Forced evolution of glutathione S-transferase to create a more efficient drug detoxication enzyme

Multiple exposures to high concentrations of selenate significantly improve selenate tolerability, red elemental selenium (Se0) and selenoprotein biosynthesis in Herbaspirillum camelliae WT00C

Herbaspirillum camelliae WT00C is a gram-negative endophyte isolated from the tea plant. It has an intact selenate metabolism pathway but poor selenate tolerability. In this study, microbiological properties of the strain WT00C were examined and compared with other three strains CT00C, NCT00C and NT00C, which were obtained respectively from four, six and eight rounds of 24-h exposures to 200 mM selenate. The selenate tolerability and the ability to generate red elemental selenium (Se0) and selenoproteins in H. camelliae WT00C has significantly improved by the forced evolution via 4-6 rounds of multiple exposures a high concentration of selenate. The original strain WT00C grew in 200 mM selenate with the lag phase of 12 h and 400 mM selenate with the lag phase of 60 h, whereas the strains CT00C and NCT00C grew in 800 mM selenate and showed a relatively short lag phase when they grew in 50-400 mM selenate. Besides selenate tolerance, the strains CT00C and NCT00C significantly improved the biosynthesis of red elemental selenium (Se⁰) and selenoproteins. Two strains exhibited more than 30% selenium conversion efficiency and 40% selenoprotein biosynthesis, compared to the original strain WT00C. These characteristics of the strains CT00C and NCT00C make them applicable in pharmaceuticals and feed industries. The strain NT00C obtained from eight rounds of 24-h exposures to 200 mM selenate was unable to grow in ≥ 400 mM selenate. Its selenium conversion efficiency and selenoprotein biosynthesis were similar to the strain WT00C, indicating that too many exposures may cause gene inactivation of some critical enzymes involving selenate metabolism and antioxidative stress. In addition, bacterial cells underwent obviously physiological and morphological changes, including gene activity, cell enlargement and surface-roughness alterations during the process of multiple exposures to high concentrations of selenate.

Behavioral and biochemical effects of the antifouler and antidandruff zinc pyrithione on the freshwater fish Gambusia holbrooki

The presence of pharmaceutical residues in the aquatic environment is receiving great attention since the levels of these substances have significantly increased in this compartment, potentially leading to adverse ecological effects. Zinc pyrithione (ZnPt) is a widely used organometallic biocide, which is incorporated into antifouling formulas, such as paints, to prevent the establishment of biofilms on surfaces exposed to the aquatic environment. It is also used in cosmetics, such as antidandruff shampoos and soaps. Considering this wide use, and the absence of a significant amount of data on the toxicity of ZnPt especially towards non-target organisms, the objective of this study was to characterize the toxicity of ZnPt, on several ecological relevant endpoints assessed in the fish Gambusia holbrooki. For this purpose, we measured traits related to feeding and aggressive behavior, as well as indicators of oxidative stress (CAT and GSTs), neurotoxicity (AChE), and anaerobic metabolism (LDH), after acute and chronic exposures to ZnPt. In terms of behavioral features, the feeding test showed the occurrence of significant differences between the control animals and those exposed to a concentration of ZnPt of 45 μg/L. In addition, ZnPt caused changes in terms of oxidative stress biomarkers (CAT and GSTs), for both exposure periods. ZnPt was also capable of causing changes in the cholinergic neurotransmission functioning and anaerobic metabolism, but only following the chronic exposure.

Recent advances in protein engineering and biotechnological applications of glutathione transferases

Glutathione transferases (GSTs, EC 2.5.1.18) are a widespread family of enzymes that play a central role in the detoxification, metabolism, and transport or sequestration of endogenous or xenobiotic compounds. During the last two decades, delineation of the important structural and catalytic features of GSTs has laid the groundwork for engineering GSTs, involving both rational and random approaches, aiming to create new variants with new or altered properties. These approaches have expanded the usefulness of native GSTs, not only for understanding the fundamentals of molecular detoxification mechanisms, but also for the development medical, analytical, environmental, and agricultural applications. This review article attempts to summarize successful examples and current developments on GST engineering, highlighting in parallel the recent knowledge gained on their phylogenetic relationships, structural/catalytic features, and biotechnological applications.

Assessing directed evolution methods for the generation of biosynthetic enzymes with potential in drug biosynthesis

To address the synthesis of increasingly structurally diverse small-molecule drugs, methods for the generation of efficient and selective biological catalysts are becoming increasingly important. 'Directed evolution' is an umbrella term referring to a variety of methods for improving or altering the function of enzymes using a nature-inspired twofold strategy of mutagenesis followed by selection. This article provides an objective assessment of the effectiveness of directed evolution campaigns in generating enzymes with improved catalytic parameters for new substrates from the last decade, excluding studies that aimed to select for only improved physical properties and those that lack kinetic characterization. An analysis of the trends of methodologies and their success rates from 81 qualifying examples in the literature reveals the average fold improvement for k (cat) (or V (max)), K (m) and k (cat)/K (m) to be 366-, 12- and 2548-fold, respectively, whereas the median fold improvements are 5.4, 3 and 15.6. Further analysis by enzyme class, library-generation methodology and screening methodology explores relationships between successful campaigns and the methodologies employed.

[Genetic polymorphism in patients with colorectal and with head and neck cancer]

Colorectal cancer is the second most frequent cause of death among malignant diseases. The mortality of head and neck cancer in Hungary increased by 265 percent in the last thirty years. Both malignancies belong to the most current public health problems in Hungary. The influence of two allelic polymorphisms of GSTM1 and GSTT1, and that of p53 gene codon 72 on colon cancer was investigated. In case of head and neck cancer the effects of the Arg194Trp and Arg399Gln polymorphisms of XRCC1 gene were analyzed. Intraoperative removed tissue samples were processed and cancer free human samples were used as matched controls. The formalin fixed samples were deparaffinized and digested with proteinase K. Genotyping was performed by PCR amplification, and in case of head and neck cancer a PCR-RFLP method was applied. No significant difference was found between tumor patients and controls in the investigated polymorphisms. A significant difference in survival was found between the GSTM1 and p53 gene variants in Dukes'B stage colorectal patients. The survival difference among the XRCC1 194 alleles by head and neck patients in clinical stage III proved to be also significant. The complex analysis of this type of genetic variants may be the future way of the personal risk assessment and the real chance for personal therapy.

A cross-sectional study of self-reported chemical-related sensitivity is associated with gene variants of drug-metabolizing enzymes

BACKGROUND

N-acetyltransferases (NAT) and glutathione S-transferases (GST) are involved in the metabolism of several ubiquitous chemical substances leading to the activation and detoxification of carcinogenic heterocyclic and aromatic amines. Since polymorphisms within these genes are described to influence the metabolism of ubiquitous chemicals, we conducted the present study to determine if individuals with self-reported chemical-related sensitivity differed from controls without self-reported chemical-related sensitivity with regard to the distribution of genotype frequencies of NAT2, GSTM1, GSTT1, and GSTP1 polymorphisms.

METHODS

Out of 800 subjects who answered a questionnaire of ten items with regard to their severity of chemical sensitivity 521 unrelated individuals agreed to participate in the study. Subsequently, genetic variants of the NAT2, GSTM1, GSTT1, and GSTP1 genes were analyzed.

RESULTS

The results show significant differences between individuals with and without self-reported chemical-related sensitivity with regard to the distribution of NAT2, GSTM1, and GSTT1 gene variants. Cases with self-reported chemical-related sensitivity were significantly more frequently NAT2 slow acetylators (controlled OR = 1.81, 95% CI = 1.27-2.59, P = 0.001). GSTM1 and GSTT1 genes were significantly more often homozygously deleted in those individuals reporting sensitivity to chemicals compared to controls (GSTM1: controlled OR 2.08, 95% CI = 1.46-2.96, P = 0.0001; GSTT1: controlled OR = 2.80, 95% CI = 1.65-4.75, P = 0.0001). Effects for GSTP1 gene variants were observed in conjunction with GSTM1, GSTT1 and NAT2 gene.

CONCLUSION

The results from our study population show that individuals being slow acetylators and/or harbouring a homozygous GSTM1 and/or GSTT1 deletion reported chemical-related hypersensitivity more frequently.

Directed evolution: an approach to engineer enzymes

Directed evolution is being used increasingly in industrial and academic laboratories to modify and improve commercially important enzymes. Laboratory evolution is thought to make its biggest contribution in explorations of non-natural functions, by allowing us to distinguish the properties nurtured by evolution. In this review we report the significant advances achieved with respect to the methods of biocatalyst improvement and some critical properties and applications of the modified enzymes. The application of directed evolution has been elaborately demonstrated for protein solubility, stability and catalytic efficiency. Modification of certain enzymes for their application in enantioselective catalysis has also been elucidated. By providing a simple and reliable route to enzyme improvement, directed evolution has emerged as a key technology for enzyme engineering and biocatalysis.

Overexpression of GSTA2 protects against cell cycle arrest and apoptosis induced by the DNA inter-strand crosslinking nitrogen mustard, mechlorethamine

The effectiveness of bifunctional alkylating nitrogen mustard compounds in chemotherapy is related to their ability to form DNA inter-strand crosslinks. Patients exposed to DNA inter-strand crosslinking (ICL) agents subsequently experience an elevated incidence of myelodysplastic syndromes (MDS) and MDS related acute myeloid leukemia. Fanconi's anemia (FA) patients are deficient in the repair of crosslink DNA damage and they experience a high incidence of MDS. These observations indicate that hematopoietic cells are specific target for the transforming effects of DNA crosslinking damage. Changes in transcript levels were characterized in human hematopoietic cells occurring in response to the nitrogen mustard, mechlorethamine (HN2), but not in response to monofunctional analogs. Only modest changes in a few gene transcripts were detected in HL60 cells exposed to levels of HN2 tittered to maximal dose that caused growth suppression with minimal cell death and allowed eventual resumption of normal cell growth. Under conditions of transient growth suppression, a subset of glutathione-S-transferase (GST) isoenzyme genes was consistently upregulated three to fourfold by HN2, but not by monofunctional analogs. Subsequent efforts to confirm the changes detected by microarray analyses revealed an unexpected dependence on treatment conditions. The GST alpha class A2 subfamily member transcripts were upregulated 24 h after a 1 h exposure to HN2 that caused an extensive, but transient block in late S/G2 cell cycle phase, but were minimally altered with continuous exposure. The 1-h exposure to HN2 caused a transient late S/G2 cell cycle arrest in both the HL-60 cell line and the Colo 320HSR human colon cancer cell line. Overexpression of GSTA2 by transient transfection protected Colo 320HSR cells against both cycle arrest and apoptosis following exposure to HN2. Overexpression of GSTA2 in Colo 320HSR cells induced after exposure to HN2 did not alter cycle arrest or apoptosis. The results indicate that human GSTA2 facilitates the protection of cells from HN2 damage and not repair. Our results are consistent with the possibility that GSTA2 polymorphisms, variable isoenzyme expression, and variable induced expression may be factors in the pathogenesis of MDS.

Directed enzyme evolution and selections for catalysis based on product formation

Enzyme engineering by molecular modelling and site-directed mutagenesis can be remarkably efficient. Directed enzyme evolution appears as a more general strategy for the isolation of catalysts as it can be applied to most chemical reactions in aqueous solutions. Selections, as opposed to screening, allow the simultaneous analysis of protein properties for sets of up to about 10(14) different proteins. These approaches for the parallel processing of molecular information 'Is the protein a catalyst?' are reviewed here in the case of selections based on the formation of a specific reaction product. Several questions are addressed about in vivo and in vitro selections for catalysis reported in the literature. Can the selection system be extended to other types of enzymes? Does the selection control regio- and stereo-selectivity? Does the selection allow the isolation of enzymes with an efficient turnover? How should substrates be substituted or mimicked for the design of efficient selections while minimising the number of chemical synthesis steps? Engineering sections provide also some clues to design selections or to circumvent selection biases. A special emphasis is put on the comparison of in vivo and in vitro selections for catalysis.

Forced evolution of a herbicide detoxifying glutathione transferase

Plant Tau class glutathione transferases (GSTUs) detoxify diphenylether herbicides such as fluorodifen, determining their selectivity in crops and weeds. Using reconstructive PCR, a series of mutant GSTUs were generated from in vitro recombination and mutagenesis of the maize sequences ZmGSTU1 and ZmGSTU2 (with the prefix Zm designating Zea mays L.). A screen of 5000 mutant GSTUs identified seven enzymes with enhanced fluorodifen detoxifying activity. The best performing enhanced fluorodifen detoxifying mutant (EFD) had activity 19-fold higher than the parent enzymes, with a single point mutation conferring this enhancement. Further mutagenesis of this residue generated an EFD with a 29-fold higher catalytic efficiency toward fluorodifen as compared with the parents but with unaltered catalysis toward other substrates. When expressed in Arabidopsis thaliana, the optimized EFD, but not the parent enzymes, conferred enhanced tolerance to fluorodifen. Molecular modeling predicts that the serendipitous mutation giving the improvement in detoxification is due to the removal of an unfavorable interaction together with the introduction of a favorable change in conformation of residues 107-119, which contribute to herbicide binding.

Dichloromethane mediated in vivo selection and functional characterization of rat glutathione S-transferase theta 1-1 variants

Methylobacterium dichloromethanicum DM4 is able to grow with dichloromethane as the sole carbon and energy source by using a dichloromethane dehalogenase/glutathione S-transferase (GST) for the conversion of dichloromethane to formaldehyde. Mammalian homologs of this bacterial enzyme are also known to catalyze this reaction. However, the dehalogenation of dichloromethane by GST T1-1 from rat was highly mutagenic and toxic to methylotrophic bacteria. Plasmid-driven expression of rat GST T1-1 in strain DM4-2cr, a mutant of strain DM4 lacking dichloromethane dehalogenase, reduced cell viability 10(5)-fold in the presence of dichloromethane. This effect was exploited to select dichloromethane-resistant transconjugants of strain DM4-2cr carrying a plasmid-encoded rGSTT1 gene. Transconjugants that still expressed the GST T1 protein after dichloromethane treatment included rGSTT1 mutants encoding protein variants with sequence changes from the wild-type ranging from single residue exchanges to large insertions and deletions. A structural model of rat GST T1-1 suggested that sequence variation was clustered around the glutathione activation site and at the protein C-terminus believed to cap the active site. The enzymatic activity of purified His-tagged GST T1-1 variants expressed in Escherichia coli was markedly reduced with both dichloromethane and the alternative substrate 1,2-epoxy-3-(4'-nitrophenoxy)propane. These results provide the first experimental evidence for the involvement of Gln102 and Arg107 in catalysis, and illustrate the potential of in vivo approaches to identify catalytic residues in GSTs whose activity leads to toxic effects.

Anti-genotoxicity of galangin as a cancer chemopreventive agent candidate

Flavonoids are polyphenolic compounds that are present in plants. They have been shown to possess a variety of biological activities at non-toxic concentrations in organisms. Galangin, a member of the flavonol class of flavonoid, is present in high concentrations in medicinal plants (e.g. Alpinia officinarum) and propolis, a natural beehive product. Results from in vitro and in vivo studies indicate that galangin with anti-oxidative and free radical scavenging activities is capable of modulating enzyme activities and suppressing the genotoxicity of chemicals. These activities will be discussed in this review. Based on our review, galangin may be a promising candidate for cancer chemoprevention.

Applied molecular evolution of O6-benzylguanine-resistant DNA alkyltransferases in human hematopoietic cells

Applied molecular evolution is a rapidly developing technology that can be used to create and identify novel enzymes that nature has not selected. An important application of this technology is the creation of highly drug-resistant enzymes for cancer gene therapy. Seventeen O(6)-alkylguanine-DNA alkyltransferase (AGT) mutants highly resistant to O(6)-benzylguanine (BG) were identified previously by screening 8 million variants, using genetic complementation in Escherichia coli. To examine the potential of these mutants for use in humans, the sublibrary of AGT clones was introduced to human hematopoietic cells and stringently selected for resistance to killing by the combination of BG and 1,3-bis(2-chloroethyl)-1-nitrosourea. This competitive analysis between the mutants in human cells revealed three AGT mutants that conferred remarkable resistance to the combination of BG and 1,3-bis(2-chloroethyl)-1-nitrosourea. Of these, one was recovered significantly more frequently than the others. Upon further analysis, this mutant displayed a level of BG resistance in human hematopoietic cells greater than that of any previously reported mutant.

Man-made enzymes--from design to in vitro compartmentalisation

In the past few years, a variety of methods have been developed to allow the in vitro evolution of a range of biomolecules including novel and improved biocatalysts (enzymes). These methods for directed evolution differ in the size and characteristics of the gene repertoire, in the way of linking genotype and phenotype, and in the selection approach. Selections for enzymes can be performed indirectly (for binding of a transition-state analogue or mechanism-based inhibitor), and directly using either intramolecular single-turnover selections (e.g. with SELEX) or the normal (intermolecular, multiple turnover) mode of enzymatic reactions. Each of these methods has distinct strengths and weaknesses. The best system (or combinations of systems) to use depends on the specific target for evolution and the evolutionary distance that needs to be crossed.

Improving enzymes for cancer gene therapy

New techniques now make it feasible to tailor enzymes for cancer gene therapy. Novel enzymes with desired properties can be created and selected from vast libraries of mutants containing random substitutions within catalytic domains. In this review, we first consider genes for the ablation of tumors, namely, genes that have been mutated (or potentially can be mutated) to afford enhanced activation of prodrugs and increased sensitization of tumors to specific chemotherapeutic agents. We then consider genes that have been mutated to provide better protection of normal host tissues, such as bone marrow, against the toxicity of specific chemotherapeutic agents. Expression of the mutant enzyme could render sensitive tissues, such as bone marrow, more resistant to specific cytotoxic agents.

The effect of high-frequency random mutagenesis on in vitro protein evolution: a study on TEM-1 beta-lactamase

For a number of years a major limitation in genetic analysis of protein function has been the inability to introduce multiple substitutions at distant sites that would enable the selection of clusters of mutations required for improved or novel biological functions. In order to achieve this, we have recently developed a novel mutagenesis procedure in which the triphosphate derivatives of a pyrimidine (6-(2-deoxy-beta-d-ribofuranosyl)-3, 4-dihydro-8H-pyrimido-[4,5-c][1,2]oxazin-7-one; dP) and a purine (8-oxo-2'-deoxyguanosine; 8-oxodG) nucleoside analogue are employed in DNA synthesis reactions in vitro. The procedure allows control of the mutational load and can yield frequencies of amino acid residue substitutions at least one order of magnitude greater than those previously achieved. Here we report the results of an experiment in which we have hypermutated the bacterial enzyme TEM-1 beta-lactamase and selected small pools (<1.5x10(5)) of clones for enzymatic activity against the beta-lactam antibiotic cefotaxime. The experiment resulted in the isolation of a number of TEM-1 mutants with greatly improved activity against cefotaxime. Among these, clone 3D.5 (E104K:M182T:G238S) exhibited a minimum inhibitory concentration for cefotaxime 20,000-fold higher than wild-type TEM-1 and a catalytic efficiency (kcat/Km) 2383 times higher than the wild-type enzyme. Thus, small pools of hypermutated sequences enabled the selection of one of the most active extended beta-lactamases described so far. These results argue against the accepted view that multiple rounds of low-rate mutagenesis and stepwise selection are essential for in vitro protein evolution and extend the scope of directed molecular evolution to proteins for which no genetic selection is available.

In vitro evolution of horse heart myoglobin to increase peroxidase activity

Random mutagenesis and screening for enzymatic activity has been used to engineer horse heart myoglobin to enhance its intrinsic peroxidase activity. A chemically synthesized gene encoding horse heart myoglobin was subjected to successive cycles of PCR random mutagenesis. The mutated myoglobin gene was expressed in Escherichia coli LE392, and the variants were screened for peroxidase activity with a plate assay. Four cycles of mutagenesis and screening produced a series of single, double, triple, and quadruple variants with enhanced peroxidase activity. Steady-state kinetics analysis demonstrated that the quadruple variant T39I/K45D/F46L/I107F exhibits peroxidase activity significantly greater than that of the wild-type protein with k1 (for H2O2 oxidation of metmyoglobin) of 1. 34 x 10(4) M-1 s-1 ( approximately 25-fold that of wild-type myoglobin) and k3 [for reducing the substrate (2, 2'-azino-di-(3-ethyl)benzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid] of 1.4 x 10(6) M-1 s-1 (1.6-fold that of wild-type myoglobin). Thermal stability of these variants as measured with circular dichroism spectroscopy demonstrated that the Tm of the quadruple variant is decreased only slightly compared with wild-type (74.1 degreesC vs. 76.5 degreesC). The rate constants for binding of dioxygen exhibited by the quadruple variant are identical to the those observed for wild-type myoglobin (kon, 22.2 x 10(-6) M-1 s-1 vs. 22.3 x 10(-6) M-1 s-1; koff, 24.3 s-1 vs. 24.2 s-1; KO2, 0.91 x 10(-6) M-1 vs. 0.92 x 10(-6) M-1). The affinity of the quadruple variant for CO is increased slightly (kon, 0.90 x 10(-6) M-1s-1 vs. 0.51 x 10(-6) M-1s-1; koff, 5.08 s-1 vs. 3.51 s-1; KCO, 1.77 x 10(-7) M-1 vs. 1.45 x 10(-7) M-1). All four substitutions are in the heme pocket and within 5 A of the heme group.

Genetic modification of the hematolymphoid compartment for therapeutic purposes

Gene transfer into cells of the hematolymphoid compartment has enormous potential to provide effective therapies across a wide spectrum of human disease. This article reviews current and potential uses of gene modification in this compartment. Issues relevant to the eventual success of gene therapy in the hematolymphoid compartment are also discussed, including biological features of target cells, ex vivo versus in vivo gene therapy approaches, and currently available vector technologies.

Induction of the anticarcinogenic marker enzyme, quinone reductase, in murine hepatoma cells in vitro by flavonoids

Some flavonoids induce phase II enzymes both in vivo and in vitro. We have determined the structural requirements for this activity by examining the ability of naturally-occurring flavonoids to induce the phase II enzyme, quinone reductase (NAD(P)H:quinone oxidoreductase; EC 1.6.99.2), in murine Hepalclc7 cells. Hydroxylation of the B ring is not essential for induction, since galangin and kaempferol (with 0 and 1 hydroxyl in the B ring, respectively) are better inducers than quercetin (2 B ring hydroxyls). A 2,3 double bond in the C ring is essential for induction, since taxifolin, which has the same substitution pattern as quercetin but lacks the 2,3 double bond, is not an inducer. This is supported by catechin and epicatechin, which do not possess the 2,3 double bond and are also not inducers. A 3-hydroxyl group increases the activity but is not essential for induction, since apigenin is an inducer but kaempferol (which has the same structure as apigenin but possesses a 3-hydroxyl group) is more effective. The data show that, of the flavonoids, the flavonols are the most effective inducers of quinone reductase activity in Hepa1c1c7 cells (kaempferol approximately galangin > quercetin > myricetin approximately apigenin (a flavone)) and that flavanols and flavans are ineffective.

Expression of drug-metabolizing enzymes

A principal advance in the production of drug-metabolizing enzymes has been the development of catalytically self-sufficient cytochrome P450 systems, including additional P450-reductase fusion proteins and Escherichia coli and baculovirus coexpression constructs. Continuing work with glutathione transferases has resulted in the identification of important residues by random mutagenesis screening techniques, as well as in the engineering of model Salmonella typhimurium strains for genotoxicity analysis.

Comprehensive analysis of proteins which interact with the antioxidant responsive element: correlation of ARE-BP-1 with the chemoprotective induction response

Transcriptional activation of the mouse glutathione S-transferase Ya gene by chemoprotective molecules is mediated through the interaction of trans-acting factors with an antioxidant responsive element (ARE) in the promoter region of this gene. In a step toward identifying those factors which bind productively to the GST Ya ARE, all of the discernible, specific ARE-binding proteins (ARE-BP) in nuclear extracts from HepG2 cells were systematically characterized. By gel-mobility-shift analysis, seven specific ARE-BPs, termed ARE-BP-1 through 7 in order of increasing mobility, were observed that did not vary in concentration or migration between induced and uninduced cell extracts. The molecular weights of the individual ARE-BP subunits were determined by a two-dimensional electrophoresis protocol. Ferguson gel analysis of native protein size indicated that several of the ARE-BP-DNA complexes are composed of multiple protein subunits. Wild-type AREs and GST Ya ARE fragments and mutant sequences were evaluated for their ability to mediate induction in a reporter gene system in HepG2 cells. This same panel of sites was tested in an in vitro binding assay for the ability to compete for the ARE-BPs. A binding profile for each ARE-BP was compiled. Correlation between the ARE-BP binding profiles and induction results indicated that: (i) the ARE-BP-1 and ARE-BP-2 complexes formed only with AREs that supported induction, and (ii) the ARE-BP-4 complex formed with all inducible AREs, but it also bound to ARE mutants that failed to support induction. Based on the studies, an early composite regulatory element model for ARE-mediated expression is presented. ARE-BP-1 is proposed to be the mediator of the ARE's unique induction response to chemoprotective agents.

Functional antioxidant responsive elements

Exposure of human and rodent cells to a wide variety of chemoprotective compounds confers resistance against a broad set of carcinogens. For a subset of the chemoprotective compounds, protection is generated by an increase in the abundance of protective enzymes like glutathione S-transferases (GST). Antioxidant responsive elements (AREs) mediate the transcriptional induction of a battery of genes which comprise much of this chemoprotective response system. Past studies identified a necessary ARE "core" sequence of RTGACnnnGC, but this sequence alone is insufficient to mediate induction. In this study, the additional sequences necessary to define a sufficient, functional ARE are identified through systematic mutational analysis of the murine GST Ya ARE. Introduction of the newly identified necessary nucleotides into the regions flanking a nonresponsive, ARE-like, GST-Mu promoter sequence produced an inducible element. A screen of the GenBank database with the newly identified ARE consensus identified 16 genes which contained the functional ARE consensus sequence in their promoters. Included within this group was an ARE sequence from the murine ferritin-L promoter that mediated induction when tested. In an electrophoretic mobility-shift assay, the ferritin-L ARE was bound by ARE-binding protein 1, a protein previously identified as the likely mediator of the chemoprotective response. A three-level ARE classification system is presented to account for the distinct induction strengths observed in our mutagenesis studies. A model of the ARE as a composite regulatory site, where multiple transcription factors interact, is presented to account for the complex characteristics of ARE-mediated chemoprotective gene expression.

In vivo versus in vitro screening or selection for catalytic activity in enzymes and abzymes

The recent development of catalytic antibodies and the introduction of new techniques to generate huge libraries of random mutants of existing enzymes have created the need for powerful tools for finding in large populations of cells those producing the catalytically most active proteins. Several approaches have been developed and used to reach this goal. The screening techniques aim at easily detecting the clones producing active enzymes or abzymes; the selection techniques are designed to extract these clones from mixtures. These techniques have been applied both in vivo and in vitro. This review describes the advantages and limitations of the various methods in terms of ease of use, sensitivity, and convenience for handling large libraries. Examples are analyzed and tentative rules proposed. These techniques prove to be quite powerful to study the relationship between structure and function and to alter the properties of enzymes.

Chemoprotection of normal tissues by transfer of drug resistance genes

The effectiveness of many types of antitumour agent is limited by (i) acute dose limiting cytotoxicity, principally myelosuppression but also lung, liver and gastrointestinal tract toxicity, (ii) the risk of therapy related secondary malignancy and (iii) the inherent or acquired drug-resistance of tumour cells. As the management of the acute toxic effects improve, the more insidious effects, and particularly haematological malignancies, are anticipated to increase. Furthermore, attempts to overcome tumour cell resistance to treatment can lead to increased collateral damage in normal tissues. One approach to circumventing both the acute toxic and chronic carcinogenic effects of chemotherapy would be to use gene therapy to achieve high levels of expression of drug resistance proteins in otherwise drug-sensitive tissues. To date the products of the multi-drug resistance (MDR-1) and the human O6-alkylguanine-DNA-alkyltransferase (ATase) gene have been used in preclinical experiments to demonstrate proof of principle, and the former of these is now being tested in a clinical situation. Here we discuss the potential of drug-resistance gene therapy to provide chemoprotection to normal tissues and examine the prospects for a dual approach which combines this with pharmacological sensitisation of tumours to chemotherapeutic agents.

New applications of bacterial systems to problems in toxicology

Bacterial systems have long been of use in toxicology. In addition to providing general models of enzymes and paradigms for biochemistry and molecular biology, they have been adapted to practical genotoxicity assays. More recently, bacteria also have been used in the production of mammalian enzymes of relevance to toxicology. Escherichia coli has been used to express cytochrome P450, NADPH-cytochrome P450 reductase, flavin-containing monooxygenase, glutathione S-transferase, quinone reductase, sulfotransferase, N-acetyltransferase, UDP-glucuronosyl transferase, and epoxide hydrolase enzymes from humans and experimental animals. The expressed enzymes have been utilized in a variety of settings, including coupling with bacterial genotoxicity assays. Another approach has involved expression of mammalian enzymes directly in bacteria for use in genotoxicity systems. Particularly with Salmonella typhimurium. Applications include both the reversion mutagenesis assay and a system using a chimera with an SOS-response indicator and a reporter.

Novel human DNA alkyltransferases obtained by random substitution and genetic selection in bacteria

DNA repair alkyltransferases protect organisms against the cytotoxic, mutagenic, and carcinogenic effects of alkylating agents by transferring alkyl adducts from DNA to an active cysteine on the protein, thereby restoring the native DNA structure. We used random sequence substitutions to gain structure-function information about the human O6-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase (EC 2.1.1.63), as well as to create active mutants. Twelve codons surrounding but not including the active cysteine were replaced by a random nucleotide sequence, and the resulting random library was selected for the ability to provide alkyltransferase-deficient Escherichia coli with resistance to the methylating agent N-methyl-N'-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine. Few amino acid changes were tolerated in this evolutionarily conserved region of the protein. One mutation, a valine to phenylalanine change at codon 139 (V139F), was found in 70% of the selected mutants; in fact, this mutant was selected much more frequently than the wild type. V139F provided alkyltransferase-deficient bacteria with greater protection than the wild-type protein against both the cytotoxic and mutagenic effects of N-methyl-N'-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine, increasing the D37 over 4-fold and reducing the mutagenesis rate 2.7-5.5-fold. This mutant human alkyltransferase, or others similarly created and selected, could be used to protect bone marrow cells from the cytotoxic side effects of alkylation-based chemotherapeutic regimens.

The glutathione S-transferase supergene family: regulation of GST and the contribution of the isoenzymes to cancer chemoprotection and drug resistance

The glutathione S-transferases (GST) represent a major group of detoxification enzymes. All eukaryotic species possess multiple cytosolic and membrane-bound GST isoenzymes, each of which displays distinct catalytic as well as noncatalytic binding properties: the cytosolic enzymes are encoded by at least five distantly related gene families (designated class alpha, mu, pi, sigma, and theta GST), whereas the membrane-bound enzymes, microsomal GST and leukotriene C4 synthetase, are encoded by single genes and both have arisen separately from the soluble GST. Evidence suggests that the level of expression of GST is a crucial factor in determining the sensitivity of cells to a broad spectrum of toxic chemicals. In this article the biochemical functions of GST are described to show how individual isoenzymes contribute to resistance to carcinogens, antitumor drugs, environmental pollutants, and products of oxidative stress. A description of the mechanisms of transcriptional and posttranscriptional regulation of GST isoenzymes is provided to allow identification of factors that may modulate resistance to specific noxious chemicals. The most abundant mammalian GST are the class alpha, mu, and pi enzymes and their regulation has been studied in detail. The biological control of these families is complex as they exhibit sex-, age-, tissue-, species-, and tumor-specific patterns of expression. In addition, GST are regulated by a structurally diverse range of xenobiotics and, to date, at least 100 chemicals have been identified that induce GST; a significant number of these chemical inducers occur naturally and, as they are found as nonnutrient components in vegetables and citrus fruits, it is apparent that humans are likely to be exposed regularly to such compounds. Many inducers, but not all, effect transcriptional activation of GST genes through either the antioxidant-responsive element (ARE), the xenobiotic-responsive element (XRE), the GST P enhancer 1(GPE), or the glucocorticoid-responsive element (GRE). Barbiturates may transcriptionally activate GST through a Barbie box element. The involvement of the Ah-receptor, Maf, Nrl, Jun, Fos, and NF-kappa B in GST induction is discussed. Many of the compounds that induce GST are themselves substrates for these enzymes, or are metabolized (by cytochrome P-450 monooxygenases) to compounds that can serve as GST substrates, suggesting that GST induction represents part of an adaptive response mechanism to chemical stress caused by electrophiles. It also appears probable that GST are regulated in vivo by reactive oxygen species (ROS), because not only are some of the most potent inducers capable of generating free radicals by redox-cycling, but H2O2 has been shown to induce GST in plant and mammalian cells: induction of GST by ROS would appear to represent an adaptive response as these enzymes detoxify some of the toxic carbonyl-, peroxide-, and epoxide-containing metabolites produced within the cell by oxidative stress. Class alpha, mu, and pi GST isoenzymes are overexpressed in rat hepatic preneoplastic nodules and the increased levels of these enzymes are believed to contribute to the multidrug-resistant phenotype observed in these lesions. The majority of human tumors and human tumor cell lines express significant amounts of class pi GST. Cell lines selected in vitro for resistance to anticancer drugs frequently overexpress class pi GST, although overexpression of class alpha and mu isoenzymes is also often observed. The mechanisms responsible for overexpression of GST include transcriptional activation, stabilization of either mRNA or protein, and gene amplification. In humans, marked interindividual differences exist in the expression of class alpha, mu, and theta GST. The molecular basis for the variation in class alpha GST is not known. (ABSTRACT TRUNCATED)