University, Bundoora, VIC, Australia
| | | | - Antony Bacic
- La Trobe Institute for Agriculture and Food, Department of Animal, Plant and Soil Sciences, La Trobe University, Bundoora, VIC, Australia
- Sino-Australia Plant Cell Wall Research Centre, College of Forestry and Biotechnology, Zhejiang A & F University, Hangzhou, China
| | - John Humphries
- School of BioSciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
- La Trobe Institute for Agriculture and Food, Department of Animal, Plant and Soil Sciences, La Trobe University, Bundoora, VIC, Australia
| | - Kim L. Johnson
- La Trobe Institute for Agriculture and Food, Department of Animal, Plant and Soil Sciences, La Trobe University, Bundoora, VIC, Australia
- Sino-Australia Plant Cell Wall Research Centre, College of Forestry and Biotechnology, Zhejiang A & F University, Hangzhou, China
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24
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Wang L, Hart BE, Khan GA, Cruz ER, Persson S, Wallace IS. Associations between phytohormones and cellulose biosynthesis in land plants. ANNALS OF BOTANY 2020; 126:807-824. [PMID: 32619216 PMCID: PMC7539351 DOI: 10.1093/aob/mcaa121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2020] [Accepted: 07/01/2020] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Phytohormones are small molecules that regulate virtually every aspect of plant growth and development, from basic cellular processes, such as cell expansion and division, to whole plant environmental responses. While the phytohormone levels and distribution thus tell the plant how to adjust itself, the corresponding growth alterations are actuated by cell wall modification/synthesis and internal turgor. Plant cell walls are complex polysaccharide-rich extracellular matrixes that surround all plant cells. Among the cell wall components, cellulose is typically the major polysaccharide, and is the load-bearing structure of the walls. Hence, the cell wall distribution of cellulose, which is synthesized by large Cellulose Synthase protein complexes at the cell surface, directs plant growth. SCOPE Here, we review the relationships between key phytohormone classes and cellulose deposition in plant systems. We present the core signalling pathways associated with each phytohormone and discuss the current understanding of how these signalling pathways impact cellulose biosynthesis with a particular focus on transcriptional and post-translational regulation. Because cortical microtubules underlying the plasma membrane significantly impact the trajectories of Cellulose Synthase Complexes, we also discuss the current understanding of how phytohormone signalling impacts the cortical microtubule array. CONCLUSION Given the importance of cellulose deposition and phytohormone signalling in plant growth and development, one would expect that there is substantial cross-talk between these processes; however, mechanisms for many of these relationships remain unclear and should be considered as the target of future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liu Wang
- School of Biosciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Bret E Hart
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada, USA
| | | | - Edward R Cruz
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada, USA
| | - Staffan Persson
- School of Biosciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Ian S Wallace
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada, USA
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada, USA
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25
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Bünder A, Sundman O, Mahboubi A, Persson S, Mansfield SD, Rüggeberg M, Niittylä T. CELLULOSE SYNTHASE INTERACTING 1 is required for wood mechanics and leaf morphology in aspen. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2020; 103:1858-1868. [PMID: 32526794 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.14873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2020] [Revised: 05/22/2020] [Accepted: 06/01/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Cellulose microfibrils synthesized by CELLULOSE SYNTHASE COMPLEXES (CSCs) are the main load-bearing polymers in wood. CELLULOSE SYNTHASE INTERACTING1 (CSI1) connects CSCs with cortical microtubules, which align with cellulose microfibrils. Mechanical properties of wood are dependent on cellulose microfibril alignment and structure in the cell walls, but the molecular mechanism(s) defining these features is unknown. Herein, we investigated the role of CSI1 in hybrid aspen (Populus tremula × Populus tremuloides) by characterizing transgenic lines with significantly reduced CSI1 transcript abundance. Reduction in leaves (50-80%) caused leaf twisting and misshaped pavement cells, while reduction (70-90%) in developing xylem led to impaired mechanical wood properties evident as a decrease in the elastic modulus and rupture. X-ray diffraction measurements indicate that microfibril angle was not impacted by the altered CSI1 abundance in developing wood fibres. Instead, the augmented wood phenotype of the transgenic trees was associated with a reduced cellulose degree of polymerization. These findings establish a function for CSI1 in wood mechanics and in defining leaf cell shape. Furthermore, the results imply that the microfibril angle in wood is defined by CSI1 independent mechanism(s).
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Bünder
- Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Umeå Plant Science Centre, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umeå, SE 901 83, Sweden
| | - Ola Sundman
- Department of Chemistry, Umeå University, Umeå, SE 901 87, Sweden
| | - Amir Mahboubi
- Department of Plant Physiology, Umeå Plant Science Centre, Umeå University, Umeå, SE 901 83, Sweden
| | - Staffan Persson
- School of Biosciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3010, Australia
| | - Shawn D Mansfield
- Department of Wood Science, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Markus Rüggeberg
- Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich (ETH Zurich), Institute for Building Materials, Zurich, 8093, Switzerland
- Cellulose and Wood Materials, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Material Science and Technology (Empa), Dubendorf, 8600, Switzerland
| | - Totte Niittylä
- Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Umeå Plant Science Centre, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umeå, SE 901 83, Sweden
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26
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Wei Y, Jiang C, Han R, Xie Y, Liu L, Yu Y. Plasma membrane proteomic analysis by TMT-PRM provides insight into mechanisms of aluminum resistance in tamba black soybean roots tips. PeerJ 2020; 8:e9312. [PMID: 32566407 PMCID: PMC7293186 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.9312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2020] [Accepted: 05/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Aluminum (Al) toxicity in acid soil is a worldwide agricultural problem that inhibits crop growth and productivity. However, the signal pathways associated with Al tolerance in plants remain largely unclear. In this study, tandem mass tag (TMT)-based quantitative proteomic methods were used to identify the differentially expressed plasma membrane (PM) proteins in Tamba black soybean (TBS) root tips under Al stress. Data are available via ProteomeXchange with identifier PXD017160. In addition, parallel reaction monitoring (PRM) was used to verify the protein quantitative data. The results showed that 907 PM proteins were identified in Al-treated plants. Among them, compared to untreated plants, 90 proteins were differentially expressed (DEPs) with 46 up-regulated and 44 down-regulated (fold change > 1.3 or < 0.77, p < 0.05). Functional enrichment based on GO, KEGG and protein domain revealed that the DEPs were associated with membrane trafficking and transporters, modifying cell wall composition, defense response and signal transduction. In conclusion, our results highlight the involvement of GmMATE13, GmMATE75, GmMATE87 and H+-ATPase in Al-induced citrate secretion in PM of TBS roots, and ABC transporters and Ca2+ have been implicated in internal detoxification and signaling of Al, respectively. Importantly, our data provides six receptor-like protein kinases (RLKs) as candidate proteins for further investigating Al signal transmembrane mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunmin Wei
- Southwest University, College of Animal Science and Technology, Chongqing, China
| | - Caode Jiang
- Southwest University, College of Animal Science and Technology, Chongqing, China
| | - Rongrong Han
- Southwest University, College of Animal Science and Technology, Chongqing, China
| | - Yonghong Xie
- Southwest University, College of Animal Science and Technology, Chongqing, China
| | - Lusheng Liu
- Southwest University, College of Animal Science and Technology, Chongqing, China
| | - Yongxiong Yu
- Southwest University, College of Animal Science and Technology, Chongqing, China
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27
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Yang J, Bak G, Burgin T, Barnes WJ, Mayes HB, Peña MJ, Urbanowicz BR, Nielsen E. Biochemical and Genetic Analysis Identify CSLD3 as a beta-1,4-Glucan Synthase That Functions during Plant Cell Wall Synthesis. THE PLANT CELL 2020; 32:1749-1767. [PMID: 32169960 PMCID: PMC7203914 DOI: 10.1105/tpc.19.00637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2019] [Revised: 02/11/2020] [Accepted: 03/10/2020] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
In plants, changes in cell size and shape during development fundamentally depend on the ability to synthesize and modify cell wall polysaccharides. The main classes of cell wall polysaccharides produced by terrestrial plants are cellulose, hemicelluloses, and pectins. Members of the cellulose synthase (CESA) and cellulose synthase-like (CSL) families encode glycosyltransferases that synthesize the β-1,4-linked glycan backbones of cellulose and most hemicellulosic polysaccharides that comprise plant cell walls. Cellulose microfibrils are the major load-bearing component in plant cell walls and are assembled from individual β-1,4-glucan polymers synthesized by CESA proteins that are organized into multimeric complexes called CESA complexes, in the plant plasma membrane. During distinct modes of polarized cell wall deposition, such as in the tip growth that occurs during the formation of root hairs and pollen tubes or de novo formation of cell plates during plant cytokinesis, newly synthesized cell wall polysaccharides are deposited in a restricted region of the cell. These processes require the activity of members of the CESA-like D subfamily. However, while these CSLD polysaccharide synthases are essential, the nature of the polysaccharides they synthesize has remained elusive. Here, we use a combination of genetic rescue experiments with CSLD-CESA chimeric proteins, in vitro biochemical reconstitution, and supporting computational modeling and simulation, to demonstrate that Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) CSLD3 is a UDP-glucose-dependent β-1,4-glucan synthase that forms protein complexes displaying similar ultrastructural features to those formed by CESA6.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiyuan Yang
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109
| | - Gwangbae Bak
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109
| | - Tucker Burgin
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109
| | - William J Barnes
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602
| | - Heather B Mayes
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109
| | - Maria J Peña
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602
| | - Breeanna R Urbanowicz
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602
| | - Erik Nielsen
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109
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Yao D, Gonzales-Vigil E, Mansfield SD. Arabidopsis sucrose synthase localization indicates a primary role in sucrose translocation in phloem. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2020; 71:1858-1869. [PMID: 31805187 PMCID: PMC7242074 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erz539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2019] [Accepted: 12/05/2019] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Sucrose synthase (SuSy) is one of two enzyme families capable of catalyzing the first degradative step in sucrose utilization. Several earlier studies examining SuSy mutants in Arabidopsis failed to identify obvious phenotypic abnormalities compared with wild-type plants in normal growth environments, and as such a functional role for SuSy in the previously proposed cellulose biosynthetic process remains unclear. Our study systematically evaluated the precise subcellular localization of all six isoforms of Arabidopsis SuSy via live-cell imaging. We showed that yellow fluorescent protein (YFP)-labeled SuSy1 and SuSy4 were expressed exclusively in phloem companion cells, and the sus1/sus4 double mutant accumulated sucrose under hypoxic conditions. SuSy5 and SuSy6 were found to be parietally localized in sieve elements and restricted only to the cytoplasm. SuSy2 was present in the endosperm and embryo of developing seeds, and SuSy3 was localized to the embryo and leaf stomata. No single isoform of SuSy was detected in developing xylem tissue of elongating stem, the primary site of cellulose deposition in plants. SuSy1 and SuSy4 were also undetectable in the protoxylem tracheary elements, which were induced by the vascular-related transcription factor VND7 during secondary cell wall formation. These findings implicate SuSy in the biological events related to sucrose translocation in phloem.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danyu Yao
- Department of Wood Science, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | | | - Shawn D Mansfield
- Department of Wood Science, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
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29
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Abbas M, Peszlen I, Shi R, Kim H, Katahira R, Kafle K, Xiang Z, Huang X, Min D, Mohamadamin M, Yang C, Dai X, Yan X, Park S, Li Y, Kim SH, Davis M, Ralph J, Sederoff RR, Chiang VL, Li Q. Involvement of CesA4, CesA7-A/B and CesA8-A/B in secondary wall formation in Populus trichocarpa wood. TREE PHYSIOLOGY 2020; 40:73-89. [PMID: 31211386 DOI: 10.1093/treephys/tpz020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2018] [Revised: 02/10/2019] [Accepted: 02/18/2019] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Cellulose synthase A genes (CesAs) are responsible for cellulose biosynthesis in plant cell walls. In this study, functions of secondary wall cellulose synthases PtrCesA4, PtrCesA7-A/B and PtrCesA8-A/B were characterized during wood formation in Populus trichocarpa (Torr. & Gray). CesA RNAi knockdown transgenic plants exhibited stunted growth, narrow leaves, early necrosis, reduced stature, collapsed vessels, thinner fiber cell walls and extended fiber lumen diameters. In the RNAi knockdown transgenics, stems exhibited reduced mechanical strength, with reduced modulus of rupture (MOR) and modulus of elasticity (MOE). The reduced mechanical strength may be due to thinner fiber cell walls. Vessels in the xylem of the transgenics were collapsed, indicating that water transport in xylem may be affected and thus causing early necrosis in leaves. A dramatic decrease in cellulose content was observed in the RNAi knockdown transgenics. Compared with wildtype, the cellulose content was significantly decreased in the PtrCesA4, PtrCesA7 and PtrCesA8 RNAi knockdown transgenics. As a result, lignin and xylem contents were proportionally increased. The wood composition changes were confirmed by solid-state NMR, two-dimensional solution-state NMR and sum-frequency-generation vibration (SFG) analyses. Both solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and SFG analyses demonstrated that knockdown of PtrCesAs did not affect cellulose crystallinity index. Our results provided the evidence for the involvement of PtrCesA4, PtrCesA7-A/B and PtrCesA8-A/B in secondary cell wall formation in wood and demonstrated the pleiotropic effects of their perturbations on wood formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manzar Abbas
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Tree Breeding by Molecular Design, National Engineering Laboratory for Tree Breeding, College of Biological Sciences and Technology, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, China
- State Key Laboratory of Tree Genetics and Breeding, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beijing, China
| | - Ilona Peszlen
- Department of Forest Biomaterials, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
| | - Rui Shi
- Department of Crop and Soil Science, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
| | - Hoon Kim
- Department of Biochemistry and DOE Great Lakes Bioenergy Research Center, Wisconsin Energy Institute, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, WI, USA
| | - Rui Katahira
- National Bioenergy Center, NREL, Golden, Co, USA
| | - Kabindra Kafle
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Research Institute, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Zhouyang Xiang
- State Key Laboratory of Pulp and Paper Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xiong Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Tree Genetics and Breeding, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beijing, China
| | - Douyong Min
- Light Industry and Food Engineering College, Guangxi University, Nanning, China
| | - Makarem Mohamadamin
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Research Institute, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Chenmin Yang
- Forest Biotechnology Group, Department of Forestry and Environmental Resources, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
| | - Xinren Dai
- State Key Laboratory of Tree Genetics and Breeding, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaojing Yan
- State Key Laboratory of Tree Genetics and Breeding, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beijing, China
| | - Sunkyu Park
- Department of Forest Biomaterials, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
| | - Yun Li
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Tree Breeding by Molecular Design, National Engineering Laboratory for Tree Breeding, College of Biological Sciences and Technology, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, China
| | - Seong H Kim
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Research Institute, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Mark Davis
- National Bioenergy Center, NREL, Golden, Co, USA
| | - John Ralph
- Department of Biochemistry and DOE Great Lakes Bioenergy Research Center, Wisconsin Energy Institute, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, WI, USA
| | - Ronald R Sederoff
- Forest Biotechnology Group, Department of Forestry and Environmental Resources, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
| | - Vincent L Chiang
- Department of Forest Biomaterials, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
- Forest Biotechnology Group, Department of Forestry and Environmental Resources, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
- State Key Laboratory of Tree Genetics and Breeding, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin, China
| | - Quanzi Li
- State Key Laboratory of Tree Genetics and Breeding, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beijing, China
- Research Institute of Forestry, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beijing, China
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30
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De Caroli M, Manno E, Perrotta C, De Lorenzo G, Di Sansebastiano GP, Piro G. CesA6 and PGIP2 Endocytosis Involves Different Subpopulations of TGN-Related Endosomes. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2020; 11:350. [PMID: 32292410 PMCID: PMC7118220 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2020.00350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2019] [Accepted: 03/10/2020] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Endocytosis is an essential process for the internalization of plasma membrane proteins, lipids and extracellular molecules into the cells. The mechanisms underlying endocytosis in plant cells involve several endosomal organelles whose origins and specific role needs still to be clarified. In this study we compare the internalization events of a GFP-tagged polygalacturonase-inhibiting protein of Phaseolus vulgaris (PGIP2-GFP) to that of a GFP-tagged subunit of cellulose synthase complex of Arabidopsis thaliana (secGFP-CesA6). Through the use of endocytic traffic chemical inhibitors (tyrphostin A23, salicylic acid, wortmannin, concanamycin A, Sortin 2, Endosidin 5 and BFA) it was evidenced that the two protein fusions were endocytosed through distinct endosomes with different mechanisms. PGIP2-GFP endocytosis is specifically sensitive to tyrphostin A23, salicylic acid and Sortin 2; furthermore, SYP51, a tSNARE with interfering effect on late steps of vacuolar traffic, affects its arrival in the central vacuole. SecGFP-CesA6, specifically sensitive to Endosidin 5, likely reaches the plasma membrane passing through the trans Golgi network (TGN), since the BFA treatment leads to the formation of BFA bodies, compatible with the aggregation of TGNs. BFA treatments determine the accumulation and tethering of the intracellular compartments labeled by both proteins, but PGIP2-GFP aggregated compartments overlap with those labeled by the endocytic dye FM4-64 while secGFP-CesA6 fills different compartments. Furthermore, secGFP-CesA6 co-localization with RFP-NIP1.1, marker of the direct ER-to-Vacuole traffic, in small compartments separated from ER suggests that secGFP-CesA6 is sorted through TGNs in which the direct contribution from the ER plays an important role. All together the data indicate the existence of a heterogeneous population of Golgi-independent TGNs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monica De Caroli
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences and Technologies (DiSTeBA), University of Salento, Lecce, Italy
| | - Elisa Manno
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences and Technologies (DiSTeBA), University of Salento, Lecce, Italy
| | - Carla Perrotta
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences and Technologies (DiSTeBA), University of Salento, Lecce, Italy
| | - Giulia De Lorenzo
- Dipartimento di Biologia e Biotecnologie “Charles Darwin”, Sapienza Università di Roma, Rome, Italy
| | - Gian-Pietro Di Sansebastiano
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences and Technologies (DiSTeBA), University of Salento, Lecce, Italy
- *Correspondence: Gian-Pietro Di Sansebastiano,
| | - Gabriella Piro
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences and Technologies (DiSTeBA), University of Salento, Lecce, Italy
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31
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Meents MJ, Motani S, Mansfield SD, Samuels AL. Organization of Xylan Production in the Golgi During Secondary Cell Wall Biosynthesis. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2019; 181:527-546. [PMID: 31431513 PMCID: PMC6776863 DOI: 10.1104/pp.19.00715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2019] [Accepted: 08/02/2019] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
Secondary cell wall (SCW) production during xylem development requires massive up-regulation of hemicellulose (e.g. glucuronoxylan) biosynthesis in the Golgi. Although mutant studies have revealed much of the xylan biosynthetic machinery, the precise arrangement of these proteins and their products in the Golgi apparatus is largely unknown. We used a fluorescently tagged xylan backbone biosynthetic protein (IRREGULAR XYLEM9; IRX9) as a marker of xylan production in the Golgi of developing protoxylem tracheary elements in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana). Both live-cell confocal and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) revealed SCW deposition is accompanied by a significant proliferation of Golgi stacks. Furthermore, although Golgi stacks were randomly distributed, the organization of the cytoplasm ensured their close proximity to developing SCWs. Quantitative immuno-TEM revealed IRX9 is present in a specific subdomain of the Golgi stack and was most abundant in the ring of the inner margins of medial cisternae where fenestrations are abundant. Conversely, the xylan product accumulated in swollen trans cisternal margins and the Trans-Golgi network (TGN). The irx9 mutant lacked this expansion for both the cisternal margins and the TGN, whereas Golgi stack proliferation was unaffected. Golgi in irx9 also displayed dramatic changes in their structure, with increases in cisternal fenestration and tubulation. Our data support a new model where xylan biosynthesis and packaging into secretory vesicles are localized in distinct structural and functional domains of the Golgi. Rather than polysaccharide biosynthesis occurring in the center of the cisternae, IRX9 and the xylan product are arranged in successive concentric rings in Golgi cisternae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miranda J Meents
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, Vancouver V6T 1Z4 British Columbia
- Department of Wood Science, University of British Columbia, Vancouver V6T 1Z4 British Columbia
| | - Sanya Motani
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, Vancouver V6T 1Z4 British Columbia
| | - Shawn D Mansfield
- Department of Wood Science, University of British Columbia, Vancouver V6T 1Z4 British Columbia
| | - A Lacey Samuels
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, Vancouver V6T 1Z4 British Columbia
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32
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Vaahtera L, Schulz J, Hamann T. Cell wall integrity maintenance during plant development and interaction with the environment. NATURE PLANTS 2019; 5:924-932. [PMID: 31506641 DOI: 10.1038/s41477-019-0502-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 137] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2019] [Accepted: 07/23/2019] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Cell walls are highly dynamic structures that provide mechanical support for plant cells during growth, development and adaptation to a changing environment. Thus, it is important for plants to monitor the state of their cell walls and ensure their functional integrity at all times. This monitoring involves perception of physical forces at the cell wall-plasma membrane interphase. These forces are altered during cell division and morphogenesis, as well as in response to various abiotic and biotic stresses. Mechanisms responsible for the perception of physical stimuli involved in these processes have been difficult to separate from other regulatory mechanisms perceiving chemical signals such as hormones, peptides or cell wall fragments. However, recently developed technologies in combination with more established genetic and biochemical approaches are beginning to open up this exciting field of study. Here, we will review our current knowledge of plant cell wall integrity signalling using selected recent findings and highlight how the cell wall-plasma membrane interphase can act as a venue for sensing changes in the physical forces affecting plant development and stress responses. More importantly, we discuss how these signals may be integrated with chemical signals derived from established signalling cascades to control specific adaptive responses during exposure to biotic and abiotic stresses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauri Vaahtera
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Julia Schulz
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Thorsten Hamann
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway.
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33
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Lampugnani ER, Flores-Sandoval E, Tan QW, Mutwil M, Bowman JL, Persson S. Cellulose Synthesis - Central Components and Their Evolutionary Relationships. TRENDS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2019; 24:402-412. [PMID: 30905522 DOI: 10.1016/j.tplants.2019.02.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2018] [Revised: 02/13/2019] [Accepted: 02/21/2019] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Cellulose is an essential morphogenic polysaccharide that is central to the stability of plant cell walls and provides an important raw material for a range of plant-based fiber and fuel industries. The past decade has seen a substantial rise in the identification of cellulose synthesis-related components and in our understanding of how these components function. Much of this research has been conducted in Arabidopsis thaliana (arabidopsis); however, it has become increasingly evident that many of the components and their functions are conserved. We provide here an overview of cellulose synthesis 'core' components. The evolution and coexpression patterns of these components provide important insight into how cellulose synthesis evolved and the potential for the components to work as functional units during cellulose production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edwin R Lampugnani
- School of Biosciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
| | | | - Qiao Wen Tan
- School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
| | - Marek Mutwil
- School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
| | - John L Bowman
- School of Biological Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia
| | - Staffan Persson
- School of Biosciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia.
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34
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What Makes the Wood? Exploring the Molecular Mechanisms of Xylem Acclimation in Hardwoods to an Ever-Changing Environment. FORESTS 2019. [DOI: 10.3390/f10040358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Wood, also designated as secondary xylem, is the major structure that gives trees and other woody plants stability for upright growth and maintains the water supply from the roots to all other plant tissues. Over recent decades, our understanding of the cellular processes of wood formation (xylogenesis) has substantially increased. Plants as sessile organisms face a multitude of abiotic stresses, e.g., heat, drought, salinity and limiting nutrient availability that require them to adjust their wood structure to maintain stability and water conductivity. Because of global climate change, more drastic and sudden changes in temperature and longer periods without precipitation are expected to impact tree productivity in the near future. Thus, it is essential to understand the process of wood formation in trees under stress. Many traits, such as vessel frequency and size, fiber thickness and density change in response to different environmental stimuli. Here, we provide an overview of our current understanding of how abiotic stress factors affect wood formation on the molecular level focussing on the genes that have been identified in these processes.
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35
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Polko JK, Kieber JJ. The Regulation of Cellulose Biosynthesis in Plants. THE PLANT CELL 2019; 31:282-296. [PMID: 30647077 PMCID: PMC6447023 DOI: 10.1105/tpc.18.00760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2018] [Revised: 11/26/2018] [Accepted: 01/09/2019] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Cell walls define the shape of plant cells, controlling the extent and orientation of cell elongation, and hence organ growth. The main load-bearing component of plant cell walls is cellulose, and how plants regulate its biosynthesis during development and in response to various environmental perturbations is a central question in plant biology. Cellulose is synthesized by cellulose synthase (CESA) complexes (CSCs) that are assembled in the Golgi apparatus and then delivered to the plasma membrane (PM), where they actively synthesize cellulose. CSCs travel along cortical microtubule paths that define the orientation of synthesis of the cellulose microfibrils. CSCs recycle between the PM and various intracellular compartments, and this trafficking plays an important role in determining the level of cellulose synthesized. In this review, we summarize recent findings in CESA complex organization, CESA posttranslational modifications and trafficking, and other components that interact with CESAs. We also discuss cell wall integrity maintenance, with a focus on how this impacts cellulose biosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna K Polko
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599
| | - Joseph J Kieber
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599
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36
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Tan TT, Demura T, Ohtani M. Creating vessel elements in vitro: Towards a comprehensive understanding of the molecular basis of xylem vessel element differentiation. PLANT BIOTECHNOLOGY (TOKYO, JAPAN) 2019; 36:1-6. [PMID: 31275042 PMCID: PMC6566013 DOI: 10.5511/plantbiotechnology.18.1119b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2018] [Accepted: 11/19/2018] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Xylem is an essential conductive tissue in vascular plants, and secondary cell wall polymers found in xylem vessel elements, such as cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin, are promising sustainable bioresources. Thus, understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying xylem vessel element differentiation is an important step towards increasing woody biomass and crop yields. Establishing in vitro induction systems, in which vessel element differentiation is induced by phytohormonal stimuli or by overexpression of specific transcription factors, has been vital to this research. In this review, we present an overview of these in vitro induction systems, and describe two recently developed in vitro induction systems, VISUAL (Vascular cell Induction culture System Using Arabidopsis Leaves) and the KDB system. Furthermore, we discuss the potentials and limitations of each of these new in vitro induction systems for advancing our understanding of the molecular mechanisms driving xylem vessel element differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tian Tian Tan
- Graduate School of Science and Technology, Division of Biological Science, Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Ikoma, Nara 630-0192, Japan
- Centre for Research in Biotechnology for Agriculture, University of Malaya, Lembah Pantai, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Taku Demura
- Graduate School of Science and Technology, Division of Biological Science, Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Ikoma, Nara 630-0192, Japan
| | - Misato Ohtani
- Graduate School of Science and Technology, Division of Biological Science, Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Ikoma, Nara 630-0192, Japan
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37
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Saelim L, Akiyoshi N, Tan TT, Ihara A, Yamaguchi M, Hirano K, Matsuoka M, Demura T, Ohtani M. Arabidopsis Group IIId ERF proteins positively regulate primary cell wall-type CESA genes. JOURNAL OF PLANT RESEARCH 2019; 132:117-129. [PMID: 30478480 DOI: 10.1007/s10265-018-1074-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2018] [Accepted: 10/21/2018] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
The cell wall determines morphology and the environmental responses of plant cells. The primary cell wall (PCW) is produced during cell division and expansion, determining the cell shape and volume. After cell expansion, specific types of plant cells produce a lignified wall, known as a secondary cell wall (SCW). We functionally analyzed Group IIId Arabidopsis AP2/EREBP genes, namely ERF34, ERF35, ERF38, and ERF39, which are homologs of a rice ERF gene previously proposed to be related to SCW biosynthesis. Expression analysis revealed that these four genes are expressed in regions related to cell division and/or cell differentiation in seedlings (i.e., shoot apical meristems, the primordia of leaves and lateral roots, trichomes, and central cylinder of primary roots) and flowers (i.e., vascular tissues of floral organs and replums and/or valve margins of pistils). Overexpression of ERF genes significantly upregulated PCW-type, but not SCW-type, CESA genes encoding cellulose synthase catalytic subunits in Arabidopsis seedlings. Transient co-expression reporter analysis indicated that ERF35, ERF38, and ERF39 possess transcriptional activator activity, and that ERF34, ERF35, ERF38, and ERF39 upregulated the promoter activity of CESA1, a PCW-type CESA gene, through the DRECRTCOREAT elements, the core cis-acting elements known to be recognized by AP2/ERF proteins. Together, our findings show that Group IIId ERF genes are positive transcriptional regulators of PCW-type CESA genes in Arabidopsis and are possibly involved in modulating cellulose biosynthesis in response to developmental requirements and environmental stimuli.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laddawan Saelim
- Division of Biological Science, Graduate School of Science and Technology, Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Ikoma, Nara, 630-0192, Japan
| | - Nobuhiro Akiyoshi
- Division of Biological Science, Graduate School of Science and Technology, Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Ikoma, Nara, 630-0192, Japan
| | - Tian Tian Tan
- Division of Biological Science, Graduate School of Science and Technology, Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Ikoma, Nara, 630-0192, Japan
- Centre for Research in Biotechnology for Agriculture, University of Malaya, 50603, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Ayumi Ihara
- Division of Biological Science, Graduate School of Science and Technology, Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Ikoma, Nara, 630-0192, Japan
| | - Masatoshi Yamaguchi
- Division of Biological Science, Graduate School of Science and Technology, Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Ikoma, Nara, 630-0192, Japan
- Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University, Saitama, Saitama, 338-8570, Japan
| | - Ko Hirano
- Bioscience and Biotechnology Center, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Aichi, 464-8601, Japan
| | - Makoto Matsuoka
- Bioscience and Biotechnology Center, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Aichi, 464-8601, Japan
| | - Taku Demura
- Division of Biological Science, Graduate School of Science and Technology, Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Ikoma, Nara, 630-0192, Japan.
| | - Misato Ohtani
- Division of Biological Science, Graduate School of Science and Technology, Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Ikoma, Nara, 630-0192, Japan.
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38
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Takenaka Y, Watanabe Y, Schuetz M, Unda F, Hill JL, Phookaew P, Yoneda A, Mansfield SD, Samuels L, Ohtani M, Demura T. Patterned Deposition of Xylan and Lignin is Independent from that of the Secondary Wall Cellulose of Arabidopsis Xylem Vessels. THE PLANT CELL 2018; 30:2663-2676. [PMID: 30337427 PMCID: PMC6305973 DOI: 10.1105/tpc.18.00292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2018] [Revised: 08/24/2018] [Accepted: 10/17/2018] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
The secondary cell wall (SCW) of xylem vessel cells provides rigidity and strength that enables efficient water conduction throughout the plant. To gain insight into SCW deposition, we mutagenized Arabidopsis thaliana VASCULAR-RELATED NAC-DOMAIN7-inducible plant lines, in which ectopic protoxylem vessel cell differentiation is synchronously induced. The baculites mutant was isolated based on the absence of helical SCW patterns in ectopically-induced protoxylem vessel cells, and mature baculites plants exhibited an irregular xylem (irx) mutant phenotype in mature plants. A single nucleic acid substitution in the CELLULOSE SYNTHASE SUBUNIT 7 (CESA7) gene in baculites was identified: while the mutation was predicted to produce a C-terminal truncated protein, immunoblot analysis revealed that cesa7bac mutation results in loss of production of CESA7 proteins, indicating that baculites is a novel cesa7 loss-of-function mutant. In cesa7bac , despite a lack of patterned cellulose deposition, the helically-patterned deposition of other SCW components, such as the hemicellulose xylan and the phenolic polymer lignin, was not affected. Similar phenotypes were found in another point mutation mutant cesa7mur10-2 , and an established knock-out mutant, cesa7irx3-4 Taken together, we propose that the spatio-temporal deposition of different SCW components, such as xylan and lignin, is not dependent on cellulose patterning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuto Takenaka
- Graduate School of Science and Technology, Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Ikoma, Nara, Japan
| | - Yoichiro Watanabe
- Graduate School of Science and Technology, Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Ikoma, Nara, Japan
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Department of Wood Science, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Mathias Schuetz
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Faride Unda
- Department of Wood Science, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Joseph L Hill
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Pawittra Phookaew
- Graduate School of Science and Technology, Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Ikoma, Nara, Japan
| | - Arata Yoneda
- Graduate School of Science and Technology, Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Ikoma, Nara, Japan
| | - Shawn D Mansfield
- Department of Wood Science, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Lacey Samuels
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Misato Ohtani
- Graduate School of Science and Technology, Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Ikoma, Nara, Japan
| | - Taku Demura
- Graduate School of Science and Technology, Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Ikoma, Nara, Japan
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Two types of cellulose synthesis complex knit the plant cell wall together. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2018; 115:6882-6884. [PMID: 29915040 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1808423115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
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40
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Gigli-Bisceglia N, Engelsdorf T, Strnad M, Vaahtera L, Khan GA, Jamoune A, Alipanah L, Novák O, Persson S, Hejatko J, Hamann T. Cell wall integrity modulates Arabidopsis thaliana cell cycle gene expression in a cytokinin- and nitrate reductase-dependent manner. Development 2018; 145:dev.166678. [DOI: 10.1242/dev.166678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2018] [Accepted: 08/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
During plant growth and defense, cell cycle activity needs to be coordinated with cell wall integrity. Little is known about how coordination is achieved. Here we investigated coordination in Arabidopsis thaliana seedlings by studying the impact of cell wall damage (CWD, caused by cellulose biosynthesis inhibition) on cytokinin homeostasis, cell cycle gene expression and shape in root tips. CWD inhibited cell cycle gene expression and increased transition zone cell width in an osmo-sensitive manner. These results were correlated with CWD-induced, osmo-sensitive changes in cytokinin homeostasis. Expression of CYTOKININ OXIDASE/DEHYDROGENASE2 and 3 (CKX2, CKX3), encoding cytokinin-degrading enzymes was induced by CWD and reduced by osmoticum treatment. In nitrate reductase1 nitrate reductase2 (nia1 nia2) seedlings, neither CKX2 and CKX3 transcript levels were increased nor cell cycle gene expression repressed by CWD. Moreover, established CWD-induced responses like jasmonic acid, salicylic acid and lignin production, were also absent, implying a central role of NIA1- and NIA2-mediated processes in regulation of CWD responses. These results suggest that CWD enhances cytokinin degradation rates through a NIA1 and NIA2-mediated process, subsequently attenuating cell cycle gene expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nora Gigli-Bisceglia
- Department of Biology, Høgskoleringen 5, Realfagbygget, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 7491 Trondheim, Norway
| | - Timo Engelsdorf
- Department of Biology, Høgskoleringen 5, Realfagbygget, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 7491 Trondheim, Norway
| | - Miroslav Strnad
- Laboratory of Growth Regulators, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Institute of Experimental Botany of the Czech Academy of Sciences & Faculty of Science of Palacký University, Šlechtitelů 27, CZ-78371 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Lauri Vaahtera
- Department of Biology, Høgskoleringen 5, Realfagbygget, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 7491 Trondheim, Norway
| | | | - Amel Jamoune
- Laboratory of Molecular Plant Physiology and Functional Genomics and Proteomics of Plants CEITEC-Central European Institute of Technology Masaryk University Kamenice 5, CZ-625 00 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Leila Alipanah
- Department of Biology, Høgskoleringen 5, Realfagbygget, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 7491 Trondheim, Norway
| | - Ondřej Novák
- Laboratory of Growth Regulators, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Institute of Experimental Botany of the Czech Academy of Sciences & Faculty of Science of Palacký University, Šlechtitelů 27, CZ-78371 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Staffan Persson
- School of Biosciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Jan Hejatko
- Laboratory of Molecular Plant Physiology and Functional Genomics and Proteomics of Plants CEITEC-Central European Institute of Technology Masaryk University Kamenice 5, CZ-625 00 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Thorsten Hamann
- Department of Biology, Høgskoleringen 5, Realfagbygget, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 7491 Trondheim, Norway
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